Contents

Notes......................................................................................................................................4
1 Cables........................................................................................................................4
2 Degree of Protection................................................................................................12
3 GLANDS....................................................................................................................13
Standards..............................................................................................................................13
1 IEC 61892-4: 2019....................................................................................................13
2 IEC 61892-7 Mobile and fixed offshore units – Electrical installations – Part 7:
Hazardous areas.............................................................................................................14
Books....................................................................................................................................16
Hadi Saadat-Power System Analysis-McGraw-Hill College (1998).....................................16
1 Chapter 1 – The Power System: An Overview..........................................................16
2 Chapter 2: Basic Principles.......................................................................................18
3 Chapter 3: Generators and Transformer Models; The Per-unit system.....................26
A Textbook of electrical technology – Volume II – AC & DC Machines (B. L. Thereja & A. K.
Thereja).............................................................................................................................28
4 Chapter 32 - Transformer.........................................................................................28
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Belted Cable.............................................................................................................5
Figure 2: H-type and S.L. type cable.......................................................................................6
Figure 3: Oil filled cable..........................................................................................................7
Figure 4: Structure of cable.....................................................................................................9
Figure 5.................................................................................................................................18
Figure 6.................................................................................................................................20
Figure 7.................................................................................................................................21
Figure 8.................................................................................................................................21
Table of Tables

Table 1: Maximum operating temperature for different insulating materials..........................7

No table of figures entries found.

 Notes

1 Basics of Electrical Circuit

 2 Cables
2.1 Types of Cables
2.1.1Underground cables
2.1.1.1 Types of underground cables
Underground cables are usually classified according to their Voltage ratings. They’re
grouped as follows:
Low tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 1000V

i. High tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 11kV

ii. Super tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 33kV

iii. Extra high-tension cables which have a maximum voltage handling capacity of 66kV

iv. Extra super voltage cables which are used for applications with voltage requirement
above 132kV.

2.1.1.2 Classification of underground cables

The classification of Underground cables can be done based on several criteria.
Various aspects are considered while classification and these include:

i. Number of conductors in the cable

ii. Voltage rating of the cable

iii. Construction of cable

iv. Type and thickness of insulation used

v. Installation and Laying of the cables

i. Classification based upon number of conductors in the cable

a. Single core cable

b. Three core cable

Typically, an Underground cable has either one, three or four cores. These cables are of
course, constructed accordingly.

Underground cables are usually employed to deliver 3 phase power. A 3 cored cable is
preferred up to 66 kV. Beyond that, insulation required for the cable is too much. For higher
voltages, 3 cored constructions become too bulky, and hence, even with some limitations
we employ single cored cables

ii. Classification based upon voltage rating of the cable

Sr. Type Voltage rating

No.
1. Low tension cables 1000 V (1 kV)
2. High tension cables 11 kV
3. Super tension cables 33 kV
 4. Extra high-tension 66 kV
cables
5. Extra super voltage above 132 kV
cables

iii. Classification based upon construction of the cable

a. Belted cable

In such cables, the conductors (usually three) are bunched together and then bounded with
an insulating paper ‘belt’. In such cables, each conductor is insulated using paper
impregnated with a suitable dielectric. The gaps between the conductors and the insulating
paper belt are filled with a fibrous dielectric material such as Jute or Hessian. This provides
flexibility as well as a circular shape. As we discussed (in Construction of Cables), the jute
layer is then covered by a metallic sheath and armouring for protection. One speciality of
this cable is that its shape may not be perfectly circular. It is kept non-circular to use the
available space more effectively.

Figure 1: Belted Cable

There are some limitations of such construction. Since the electric field is tangential, the
insulation provided is stressed. As a result, the dielectric strength falls over time. Hence,
such construction isn’t preferred for voltage levels above 11 kV.

b. Screened cable

Further divided as H-type and S.L. - type cables.

 H-Type Cables:
It was first designed by M. Hochstadter. The three cores are individually insulated with
paper and then covered by a metallic screen / cover. These metallic covers are perforated.
As a result, such construction allows the three metallic screens to touch each other. These
three metallic covers are then grouped together in a metallic tape usually made of copper.
A lead sheath surrounds this construction. The metallic covers and the sheath are
grounded.

The obvious advantage is the electric stresses are radial, not tangential and hence of lesser
magnitudes. Also, the metallic covers improve the heat dissipation.

Figure 2: H-type and S.L. type cable

 S.L Type Cables:

It is similar to the H type cables, with the difference that each of the three cores has its own
lead sheath. With this provision, the need for the overall sheath used previously is
eliminated. The advantage of such a construction is that the chances of a core-to-core
breakdown are greatly minimized. Also, the flexibility of the cable is improved.

The limitations are severe. Such construction is limited for voltages up to 66kV only. The
individual sheaths are thinner, and if there are constructional defects, moisture may enter
the cable and reduce its dielectric strength.

 H.S.L. Type Cables:

This type of cable is combination of H type and S.L. type cable. In these cables each core is
insulated with impregnated paper and provided with separate lead sheaths.

c. Pressure cables

For voltages beyond 66 kV, the electrostatic stresses in the cables exceed the acceptable
values and solid cables become unreliable. This occurs mainly because voids are created
when voltages exceed 66 kV. Hence, instead of solid cables, we use Pressure cables.
Typically, such cables are either oil filled, or gas filled.

 Oil Filled Cables:

Oil is circulated under suitable pressure through ducts provided for such purpose. This oil
supply and pressure are maintained through reservoirs kept at proper distances. The oil
used is the same that is employed for impregnation of paper insulators.

 Gas Filled Cables:

Pressurized gas (usually dry nitrogen) is circulated around cables in an air-tight steel pipe.
Such cables are cable of carrying higher values of load current and can operate at higher
values of voltage. But the overall cost is more.

Figure 3: Oil filled cable

iv. Classification based upon insulation of the cable

Various insulating materials used in cable construction are Rubber, Paper, PVC, XLPE (Cross
linked Polyethene) etc. Such classification is based upon operating temperature limitations.
Following are some insulating materials used and their maximum operating temperatures.
Table 1: Maximum operating temperature for different insulating materials

Max. operating
Insulation material
temperature

PVC TYPE A 75°C

PVC TYPE B 85°C

PVC TYPE C 85°C

 XLPE 90°C

RUBBER 90°C

RUBBER – EPR IE-2, EPR IE-3, EPR IE-4,

150°C
SILICON IE-5

v. Classification based upon installation and laying of the cable

 Direct Buried:

As the name suggests, the conductors are buried underground in a trench without
additional accessories. Sometimes cooling pipes are added if required. Once the cables are
installed, there’s no visible sign above the ground.

 Trough:

Concrete troughs are dug, and cables are installed in them. They’re visible on the surface.
Maintenance is easier.

 Tunnels:

Sometimes, tunnels are dug up for this purpose. Such construction is mainly employed if a
river needs to be crossed or if the intended power distribution is to a major city.
Maintenance and future expansion are easier, but initial cost is higher.

 Gas Insulated Lines:

This is a relatively new technology. For cables operating at higher voltages and currents,
and handling high power, such gas insulated line construction is safer. It is being employed
nowadays for advanced projects.

2.2 Classification by Material, Function, and Standards

2.2.1By Material:
 Copper Conductor: Offers superior conductivity and durability.

 Aluminium Conductor: Lightweight and cost-effective, though less conductive.

2.2.2By Function:
 Power Distribution: Main cables for delivering medium voltage electricity.

 Control Cables: Used for monitoring and controlling electrical systems.

 Instrumentation Cables: Transmit signals and data in complex control systems.

2.2.3By Standards:
 IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission): Global safety and performance
standards.

 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): Widely used in North America.
  BS (British Standards): Common in the UK and many other countries.

2.3 Structure of Cable

Figure 4: Structure of cable

1) Conductor:
Usually, 1 or 3 conductors (depending upon the application) are used. These
conductors are stranded to reduce skin effect, proximity effect and to keep it flexible.
Conductors are made from electrolytic grade pure copper or aluminium.

2) Conductor screen/ Conductor Shield:

It is a semi-conducting tape or an extruded layer of a semi-conductive compound.
Conductor screening is generally used in MV and HV cables to maintain uniform
electric field and minimise electrostatic stresses.

3) Insulation:
It is provided to withstand the electrostatic stress. Various types (and thickness) of
insulators like VIR (Vulcanized India Rubber), Impregnated paper, PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) and XLPE (Cross linked polyethylene) are utilised depending upon the
applied voltage. Often made of XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) for high voltage
endurance.

4) Insulation screen/ Insulation Shield:

A layer of semi-conductive material generally used in MV and HV lines. It serves the
similar purpose as that of conductor screen.
5) Metallic Sheath/ Metallic Shield:
 It provides protection to the cable from moisture and other chemicals (acids or
alkalies) present in the environment or soil. It’s usually made up of Aluminium or
Lead. It also provides a path for fault and leakage currents as the sheath is earthed at
one cable end.

6) Bedding:
It is a low-grade insulator like Jute or Hessian which protects the metallic sheath from
corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.

7) Armouring:
It provides mechanical protection from various stresses the cable may get exposed to
during its installation and operational life. It’s usually a steel tape wound around the
Bedding layer.

8) Serving/ Sheath:
Another layer of low-grade insulator like Jute or Hessian or a thermoplastic compound
like PVC is again provided to protect the steel from atmospheric contaminants and
agents.

2.4 Features:
 High Efficiency: Designed for minimal power loss over medium distances.

 Safety: Insulated to prevent electrical hazards.

 Durability: Resistant to environmental factors and mechanical stress.

2.5 Drawbacks:
 Cost: More expensive than low voltage cables.

 Complex Installation: Requires skilled labour and specialized equipment for

installation.

2.6 Production Process:

1. Wire Drawing: Reducing the diameter of the conductor wire.

2. Stranding: Twisting multiple wires together for flexibility.

3. Conductor Shielding: Applying the first semi-conducting layer.

4. Insulation: Applying the insulating material.

5. Insulation Shielding: Adding another semi-conducting layer.

6. Metallic Shielding: Applying the metallic shield.

7. Sheathing: Adding the outer protective layer.

2.7 Testing Methods:
1. Electrical Testing: Ensuring proper conductivity and insulation resistance.

2. Mechanical Testing: Checking the strength and flexibility of the cable.

3. Environmental Testing: Simulating extreme conditions to ensure durability.

2.8 New Products, Technologies, and Innovations

2.8.1New Products:
 Enhanced XLPE Cables: Improved insulation materials for better performance and
longevity.

 High Temperature Cables: Designed to operate at higher temperatures, offering more

flexibility in installation environments.

2.8.2New Technologies:
 Smart Cables: Integrated sensors for real-time monitoring of cable conditions and
performance.

 Improved Shielding Materials: Better protection against electrical interference and

environmental factors.
3 Degree of Protection
The degree of protection is expressed as two-digit number. The first digit indicates the
extent to which equipment is protected against particles. And the second digit shows the
extent of protection against water.

3.1 Correlations between IP (IEC) and NEMA 250 standards

IP10 -> NEMA 1

IP11 -> NEMA 2

IP54 -> NEMA 3 R

IP52 -> NEMA 5-12-12 K

IP54 -> NEMA 3-3 S

IP56 -> NEMA 4-4 X

IP67 -> NEMA 6-6 P

4 GLANDS

Standards

1 IEC 61892-4: 2019

Scope –

Applicable to selection of electrical cables intended for fixed electrical systems in mobile
and fixed offshore units, including pipeline, pumping or pigging stations, compressor
stations and single buoy moorings, used in the offshore petroleum industry for drilling,
production, accommodation, processing, storage and offloading purposes.

1.1 Types and operating conditions of cables

1.1.1Types of Cables
All cables shall be low smoke and halogen free.

Cables constructed as per IEC 60092-353, IEC 60092-354 and IEC 60092-376 shall be used
on mobile and fixed offshore units. Materials shall be used as per IEC 60092-360.
For single core cables for AC systems or cables for circuits with high content of harmonics,
such as SCR circuits, non-magnetic braid armour or armour shall be used.

1.1.2Voltage rating for power frequency cables

The maximum voltage considered in this standard is 30kV.

In the voltage designation of cables U 0 /U /U m

U 0 - rated power frequency voltage between conductor and earth or the metallic screen for
which the cable is designed.
U - rated power frequency voltage between conductors for which the cable is designed.
U m – the maximum value of the highest system voltage which may be sustained under
normal operating conditions at any time and at any point in the system. It excludes
transient voltage conditions and rapid disconnection of loads.

2 IEC 61892-7 Mobile and fixed offshore units –

Electrical installations – Part 7: Hazardous areas
2.1 Scope –
contains provisions for hazardous areas classification and choice of electrical installation in
hazardous areas in mobile and fixed offshore units, including pipeline, pumping or 'pigging'
stations, compressor stations and exposed location single buoy moorings, used in the
offshore petroleum industry for drilling, processing and for storage purposes.

It applies to all installations, whether permanent, temporary, transportable or hand-held, to

ac installations up to and including 35 000 V and dc installations up to and including 750 V.
(ac and dc voltages are nominal values).

This standard does not apply to electrical installations in rooms used for medical purposes,
or in tankers.

2.2 Terms and Definitions

2.2.1
Books
Hadi Saadat-Power System
Analysis-McGraw-Hill 1 Chapter 1
College (1998) – The
Power
System: An Overview
The major parts of the power systems –

1. Generation
2. Transmission
3. Distribution
4. Loads

1.1 Generation:
Major components are generators, transformers.

1.2 Transmission and Subtransmission:

Transfers electric energy from Generating units to distribution points which further
supplies electricity to loads.

ANSI standard transmission voltages above 60 kV: 69 kV, 115kV, 138 kV, 161 kV, 230
kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV.

Transmission voltage above 230kV – extra high voltage (EHV)

The portion of the transmission system that connects the high-voltage substations
through step-down transformers to the distribution substations are called the
subtransmission network.

1.3 Distribution
Connects the distribution substations to the consumers’ service-entrance equipment.

Primary distribution line – 4 to 34.5 kV

Secondary distribution line – 240/120 V, single phase, three wire.

208Y/120 V, three phase, four-wire.

480Y/277 V, three phase, four-wire.

Distribution systems are both underground and overground.

1.4 Loads
1.4.1Main types of loads – Industrial, commercial and residential.
Very large industrial loads – supplied from transmission system

Large industrial loads - subtransmission network

Small industrial loads – primary distribution network

Nature of industrial loads – composite and induction motors form a high proportion of these
loads. Composite loads are function of voltage and frequency and form a major part of the
system load. (Composite load is defined as a combination of static and dynamic load
model)

Commercial and residential loads – mainly lighting, cooling and heating. Independent of
frequency and consume negligibly small reactive power.

1.4.2Load Curve
The daily-load curve of a utility is a composite of demands made by various classes of
users. The greatest value of load during 24 hr period is called the peak or maximum
demand.

1.4.2.1 The Load Factor –

Used to assess the usefulness of a generating plant. Load Factor is defined as the ratio of
average load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring in that period.
Load Factor may be calculated for a day, a month or a year. The yearly load factor is the
most useful since a year represents a full cycle of time.

averageload
LF=
peak load

average load × 24 hr energy consumed during 24 hr

Daily LF= =
peak load ×24 hr peak load ×24 hr

The annual load factor is,

total annual energy
Annual LF=
peak load × 8760 hr

For power plant’s economic operation, it must have a high load factor.
1.4.2.2 Utilization Factor –
Ratio of maximum demand to the installed capacity. This factor indicates how well the plant
is utilised.

1.4.2.3 Plant Factor –

Ratio of annual energy generation to the plant capacity x 8760 hrs. This factor indicates
how well the plant is operated.

1.5 Other components of power systems

System Protection – For continuous operation of these systems, protective devices are
used.

Energy Control Centre – for reliable and economic operation of the power system it is
necessary to monitor the entire system in a control centre.

2 Chapter 2: Basic Principles

2.1 Power in single phase circuits
2.1.1Active Power
The power absorbed by the resistive component of the load is called as active power or real
power. And is given by -
P=V ∙ I ∙ cos θ
2.1.2Apparent Power
The product of the rms voltage value and current value is called the apparent power. It is
measured in unit of VA (Volt-Ampere).

2.1.3Power Factor
The product of apparent power and cos θ gives the active power. This cos θ plays a key role
in deciding average power, it is called Power Factor.

When the current lags the voltage, the power factor is considered lagging. When the
current leads the voltage, PF is considered leading.

2.1.4Reactive Power
This component accounts for power oscillating into and out of the load because of its
reactive element (inductive or capacitive). It is given by
Q=V ∙ I ∙ sin θ

The term VAR (Volt-Ampere Reactive) is used for the reactive power in order to distinguish
between real and reactive power.

For an inductive load, current is lagging the voltage and Q is positive.

For a capacitive load, current is leading the voltage and Q is negative.

2.1.5Complex Power
The complex power is given by
S=P+ jQ

The magnitude of complex power √ P2+ Q2 is the apparent power.

Apparent power gives a direct indication of heating and is used as a rating unit of power
equipment.

2.2 Power Factor Correction

If the power factor is one, then apparent power and active power are same. If the power
factor is less than one, apparent power will larger than active power. Thus, for same active
power P, larger current I is needed for PF < 1 than it would be for PF =1. A larger current
supplying increases the operational cost for operators and customers. Hence, it is in the
best interest that major load operates at power factor as close to 1 as possible.

To maintain the power factor close to unity, capacitor banks are installed throughout the
network as needed. Also, the penalties are imposed to industrial consumers who operate at
low power factors. The residential and small commercial customers do not need to install
such power banks since they operate at PF close to unity.

2.3 The Complex Power Flow

Consider two voltage sources connected by a line of impedance Z=R+j X as shown below.
Figure 5

Let the phasor voltage be V 1=|V 1|∠ δ 1 and V 2=|V 2|∠ δ 2

For the assumed direction of the current,

|V 1|∠ δ 1−|V 2|∠ δ 2

I 12=
|Z|∠ Υ

The Complex power is given by,

2
|V 1| |V 1||V 2|
S12= ∠Υ − ∠ Υ +δ 1−δ 2
|Z| |Z|

Thus, real and reactive power at the sending end is,

2
|V 1| |V 1||V 2|
P12= cos Υ − cos (Υ +δ 1−δ 2)
|Z| |Z|

2
|V 1| |V 1||V 2|
Q12= sin Υ − sin(Υ + δ 1−δ 2)
|Z| |Z|
Power system transmission lines have small resistance compared to reactance.

Assuming R=0 (Z=X ∠ 90 ° ) the above equation becomes,

|V 1||V 2|
P12 = sin ( δ 1−δ 2 )
| X|

|V 1|
Q12=
|X|
{|V 1|−|V 2|cos ( δ 1−δ2 ) }
Since R=0, there are no transmission line losses, and the real power sent equals the real
power received.

From above results, for a typical power system with small R/X ratio, the following
observations are made –

 Small changes in δ 1∨δ 2 can significantly change the real power flow. But small change
in voltage magnitude will not have appreciable effect on real power flow. Thus, the
real power flow is governed by angle difference of terminal voltages.

P ∝sin δ where δ=δ 1−δ 2 Equation 1

 Assuming R=0, the theoretical maximum power occurs when δ=∠ 90 ° and maximum
power transfer is given by

|V 1||V 2|
Pmax = Equation 2
X

 For maintaining transient stability, the power system is usually operated with small
load angle δ .
The reactive power flow depends on the magnitude difference of terminal voltages
Q ∝|V 1|−|V 2|

2.4 Balanced Three-Phase Circuits

At generating station, three sinusoidal voltages with same amplitude but displaced in
phase by 120 degrees are generated. This is called as balanced source.

If the generated voltages reach their peak values in the order ABC, the generator is said
to have a positive phase sequence. If the order is ACB, then the generator is said to
have negative phase sequence.

In three phase system, the instantaneous power delivered to load is constant. Some of
the benefits of using three phase system are –

 Three phase motors having constant torque, start and run much better than single
phase motors.
 The transmission of three phase power is inherently efficient as compared to single
phase since less wire is needed for the same delivered power.

A power system has Y-connected generators and usually includes both Δ and Y
connected loads.

Generators are rarely connected in delta, because if the voltages are not perfectly
balanced, there will be a net voltage and consequently circulating currents around delta.
Also, the phase voltages are lower in Y-connected generator and thus less insulation is
required.

Figure xx shows Y-connected generator supplying Y-connected loads through a three-

phase line. Assuming positive phase sequence (ABC) the generated voltages are:
E An=| E p|∠ 0 ° Equation 3

E Bn=|E p|∠−120 ° Equation 4

ECn =|E p|∠−240 ° Equation 5

Figure 6: A Y-connected generator supplying a Y-connected load

In power systems, great care is taken to ensure that the loads of transmission lines are
balanced. For balanced loads, the terminal voltages of the generator V An ,V Bn , V Cnand the
phase voltages V an ,V bn, V cnat the load terminals are balanced. For phase A, these are
given by,
V An=E An−Z g I a Equation 6

V an=V An−Z L I a Equation 7

2.4.1Y-connected loads:
The voltage phasor diagram of Y-connected loads of figure xx (above) is shown in figure
yy. (below)

If the rms value of line voltages is V L then,

V L= √ 3|V p|∠ 30 °
Equation 8

Thus, for Y-connected loads, the magnitude of line voltages is 1.732 times the magnitude of
phase voltages. And for a positive phase sequence, the set of line voltages leads the set of
phase voltages by 30 ° .

The current in lines are also the phase currents

 I L =I p
Equation 9

Figure 7

2.4.2Delta connected loads

The balanced delta connected load with equal phase impedance is shown in figure 8.

Figure 8

The line voltages are the same as phase voltages.

V L=V p
Equation 10
 If the rms value of line current is I L then,

I L =√ 3|I p|∠−30 °
Equation 11

Thus, for delta-connected loads, the magnitude of line currents is 1.732 times the
magnitude of phase current. And for a positive phase sequence, the set of line currents lags
the set of phase currents by 30 ° .

2.4.3Delta-Y Transformation
For analysing network problems, it is convenient to replace the delta connected circuit with
an equivalent Y-connected circuit.

Figure 9

ZΔ
ZY =
3
Equation 12

2.4.4Per-Phase Analysis
The current in neutral of the balanced Y-connected is zero. (Refer to Figure 6)

Since the neutral carries no current, a wire of any impedance (including short circuit or
open circuit) could be used. The return line may not exist, but regardless, a line of zero
impedance is included between the two neutral points. The balanced power system
problems are solved on “per-phase” basis. It is understood that the other two phases carry
identical currents except for the phase shift.

This simplified power system is shown in Figure 10. The neutral is taken as datum, and a
single-subscript notation is used for phase voltages.
 Figure 10: Single-phase circuit for per-phase analysis

2.4.5Balanced Three-phase Power

The three-phase instantaneous power is,

P3 Φ =3|V P||I P|cos θ

Equation 13

Where θ=θv −θ i is the angle between phase voltage and phase current or the impedance
angle.

The power in each phase is pulsating. But the total instantaneous power is constant and
equal to three times the real power in each phase.

This constant power is the major advantage of three-phase system over single-phase
system.

The three-phase reactive power is,

Q3 Φ =3|V P||I P|sin θ

Equation 14

Thus, the complex power for three-phase system is,

S3 Φ =P3 Φ + jQ3 Φ
Equation 15

To express Equation 13 in terms of line voltage and line current,

V L= √ 3|V p| & I L =I p
For Y-connected load,

Similarly, for delta-connected load,

I L =√ 3|I p|& V L=V p

The real and reactive powers for either connections are given by,

P3 Φ =√ 3|V L|| I L|cos θ

 Q 3 Φ =√ 3|V L|| I L|sin θ

The rated power is customarily given for the three-phase and rated voltage is the line-to-
line voltage. Thus, in using the per-phase equivalent circuit, care must be taken to use per-
phase voltage by dividing the rated voltage by √3.

3 Chapter 3: Generators and Transformer Models; The

Per-unit system
In this chapter, we represent simple models of generators and transformers for steady-state
balanced operation.

Also, we are going to learn about the per-unit system. The Per-unit system is very
convenient for the analysis of power system. The advantage of this method is the
elimination of transformers by simple impedances. The Per-unit system is presented,
followed by the impedance diagram of the network, expressed to a common MVA base.

3.1 Synchronous Generators

{Watch the video to understand the working of Synchronous Generators:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH48EMgKE }

Large scale power is generated by three-phase synchronous generators, known as

alternators.

The armature windings are placed on the stationary part called stator. The rotor has field
winding to create magnetic field. The armature windings are designed for generation of
three phase voltages. The armature windings are arranged to develop the same number of
magnetic poles as the field winding. The rotor is driven by a prime mover at constant speed
and its field circuit is excited by DC current. The excitation is provided through slip rings
and brushes by means of dc generators mounted on the same shaft of synchronous
machine. However, these days excitation system usually consists of ac generators with
rotating rectifiers. This system is known as brushless excitation. The generator excitation
system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive power flow.

Pg 69 to 84 pending

3.2 Power Transformers

Essential elements of modern power system. In modern power systems, the energy may
undergo four or five transformations between generation and consumer. As a result, a given
system is likely to have about five times more kVA of installed capacity of transformers
than of generators.

- Steps up the relatively low voltages from generators to a very high voltage for
efficient power transmission
- Steps down voltage to values most suitable for consumer utilisation

3.2.1Equivalent circuit of a Transformer

The equivalent circuit model of a single-phase transformer is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11

A Textbook of electrical technology

– Volume II – AC & DC Machines (B.
L. Thereja & A. K. Thereja)
4 Chapter 32 - Transformer
4.1 Working principle of a transformer
A transformer is a static (stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.

The principle is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux.

In simple words, it consists of two inductive coils on the same core. The coils are electrically
separated but magnetically linked through a path of low resistance. The coils have high
mutual inductance.

If one coil is connected to ac voltage source, it sets up magnetic flux within the core. This
flux is linked with the second coil and induces e.m.f. If the second coil circuit is closed
current flows in it. Thus, electric energy is transferred from first coil to second coil.

The coil in which electric energy is fed from the ac supply, is called primary winding.

The other coil where energy is drawn out, is called secondary winding.

4.2 Transformer Construction

The basic elements needed for transformer are two coils with high mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core. These coils are insulated from each other and core.

Other necessary parts are –

1. a suitable container for assembled core and windings

2. a suitable medium for insulating core and windings from the container
3. suitable bushings for insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings

Core – constructed out of steel laminations assembled to provide continuous magnetic path
with minimum air gap. Steel with high silicon content (sometimes heat treated) to produce
high permeability and low hysteresis loss at operating flux densities. The eddy current loss
is minimised by laminating the core, the laminations are insulated from each other
Construction wise there are two types of transformers –

1. core type
2. shell type
3. spiral-core or wound-core type – recent development

1. Core type: windings surround a considerable part of the core. As shown in fig,
windings are shown on opposite limbs of core. But in actual, both windings are placed
side by side or concentrically on each limb.
The coils – form-wound and cylindrical type
2. Shell type: the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings.
The coils are form-wound but multi-layer disc type usually wound in the form of
pancakes.

In both transformers, the individual laminations are cut in the form of long strips of L’s, E’s
and I’s as shown in Figure 12: Lamination strips Figure 12.
Figure 12: Lamination strips