Dr.

Vandana Rathore
Associate Professor
drvandana@jlu.edu.in

Engineering Physics
Unit-3

1
 Unit-3 Mechanical & Electronic Properties of Materials

Stress-strain relationship
Hooke’s law,
Torsional Pendulum,
Young’s modulus by cantilever,
Uniform and non-uniform bending,
Semiconductors and Insulators;
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,
Fermi energy and Variation of Fermi level with temperature,
Hall effect,
Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors (DMS) and their applications,

2
 Elasticity & Plasticity

The property of the body by virtue of which it

tends to regain its original shape or size on the
removal of deforming force is called elasticity.

The property of the body by virtue of which it tends

to retain the altered size and shape on removal of
deforming forces is called plasticity.

3
When the shape or size of a body has been altered by the
application of a force or a system of force, there is usually
some tendency for the body to recover its original shape
or size on the removal of force, there is usually some
tendency for the body to recover its original shape or size
on the removal of the force.

Photo: Top: Elasticity: If you stretch a rubber band and

release it, providing the stretching force isn't too great, it
returns exactly to its original shape and size, like the un
stretched rubber band on my palm.

Bottom: Plasticity: If you bend a paper clip with even a

small force, it's permanently deformed and stays in its
new shape unless you push it back again. Most soft
metals are actually "plastic" like this.
4
 Stress and Strain

 Stress is a quantity that characterizes the strength of the forces causing

the deformation, on a “force per unit area” basis.

 The deforming force per unite area of the body is called stress. The SI
unit of stress is the Pascal (abbreviated Pa, and named for the 17th
century French scientist and philosopher Blaise Pascal).
There are following three types of stress and strain
1. (Normal)Tensile stress and strain
2. Bulk stress and strain
3. Shear stress and strain
5
Normal
stress

Shear
stress

Bulk
Stress

6 6
Normal
strain

Table1:
Represe
Shear strain ntation
Note 1: the volume of the solid is of Stress
not changed by shear strain. & Strain
Types

Note 2: The angle is radians, not degrees.

Bulk
strain

7
 Hooke’s Law
Elastic limit

Elastic range
Stress Permanent set
0
Strain
The plot between stress and strain is called stress - strain diagram. It is clear from the graph that
Hooke’s law holds good only for the straight line portion of the curve
• Hooke’s law states that within the elastic limit, the stress developed is directly proportional to
the strain. The constant of proportionality is the elastic modulus ((or modulus of elasticity).

Stress
= elastic modulus (Hooke’s law)
Strain
8
 Elastic Modulus
Stress produces a strain, but how much strain is produced depends on the solid
itself. The solid is then characterized by an elastic modulus that relates strain to
stress.

There are three elastic moduli, related to the three stresses and strains.
1 Young’s modulus corresponding to longitudinal strain
2 Rigidity modulus, corresponding to shearing strain
3 Bulk modulus , corresponding to volume strain

9
Young's
Modulus

Rigidity
Modulus

Bulk
Modulus

10
The coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity indicates
that how a specimen behaves when subjected to given stress.
This has the same unit as stress that is N/m2 or Pa.

Elastic Modulus Definition Nature of strain

Young’s modulus Tensile stress/ Change of shape

(Y) Tensile strain and size

Bulk stress/ Change of size

Bulk modulus (B) Bulk strain but not shape
Shear modulus or
Shear stress/ Change of shape
Rigidity modulus
Shear strain but not size
(S)

11
Worked Example 1
• A steel rod 2.0 m long has a cross sectional area of 0.30 cm2. The rod is now
hung by one end from a support structure and a 550 kg milling machine is hung
from the rod’s lower end. The Young’s modulus of steel is 20x1010 Pa.
Determine the stress, the strain and the elongation of the rod.
F ( 550 kg )  ( 9 . 8 m / s 2 ) 8
Stress   5 2
 1 . 8  10 Pa
A 3 . 0  10 m
 Stress 1 . 8  10 8 Pa 4
Strain     9 . 0  10
o Y 20  10 10 Pa

Elongation =  = (strain) x  o = (9.0x10 -4) (2.0m)

= 0.0018m = 1.8mm

12
 Worked Example 2
 A box – shaped piece of gelatin dessert has a top area of 15cm2 and a height of
3cm. When a shearing force of 0.50N is applied to the upper surface, the upper
surface displaces 4mm relative to the bottom surface. What are the shearing
stress, the shearing strain, and the shear modulus for the gelatin?
tan gential force 0 . 50 N
Shear stress    333 Pa
area of face 15  10  4 m 2

displaceme nt 0 . 4 cm
Shear strain    0 . 1333
height 3 cm

s tre s s 333Pa
S h e a rM o d u lu s    2 .5 k P a
s tra in 0 .1 3 3

13
 Worked example 3
• The bulk modulus of water is 2.1Gpa. Calculate the volume contraction
of 100mL of water when subjected to a pressure of 1.5Mpa.

Bulk modulus B= ∆P/(∆V/V0)

∆V=V0(∆P)/B

V 
100 mL   1 . 5  10 6 Pa 
2 . 1  10 9 Pa
 0 . 071 mL

14
 Torsion Pendulum: A torsion pendulum is an oscillator for
which the restoring force is torsion.
Description: The device as shown in Fig. below consisting of a disc or other
body of large moment of inertia mounted on one end of a torsionally flexible
elastic rod wire whose other end is held fixed; if the disc is twisted and
released, it will undergo simple harmonic motion, provided the torque in the
rod is proportional to the angle of twist.

15
Theory:-
• When the mass (disc) is twisted about the axis of the wire, the wire exerts a
torque on the mass, tending to rotate it back to its original position. If
twisted and released, the mass will oscillate back and forth, executing
simple harmonic motion. This is the angular version of the bouncing mass
hanging from a spring. This gives an idea of moment of inertia.
• If angle is sufficiently small that the rod is not plastically deformed, the rod
exerts a torque (τ) proportional to the angle. So
• τ = -kθ (1) like F = -kx for a spring
• Where k (greek letter kappa) is called torsional constant. The minus sign
indicates that the direction of the torque vector is opposite to the angle
vector . So the torque tends to undo the twist. This is like hooks' law for
spring.
16
If a mass with moment of inertia I is attached
to the rod, the torque will give the mass an
angular acceleration (α) according to The above equations shows that
angular acceleration is proportional to
d 2 the angular displacement and is always
  I  I 2
.......... ..( 2 ) directed towards mean position. Hence
dt
motion of the disc is SHM and the time
d 2x period of the vibration will be given by
( likeF  ma  m 2
)
dt
Comparing equation 1 and 2
Displaceme nt 
2 T  2  2
d  Accelerati on k 
I 2
  K   
dt  I 

d 2 K
I
   .......... .....( 3 ) T  2 .......... ( 4 )
dt 2 I k

17
Uses of Torsion Pendulum:

1.For determining the moment of inertia of an irregular body:

For determine the moment of inertia of irregular body the torsion
pendulum is found to be very useful.
First the time period of the pendulum is determine when it is empty and

Then the time period is determine after placing a regular body on the disc
and after this the time period is determined by replacing the regular body by
the irregular body whose moment of inertia is to be determine.

If I ,I1,I2 are the moment of inertia of the disc, regular body, irregular body
and T,T1,T2 are the time periods in the three cases respectively, then
18
 I 4 2
I1
T  2 .......... ...( 4 ) 2
T1  T 2
 .........( 7)
k k
2
2 2 4 I2
T2  T  .......... .( 8 )
I  I1 k
T1  2  .......... .( 5 )
k Divide 7 by 8
2
2 2
4 I1
T1  T k I1
I  I2  2
 ...( 9 )
T2  2 .......... ...( 6 ) T 22  T 2
4 I2 I2
k k
T 22  T 2
I 2  I1  ....( 10 )
 From equations 4 and 5 and 6 we have T12  T 2

The moment of inertia of the regular body I1 is determined with the help of the dimensions of the body,
thus the moment of inertia of the irregular body is calculated.
19
2. Determination of Torsional Rigidity

• For determining the modulus of rigidity N the time

period of the pendulum is found
(i) when the disc is empty and
(ii) when a regular body is placed on the disc with the
axis of wire passing through the centre of gravity of
the body.
(iii) If T is the time period of the pendulum in first case
and T1 in the second case, then we have

20
 • For a wire of modulus
I of rigidity N, length
T  2 ......( 11 )
k and radius r, we have
4
I  I1  Nr
T1  2  ........( 12 ) k  ......( 15 )
k 2l

From eq. 11 and 12 we have From equation 14 and 15

4 2 I1  Nr 4
 ......( 16 )
4 2 I 1 T1 2  T 2 2l
T12  T 2  .......( 13 )
k N 
8  lI 1
........( 17 )
4 2
I1
T 1
2
 T 2) r 4

k  ........( 14 )
T12  T 2 Thus the value of N can be
determined

21
Worked Example: A torsional pendulum is made using a steelwire of diameter
0.5mm and sphere of diameter 3cm. The rigidity modulus of steel is 80 Gpa and
density of the material is 11300kg/m3. If the period of oscillation is 2 second,
find the length of the wire. For sphere I = 2/5 MR2

8  lI 1 4
N   0 .5 
T 1
2
 T 2

) r 4 9 2
80  10  2  
 2
 10  3 

M=volume X density
l
8    0 . 14382  10  4
M= 4/3π(3/2x10-2)3x11300= 0.1598Kg
= 5.531 m
I = 2/5x 0.1598x(3/2x10-2)2=0.14382x10-4 kgm2.

NT 2 r 4
l 
8 I

22
 Bending of Beams:
Uniform and non-uniform bending

• Let the beam be clamped horizontally

at the end A and loaded by weight W
at other end B. It undergoes bending.
Filament of outward side of the
beam are elongated and undergo
tension while filaments of inner
side are compressed as shown in
Fig. 2
• It is obvious that the length of the
filament increases or decreases in
proportion to its distance away from
the neutral axis (NN’).
23
• Bending Moment of Beam: The extended
filament lying above the neutral axis MN are in
state of tension and exert an inward pull on the
filament adjacent to them towards the fixed
end of the beam. In the same way the
shortened filament lying below the neutral
axis MN are in state of compression and exert
an outward push on the filaments adjacent to
them towards the loaded end of the beam. As a
result tensile and compressive stress develop
in the upper and lower halves of the beam
respectively and form a couple which opposes
to bending of the beam. The moment of this
couple is called the moment of the resistance.
When the beam in equilibrium position the
bending moment and resorting moment or
moment of resistance should be equal. 24
• Let R be radius of curvature be part of PB
and ф be the angle subtended by it at the
centre of curvature.
• In unstrained position of the beam, the
length of the fiber A’B’ = MN = Rф.
• In the strained position the length of the
fiber A’B’=(R+r)ф.
• Strain in the fiber A’B’ = change in
length/original length

strain 
R  r   R  
r
R• R .............(1)

• i.e. strain is proportional to the distance

from the neutral axis
25
26
 6

Y
I g .....( 7)
R
27
In equilibrium bending moment of the beam is equal and
opposite to the moment of bending couple due to the load on
one end.
Therefore bending moment of the beam = The quantity YIg
(=YAK2) is called flexural rigidity of the beam. Flexural
rigidity is defined as the bending moment required to
produced a unit radius of curvature.

28
Uniform Bending:
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent forms
an arc of a circle. The elevation in the beam is produced.
This bending is called uniform bending.
Consider a beam AB arranged horizontally on two knife edges C
and D so that AC=BD as shown in figure given below.

29
Uniform Bending:
The beam is loaded uniformly on its
both ends, the bent forms an arc of a
circle. The elevation in the beam is
produced. This bending is called
uniform bending.
Consider a beam AB arranged
horizontally on two knife edges C
and D so that AC=BD as shown in
Fig.1.12

The beam is loaded with equal weights W and W at the ends A and B.
The reaction on the knife edges at C and D are equal to W and W acting
vertical upwards.
The external bending moment on the part AF of the beam is
= W x AF – W x CF = W (AF-CF)
= W x AC = W x a .............................................(1)
30
 Y
Internal bending moment = I g
R
• Since for a given value of W, the values
• Where Y = Young’s modulus of of a, Y and Ig are constant so that the
the material of the bar beam is bent uniformly into an arc of a
• Ig = Geometrical moment of circle of radius R.
inertia • CD = l and y is the elevation of the
• R = Radius of curvature of the bar midpoint E of the beam so that y = EF
at F
• In the equilibrium position,
External bending moment
= internal bending moment
Y
Wa  I g ........( 3 )
R
1 wa

R YI g
31
• EF (2R-EF) = (CE x ED) (4)
From the property of circles
• y(2R-y) = (l/2 x l/2)
2
l
• y(2R-y) =   (5)
2
l2 
2 yR   
 4 
(since y2 is very small so negligible) (6)

 l2 
y   ........( 7 )
 8R 
1 8y
 2 ........( 8 )
R l

32
• From equation 3 and 8

8y
Wa  2
YI g
l
2
Wl a
Y  .........( 9)
8I g y
If the beam is of rectangular cross section,
3
bd
Ig 
12
Where b is the breath and d is the thickness of beam. If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W = Mg

2
3 Mgl a
Y  3
2 bd y
For which the Y the young’s modulus of the material of the bar is determined.

33
Non-Uniform Bending
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression produced will not
form an arc of a circle. This type of bending is called non-uniform
bending. Consider a uniform beam (or rod or bar) AB of length l arranged
horizontally on two knife edges K1 and K2 near the ends A and B as
shown in Figure.

34
• A weight W is applied at the midpoint E of the beam.
• The reaction at each knife edge is equal to W/2 in the upward direction and ‘y’ is the
depression at the midpoint E.
• The bent beam is considered to be equivalent to two single inverted cantilevers, fixed
at E each of length  l  and each loaded at K1 and K2 with a weight W
 
2 2

W/2 W/2
E
A B
K1 K2

35
In the case of a cantilever of length l and load W,
W l3
the depression =
3I g Y
 W 
Hence, for cantilever of length   and load   , the depression
 2 2
is
3
W  l 
  
y=  2   2  .......( 1)
3 Ig Y

36
• or W l3
y ........( 2 )
48 I g Y
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W

W = Mg…………(3)
3
bd
If the beam is a rectangular cross section, Ig 
12

where b is the breadth and d is the thickness of

the beam.

Mgl 3 Mgl 3  12 Mgl 3

y y y Nm 2
bd 3 48 bd 3 Y 3
48 Y 4 bd Y
12
The value of young,s modulus Y can be determined by the above equation

37
Objective Questions: (T/F)
1. In equilibrium position, External bending moment = internal bending moment

2. The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent forms an arc of a circle. The
elevation in the beam is produced. This bending is called non uniform bending.
3. If the beam is loaded at its mid point, the depression i produced will not form an arc
of a circle. This type of bending is called non uniform bending.

  I 2
4.

5. Time Period of an Torsional Pendulum is given by I

T  2
k

38
Q.1 ______________is a quantity that characterizes the strength of the forces causing the deformation, on a
force per unit area basis.
(a) Stress (b) Strain (c) Accelerating are due to Gravity (d) Surface Tension

Q.2 The resultant of the moments of all internal couples is called______________.

(a)Viscosity (b) Internal Bending Moment (c) External Bending (d) Surface Tension

Q.3 __________is defined as the bending moment required to produce a unit radius of curvature.
(a)Young’s Modulus (b) Rigidity Modulus (c) Flexural Rigidity (d) Torque

Q.4 The point at which the straight line drawn parallel to the elastic portion of the stress strain curve
interests the stress – strain curve is called.
(a) Yield Strength (b) Rupture Point (c) Elastic Unit (d) Ultimate Tensile Stress

https://www.sanfoundry.com/strength-materials-questions-answers-bending-stress/

39
• Short Answer Type Questions:
1. Define the terms elasticity and plasticity with the help of examples.
2. State Hooke’s Law. Explain it by using a stress and strain diagram.
3. Define different type of rigidity modulus of the materials with diagrams.
• Long Answer Type Questions:
1. Describe torsional pendulum with necessary theory, derivation.
2. Describe application of torsional pendulum for determining the moment of inertia of an irregular body.
3. Determination rigidity modulus of a torsional pendulum
(i) when the disc is empty and
(ii) when a regular body is placed on the disc with the axis of wire passing through the centre of gravity of
the body.
(iii) If T is the time period of the pendulum in first case and T1 in the second case, then we have
4. Explain uniform bending with necessary theory, derivation and describe an experiment to determine young's
modulus of the material.
5. Explain non uniform bending with necessary theory, derivation and describe an experiment to determine
young's modulus of the material.
40
Questions:
• 1 Define the terms elasticity and plasticity with the help of examples.
• 2 State Hooke’s Law. Explain it by using a stress and strain diagram.
• 3 Define different type of rigidity modulus of the material with diagrams.
Objective questions:
• 1 Young’s modulus corresponding to ……………..strain.
• 2 Hooke’s law =……………..
• True or false
• 1 In Young’s modulus of shape and size of object do not change.
• 2 In Bulk modulus size of object changes but shape does not change.
• 3 In shear modulus size of object changes but shape does not change.
• 4 Tensile stress is =Force x Pressure

drvandana@jlu.edu.in 41
Hall Effect is a process in which a transverse electric field is
developed in a solid material when the material carrying an
electric current is placed in a magnetic field that is
perpendicular to the current. Hall Effect was discovered by
Edwin Herbert Hall in 1879.
Principle of Hall Effect
The principle of Hall Effect states that when a current-
carrying conductor or a semiconductor is introduced to a
perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage can be measured at
the right angle to the current path. This effect of obtaining a
measurable voltage is known as the Hall Effect.

42
 Hall Effect
When a piece of conductor (metal or semi conductor)
carrying a current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an
electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction
normal to both the current and the magnetic field.
This phenomenon is known as the Hall Effect and the
generated voltage is called the Hall voltage.
Y
Hall effect
B
I
G
D

O
F X
E C
EH
A
B
Z
 Consider a conventional current flow through the strip along OX and a
magnetic field of induction B is applied along axis OY.

Case – I: If the Material is N-Type Semi Conductor (or) Metal

 If the strip is made up of metal or N-type semiconductor, the charge

carriers in the strip will be electrons.
 As conventional current flows along OX, the electrons must be moving
along XO.
 If the velocity of the electrons is `v’ and charge of the electrons is `e’, the
force on the electrons due to the magnetic field

F =  Bev, …….1 which acts along OZ.

 This causes the electrons to be deflected and the electrons
accumulate at the face ABEF.
 Face ABEF will become negative and the face OCDG
becomes positive.
 A potential difference is established across faces ABEF
and OCDG, causing a field EH.

Hall effect for n type semiconductor

 This field gives rise to a force of `eEH’ on the electrons in the
opposite direction. (i.e, in the negative Z direction)

At equilibrium, -eEH = -Be (or) EH = B …………..2

If J is the current density, then, J =  ne ………3

where `n’ is the concentration of current carriers.

J
v=  ne
Substitute the value of `’ in eqn……..2
BJ
EH =
 ne
 E H  BJ
E H  R H BJ
The electric force
E H
R H 
BJ
The Hall Effect is described by means of the Hall coefficient `RH’ in terms of current density `J’ by
the relation,

BJ 1
RH  
 neBJ ne
All the three quantities EH, J and B are measurable, the Hall coefficient RH and
hence the carrier density `n’ can be found out.
Case – (ii) If the material is a P-type semi
conductor
 If the strip is a P-type semiconductor,
the charge carriers in the strip will be holes.
 The holes will constitute current in the
direction of conventional current. Y
 Holes move along the direction of the B
B
conventional current itself along ox v
F
e on G
rc D
Fo le
ho
O
F X
E C
I
Hall effect for p type semiconductor
A
B
Z
 If `e’ is the charge of the hole, the force experienced by the holes
due to magnetic field is, F = Be , which acts along OZ.
This causes the holes to accumulate on the face ABEF – making it
positive, and leaving the face OCDG as negative.

P-type semiconductor, RH = 1/pe , where p = the density of holes.

Y
B
B
v
F
e on G
rc D
Fo le
ho
O
F X
E C
I
A
B
Z
 Determination of Hall coefficient

We know that, RH = EH/ BJ ………..1

If `w’ is the width of the sample across which the Hall voltage is measured, then
EH = VH/ w …………2
Substituting the value of EH in the above eqn

RH = VH/ wBJ (or)

VH = RHwBJ………………3

If the thickness of the sample is `t’, the its cross sectional area A = wt, and the current density,
I I
J  .......... ..4
A wt

drvandana@jlu.edu.in
Substitute the value of `J ’ from eqn…..3
R H w.B .I R .B .I
VH   H VH will be opposite in sign for P and N type
wt t
V t
semiconductors.
RH  H
IB
Applications of Hall effect
(1) Determination of N-type of semiconductor
For a N-type semiconductor, the Hall coefficient is
negative whereas for a P-type semiconductor, it is positive. Thus from
the direction of the Hall voltage developed, one can find out the type
of semiconductor.
(2) Calculation of carrier concentration: Once Hall coefficient RH is
measured, the carrier concentration can be obtained,
(3) Determination of mobility
(4) Measurement of magnetic fluxdrvandana@jlu.edu.in
density.
Applications of Hall Effect
Hall effect principle is employed in the following cases:
Magnetic field sensing equipment
For the measurement of direct current, Hall effect Tong Tester is used.
It is used in phase angle measurement
Proximity detectors
Hall effect Sensors and Probes
Linear or Angular displacement transducers
For detecting wheel speed and accordingly assist the anti-lock braking
system.

52
DILUTE MAGNETIC SEMICONDUCTORS: Introduction: DMS = Semiconductors with
dilute concentration of magnetic dopants. Dilute or diluted magnetic
semiconductors (DMS) also referred to as semi magnetic semiconductors, are
alloys whose lattices are made up in part of substitutional magnetic atoms. DMS
materials are used in (hard disks, magnetic tapes, magneto optical disks)

Applications:
1. Diluted magnetic semiconductors (DMS) are expected to play an role in
interdisciplinary materials science and future electronics .
2. It is expected that magnetoelectronic important chips will be used in quantum
computers.
3. An inherent advantage of magnetoelectronics over electronics is the fact that
magnet tend to stay magnetized for long. Hence this arises interest in industries
to replace the semiconductor-based components of computer with magnetic
ones, starting from RAM.
4. These DMS materials are very attractive for integration of photonic
(light-emitting diodes), electronic (field effect transistors), and magnetic (memory)
devices on a single substrate.
 Objective questions:

• 1 when the temperature is increased, in an n-type semiconductors,

more……..atoms are ionized.
A donor B acceptor c valence d core
2 ……….are alloys whose lattice are made up in part of substitutional
magnetic atoms.
A donor B DMS c superconductor d resistors
3 The Fermi level gradually moves towards up the intrinsic Fermi level
in……………….semiconductors
A n-type B p-type c intrinsic d conduction
4 The Fermi level gradually moves towards down the intrinsic Fermi level
in……………….semiconductors
A n-type B p-type c intrinsic d conduction
 Important Questions

1. When a piece of conductor carrying a current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an

electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current and
the magnetic field. Prove the statement.
OR BJ 1
RH  
 Prove the derivation for the hall effect,  neBJ ne
If the Material is N-Type Semi Conductor

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