Classification of elements and periodicity of properties of elements

Class -11th (NOTES)

What are Dobereiner’s Triads?

• Proposed by German chemist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner.

• He grouped elements with similar properties into sets of three elements, called "triads."
Key Idea Behind Triads:
• In a triad, the atomic mass of the middle element is approximately equal to the average of the
atomic masses of the other two elements.
Example of a Triad:
• Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), and Potassium (K) form a triad.
o Atomic mass of Li = 6.94
o Atomic mass of K = 39.10
o Average of Li and K = (6.94 + 39.10) / 2 = 23.02
o Atomic mass of Na = 22.99 → Very close to the average
Limitations of Dobereiner’s Triads:
1. Not all elements could be grouped into triads.
2. Only a few triads (about four) were identified.
3. Many elements known at that time didn’t fit this pattern.

John Newlands & the Law of Octaves

• An English scientist who helped in the early development of the periodic table.
• In 1866, he arranged the 56 known elements in increasing order of atomic mass.
Newlands’ Observation:
• He noticed that every 8th element had similar properties to the 1st one, like musical notes in an
octave.
Law of Octaves:
 • When elements are arranged by increasing atomic mass, the properties of every 8th element are
similar.
• Example: Element 1 and element 8 show similar chemical properties.
•
Limitations of Newlands’ Octaves:
1. The pattern only worked up to calcium (Ca).
2. It didn't work well for heavier elements.
3. New elements, especially noble gases, did not fit into this pattern.
4. The arrangement became confusing and irregular beyond calcium.

Dmitri Mendeleev & His Periodic Table

• A Russian chemist who introduced the first periodic table in 1869.

• Arranged elements in increasing order of atomic mass.
• Noticed that the properties of elements repeat periodically (in a regular pattern).

Mendeleev’s Periodic Law:

• "The chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights."

Advantages of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:

• It predicted the existence of undiscovered elements (e.g., gallium, germanium, scandium) and
left gaps for them.
• It helped correct incorrect atomic masses of some elements.
• Allowed exceptions to the atomic mass rule to keep elements with similar properties in the same
group
Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:
• Hydrogen’s position was unclear – it was placed with alkali metals, but it also had halogen-like
properties.
1. Isotopes were not considered, which caused confusion (e.g., protium, deuterium, tritium all
treated separately).
2. Some elements were placed out of order by atomic mass (e.g., cobalt (58.9) came before nickel
(58.7)).
Legacy of Mendeleev:
• Mendeleev is known as the "Father of the Modern Periodic Table."
• The Modern Periodic Law is named in his honor and is sometimes still called Mendeleev’s Law.
Henry Moseley & the Modern Periodic Table

• An English physicist Henry Moseley who conducted important research in 1913.

• Studied x-rays given off by different metals.

Moseley’s Discovery:
1. Found a connection between x-ray frequency and the atomic number of elements.
2. Realized that atomic number (not atomic mass) determines an element’s properties.
3. This led to the Modern Periodic Law.

Modern Periodic Law:

• “The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.”

Why Atomic Number is Important:

• Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons in a neutral atom.
• Chemical properties depend on the arrangement of electrons in energy levels.
• So, using atomic number gives a more accurate classification than atomic mass.

Periodicity:
• Means the repeating pattern in chemical and physical properties of elements as atomic numbers
increase.

Structure of the Modern Periodic Table:

• 18 vertical columns = Groups (1 to 18)
• 7 horizontal rows = Periods

Elements in Each Period:

1. 1st Period: 2 elements – Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He)
2. 2nd Period: 8 elements – from Lithium (Li) to Neon (Ne)
3. 3rd Period: 8 elements – from Sodium (Na) to Argon (Ar)
4. 4th Period: 18 elements – from Potassium (K) to Krypton (Kr)
5. 5th Period: 18 elements – from Rubidium (Rb) to Xenon (Xe)
6. 6th Period: 32 elements – includes lanthanides
7. 7th Period: Also has 32 elements, but is incomplete

Classification by Blocks (Based on Electron Configuration):

1. s-block elements:
 oGroups 1 and 2
oGeneral configuration: ns¹–²
2. p-block elements:
o Groups 13 to 18
o General configuration: ns² np¹–⁶
3. d-block elements (Transition metals):
o Groups 3 to 12
o General configuration: (n–1)d¹–¹⁰ ns¹–²
4. f-block elements (Inner transition metals):
o Includes lanthanides and actinides
o Placed at the bottom of the table
o General configuration: (n–2)f¹–¹⁴ (n–1)d⁰–¹ ns²
Why This Classification is Useful:
• Helps in predicting element properties, chemical behavior, and bonding patterns.
• Makes the study of chemistry more systematic and logical.

Periodic Properties and Their Trends

1. What are Periodic Properties?

• These are properties of elements that change gradually across a period (row) or group (column) in
the periodic table.
• These changes are related to the electronic configuration of the elements.

Key Periodic Properties:

1. Atomic Radius
2. Ionic Radius
3. Ionization Enthalpy
4. Electron Gain Enthalpy
5. Electronegativity
6. (Other properties like melting/boiling points, density, etc. are also affected by electron
configuration)

Atomic Radius:
• Definition: The distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron shell of an atom.
• Atomic radius varies depending on how it's measured:
o Covalent Radius:
▪ Half the distance between two identical atoms bonded by a single covalent bond.
▪ If atoms are different, it's calculated using their electronegativities.
o Van der Waals' Radius:
▪ Half the distance between adjacent atoms of neighboring non-bonded molecules in
the solid state.
o Metallic Radius:
▪ Half the distance between neighboring metal atoms in a metallic crystal.
• Order of Size:
Covalent radius < Metallic radius < Van der Waals' radius
Trends in Atomic Radius:
• Across a Period (Left to Right):
o Decreases
o Reason: Increased nuclear charge pulls electrons closer to the nucleus.
• Down a Group (Top to Bottom):
o Increases
o Reason: More electron shells are added; shielding effect reduces nuclear pull.
Ionic Radius:
• Definition: The size of an ion (charged atom).
 o Distance from the nucleus to the outer boundary of the electron cloud.
• Trends in Ionic Radius:
o Across a Period: Decreases (like atomic radius)
o Down a Group: Increases
• Cations (positive ions):
o Smaller than their neutral atoms
o Reason: Loss of electrons → less repulsion → electrons pulled closer
• Anions (negative ions):
o Larger than their neutral atoms
o Reason: Gain of electrons → more repulsion → electron cloud expands
• Isoelectronic Species:
o Atoms or ions with same number of electrons
o Size depends on nuclear charge:
▪ More protons → smaller radius (stronger pull on electrons)
Q Choose the correct order of atomic radii of fluorine and neon (in pm) out of the options given below
and justify your answer.
(i) 72,160 (b) 160,160 (c) 72,72 (d) 160,72
Sol:(i) Atomic radius decreases as we move from left to right in a period in the periodic table. Fluorine has
the smallest atomic radius. As we move to neon
in the same period, the atomic radius increases as it has van der Waals radius and van der Waals radii are
bigger than covalent radii.

Q The radius of Na+ cation is less than that of Na atom. Give reason.
Sol: The radius of Na+ is less than Na atom because Na+ is formed by losing one energy shell.
Na – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Na+– 1s22s2 2p6

Q All transition elements are d-block elements, but all d-block elements are not transition elements.
Explain.
Transition elements are the elements found between group 2 and group 13 in the periodic table.
d-block elements are those where the last electron goes into the d-orbital of the second last shell
(penultimate shell).
Elements like Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd), and Mercury (Hg) are exceptions because their last electron
goes into the outermost s-orbital, not the d-orbital.
Because of this, Zn, Cd, and Hg should not be considered d-block elements based on their electron
configurations.
 However, these elements behave very similarly to other d-block elements in terms of their chemical
properties.
To make studying these elements easier and more logical, Zn, Cd, and Hg are included with the d-block
elements.
So, based on their properties, all transition elements are d-block elements.
But based on their electronic configurations, not all d-block elements are transition elements.

Ionization Enthalpy (Energy)

• Definition: Energy required to remove one electron from the outermost shell of an isolated gaseous
atom.
• Trend Across a Period: Increases (due to increasing nuclear charge – electrons are held more
tightly).
• Trend Down a Group: Decreases (due to increasing atomic size and shielding effect – electrons are
easier to remove).
QAmong the elements B, Al, C and Si,
(a) which element has the highest first ionization enthalpy
(b) which element has the most metallic character?
Justify your answer in each case.
Sol: Arranging the elements into different groups and periods:

Group 13 14

Period 2 B C

Period 3 Al Si

• Ionization enthalpy increases along a period and decreases down a group. Therefore, C has the
highest first ionization enthalpy.
• Metallic character decreases along a period and increases down a group. Therefore, Al has the
most metallic character.

Q How would you explain the fact that first ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower than that of
magnesium but its second ionization enthalpy is higher than that of magnesium?
Sol: Electronic configuration of Na is 1s22s22p63s1. After losing one electron from its outermost shell,
sodium easily attains stable electronic configuration (1s22s22p6 ), while magnesium does not lose its electron
easily due to presence of two electrons in s-orbital (ls22s22p63s2). Hence first ionisation energy of sodium is
less than magnesium.
When one electron is removed from Na and Mg, their configurations become ls 22s22p6 and
1s22s22p63s1 respectively. Now it is easier to remove one electron from 3s of Mg+ than 2p6 of Na+. Hence,
second ionisation energy of Mg is less than Na.

Shielding effect
The shielding effect, also known as the screening effect, refers to the reduction of the attractive force
between the nucleus and outer electrons in an atom due to the presence of inner electrons.
These inner electrons repel the outer electrons, effectively reducing the nuclear charge felt by the outer
electrons.
This shielding effect influences various atomic properties and chemical reactivity.
Key aspects of the shielding effect:
• Inner electrons shield outer electrons:

Inner shell electrons are closer to the nucleus and experience a stronger attraction. They also repel the
outer electrons, partially canceling out the positive charge of the nucleus.
• Reduces effective nuclear charge:
The effective nuclear charge (Z*) is the actual nuclear charge (Z) minus the shielding effect (S) of the
inner electrons (Z* = Z - S).
• Influences atomic properties:
The shielding effect affects ionization energy, atomic size, and other properties. For example, elements
with more shielding electrons tend to have lower ionization energies because their outer electrons are
less tightly bound to the nucleus.
• Varies across the periodic table:
The shielding effect generally increases down a group as more electron shells are added, while it
remains relatively constant across a period.

Electron Gain Enthalpy

• Definition: Energy change when a gaseous atom gains an electron to form a negative ion.
• Trend Across a Period: Becomes more negative (increases) due to stronger attraction for
electrons.
• Trend Down a Group: Becomes less negative (decreases) due to increased atomic size.
• Note: Exceptions exist for half-filled or fully filled orbitals, where stability resists electron gain.

Q Explain why the electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less negative than that of chlorine.
Sol: In fluorine, the new electron to be added goes to 2p-subshell while in chlorine, the added electron goes
to 3p-subshell. Since the 2p-subshell is relatively small as compared to 3p-subshell, the added electron in
small 2p-subshell experiences strong interelectronic repulsions in comparison to that in 3p-subshell in Cl. As
a result, the incoming electron does not feel much attraction from the nucleus and therefore, the electron
gain enthalpy of F is less negative than that of Cl.
Q Why Nitrogen has positive electron gain enthalpy and Oxygen has negative, but Oxygen has lower
ionization enthalpy than Nitrogen:

1. Nitrogen’s electronic configuration:

o Nitrogen’s outer shell: 2s² 2pₓ¹ 2p_y¹ 2p_z¹
o It has exactly half-filled 2p subshell (3 electrons in 3 orbitals), which is very stable.
2. Effect on electron gain enthalpy for Nitrogen:
o Because nitrogen is stable with half-filled orbitals, it does not want to gain an extra electron.
o Adding an electron requires energy input, so nitrogen’s electron gain enthalpy is slightly
positive (energy is absorbed).
3. Oxygen’s electronic configuration:
o Oxygen’s outer shell: 2s² 2pₓ² 2p_y¹ 2p_z¹
o Oxygen has 4 electrons in the 2p subshell and a higher positive nuclear charge (+8) compared
to nitrogen (+7).
o Oxygen’s atomic size is smaller than nitrogen’s.
4. Effect on electron gain enthalpy for Oxygen:
o Oxygen tends to gain an extra electron to complete its 2p subshell and become more stable.
o This process releases energy, so oxygen’s electron gain enthalpy is negative (energy is
released).
5. Ionization enthalpy comparison:
o Oxygen has 4 electrons in the 2p subshell and can lose one electron to get a stable half-filled
configuration.
o This makes it easier (requires less energy) to remove an electron from oxygen, so its
ionization enthalpy is lower.
6. Nitrogen’s ionization enthalpy:
o Because nitrogen already has a stable half-filled 2p subshell, it does not want to lose an
electron.
o So, it requires more energy to remove an electron, meaning nitrogen has a higher ionization
enthalpy than oxygen.

Electronegativity
• Definition: Ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a covalent bond.
• Most Electronegativity: Fluorine (F)
• Least Electronegativity: Cesium (Cs)
• Trend Across a Period: Increases
• Trend Down a Group: Decreases
Q Among alkali metals which element do you expect to be least electronegative and why?
Sol: Cs is the most electropositive or least electronegative element among the alkali metals since
electronegative character decreases in a group.

Valence Electrons and Valency

• Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell, involved in bonding.
• Valency: The combining capacity of an atom.
o s- and p-block elements: Valency usually equals number of valence electrons.
o Transition & inner transition metals: Show variable valency due to d- and f-orbitals.
Trends:
• Across a Period:
o Number of valence electrons increases from 1 to 8 (valency peaks at 4, then decreases).
• Down a Group:
o Valence electrons remain constant, so elements in the same group have the same valency.
 o Example:
▪ Group 1 (Alkali metals): Valency = 1
▪ Group 2 (Alkaline earth metals): Valency = 2
▪ Group 18 (Noble gases): Valency = 0

Metal Reactivity
• Depends on ability to lose electrons.
Trends:
• Across a Period (Left → Right):
o Reactivity decreases (nuclear pull increases).
o Example (3rd period): Na > Mg > Al
• Down a Group:
o Reactivity increases (electrons are more easily lost).
o Example (Group 1): Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs

Non-metal Reactivity
• Depends on ability to gain electrons.
Trends:
• Across a Period:
o Reactivity increases (better electron acceptors).
o Example (2nd period): C < N < O < F
• Down a Group:
o Reactivity decreases (larger atoms attract electrons less).
o Example (Halogens): F > Cl > Br > I
Q Arrange the elements N, P, O and S in the order of
(i) increasing first ionisation enthalpy.
(ii) increasing non-metallic character.
Give reason for the arrangement assigned.
Sol: (i) S < P < O < N
Ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right in a period and decreases down the group. N has higher
ionisation enthalpy than O due to extra stability of half-filled orbitals. Similarly, P has higher ionisation
enthalpy than S due to half-filled orbitals.
(ii) P < S < N < O
Non-metallic character decreases down the group and increases from left to right in a period.

Nature of Oxides
• Metallic Oxides (Left of Period): Basic
o Example: Na₂O
• Non-metallic Oxides (Right of Period): Acidic
o Example: Cl₂O₇
• Middle Elements' Oxides:
o Amphoteric: Can act as acid or base (e.g., Al₂O₃)
o Neutral: Show neither (e.g., CO, NO, N₂O)
Q p-Block elements form acidic, basic and amphoteric oxides. Explain each property by giving two
examples and also write the reactions of these oxides with water.

Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements

5. Diagonal Relationship
• Definition: Similar chemical properties between second-period and third-period elements placed
diagonally.
o Example:
▪ Li (Group 1) ≈ Mg (Group 2)
▪ Be (Group 2) ≈ Al (Group 13)
Causes:
• Similar size
• Similar charge-to-radius ratio
• Comparable electronegativity

6. Unique Behavior of First Group Members

• Elements like B, C, N, O can form multiple p-p bonds (e.g., C=C, N≡N).
• Their valency is limited to 4 due to only 4 valence orbitals (2s and 2p).
• Heavier elements (like Al) can expand valency using d-orbitals (e.g., [AlF₆]³⁻ vs. [BF₄]⁻).

Inert Pair Effect

• Definition: Tendency of the outermost s-electrons to not participate in bonding in heavier
elements of groups 13–16.
• Result: Lower oxidation states become more stable as we move down the group.
• Reason: Increasing nuclear charge pulls s-electrons closer, making them harder to lose.

The inert pair effect describes the tendency of heavier p-block elements' outermost s-electrons to remain
non-bonding and not participate in chemical bonding.
This leads to these elements exhibiting lower oxidation states than might be predicted based on their group
number.
The effect is more pronounced as you move down a group in the periodic table.
 Explanation:
• Poor Shielding:

The inner d and f orbitals do a poor job of shielding the outer s-electrons from the nucleus's attraction.
• Strong Nuclear Attraction:
This means the s-electrons are held tightly by the nucleus, making them less likely to be involved in
bonding.
• Lower Oxidation States:
As a result, the heavier p-block elements tend to form compounds with lower oxidation states than their
lighter counterparts.
Examples:
• Group 13:

Aluminum (Al) typically forms +3 ions, while the heavier thallium (Tl) often forms +1 ions.
• Group 14:
Tin (Sn) forms both +2 and +4 ions, but the +2 state becomes more stable for lead (Pb).
• Group 15:
Bismuth (Bi) shows a strong preference for the +3 state due to the inert pair effect.