INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 A computer is a device that works under the control of stored programs,
automatically accepting, storing and processing data to produce information that is
the result of processing.

WHY USE COMPUTERS?

 Computers are fast in processing data

 Computers are accurate i.e. they give accurate results provided you give
accurate input
 Computers can handle large volumes of data
 They can undertake complex operations effectively
 They process information at less cost than a manual system
 They improve the scope and quality of management information(as a result of
the computer’s presentation and complex computation capabilities)
 They are able to take in large amounts of information and to store that
information in a small space for future retrieval or use
 Computers can work continuously for 24 hours a day
 Today computers can be used to exchange messages or data through computer
networks all over the world

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

A computer is made up of hardware and software. The diagram below illustrates the
basic components of a computer and their subcategories:

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 COMPUTER

Hardware Software
Input Systems software
Processing Application softwa
Output
Storage
Aaall

All devices external to the CPU and main memory are known as peripherals i.e. input
devices, output devices and auxiliary/storage/backing/secondary storage

Hardware

These are the physical components of a computer system. Hardware can be

subcategorized into four areas namely:

 Input
 Processing
 Output
 Storage

INPUT

 This is the entering of data into the computer system.

 Input devices accept user commands in a form the computer can use and sends
them into the computer for processing.
 Input devices include keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital camera,
joystick and document readers such as magnetic ink character reader (MICR), optical
character reader (OCR) and optical mark reader (OMR) etc.

Methods of input

i. Online data input- the operator directly enters data from a keyboard onto a
backing storage source
ii. Offline data input- involves the preparation of the input data in a machine
readable format off-line, then inputs directly from the machine readable format
to the backing source.

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 iii. Special purpose input- involves either the computer itself or a special
microprocessor ready characters or marks on some input device.

TITLE
Online input Keyboards with visual display Device connected directly
units(VDU), point of sale equipment to the computer
Offline input Magnetic tape, Magnetic disk Operator works
independent of the
computer
Special purpose OMR, OCR, MICR, Bar coding Machines read data from a
input document and transmit it
to the computer

Input Devices

Mouse (pointing device)

 A mouse is a device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display
screen.

Keyboard
A keyboard contains a set of typewriter like keys that enable you to enter data in the
computer. The keys on computer keyboards are often classified as follows:
a. Alphanumeric keys - letters and numbers
b. Punctuation keys - comma, period, semicolon etc.
c. Special keys - function keys, control keys, arrow keys, Caps Lock key etc.
The standard keyboard layout that we use is known as a QWERTY keyboard because the
first six keys on the top row of letters spell QWERTY. Local computer stores sell
keyboards with the Maltese characters.

Numeric keypads
Used in automatic teller machines where customers can key in their PIN and amount of
data.

Trackball

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A trackball is a pointing device. Essentially, a trackball is a mouse lying on its back. To
move the pointer, you rotate the ball with your thumb, your fingers, or the palm of your
hand.
The trackball usually has two or three buttons next to the ball. These buttons are used in
the same way that you use mouse buttons. The trackball, unlike the mouse, is stationary
and so it does not require much space to use it.

Scanner
A scanner is a device that transfers printed text and images to a computer. There are
different types of scanners – the flatbed scanners being the most common. Other types
of scanners are sheet-fed scanners and handheld scanners.

Flatbed Scanners

The most commonly used scanner is a flatbed scanner also known as

desktop scanner. It has a glass plate on which the picture or the
document is placed. The scanner head placed beneath the glass plate
moves across the picture and the result is a good quality scanned
image. For scanning large maps.

Sheet-fed Scanners

Sheet fed scanners work on a principle similar to that of a fax

machine. In this, the document to be scanned is moved past the
scanning head and the digital form of the image is obtained. The
disadvantage of this type of scanner is that it can only scan loose
sheets and the scanned image can easily become distorted if the
document is not handled properly while scanning.

Handheld Scanners

Hand-held scanners although portable, can only scan images up to

about four inches wide. They require a very steady hand for moving the
scan head over the document. They are useful for scanning small logos
or signatures and are virtually of no use for scanning maps and
photographs.

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Magnetic Strip Reader
This input device reads a magnetic strip on a card. Handy for security reasons, it
provides quick identification of the card's owner. This method is used to run bank cash
points or to provide quick identification of people entering buildings
A Credit card showing
the magnetic strip

Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

MICR is used by banks to process cheques. The account details at the bottom of the
cheque can be accurately read in this manner since MICR is not affected by dirt.

b A cheque
detailing the MICR number

Optical Mark Reader

The Optical Mark Reader (OMR) can read information in the form of numbers or letters
and put it into the computer. The marks have to be precisely located as in multiple
choice test papers.

A sample multiple choice answer

paper

Bar Code Reader

Bar codes can be used on goods in supermarkets, libraries and on magazines. Bar codes provide
a quick method of recording the sale of items. A bar code is a pattern printed in lines of differing
thickness. The system gives fast and error free entry of information into the computer system.

Bar code

Touchpad
A touchpad is a small, touch-sensitive pad used as a pointing device on most laptop
computers. By moving a finger or other object along the pad, you can move the pointer
on the display screen. Tapping the pad is equivalent to clicking the mouse.

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Stylus
A stylus is a pointing and drawing device shaped like a pen used on digitizing tablets or
touch screens on mobile phones. The stylus is used to move the pointer and select
objects on the display screen.

Joystick
A joystick is a lever that moves in all directions and controls the movement of a pointer
or some other display symbol. It is similar to the aircraft control stick. Joysticks typically
include two buttons called triggers and are used mostly for computer games, training
simulators and controlling robots.

Web camera or Webcam

A webcam is a device used to hold video communications over Internet. Typically
webcams are used with communication programs such as Skype and MSN Messenger.
Through webcams users are able to see each other and movements in real time.
Webcams can be used to record video files and to take still pictures. External webcams
connect to the computer through USB ports. Most laptops have in-built webcams.

Digital camera
A digital camera is an electronic camera that uses a light-sensitive processor chip to
capture photographic images in digital form on a small diskette inserted in the camera

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or on flash-memory chips. Once a picture has been taken, it can be transferred to the
computer, and then manipulated with a graphics program and printed.
Digital photos can be incorporated in word-processing documents, presentations, sent
by email or posted on a web site. The resolution of the digital photos is limited by the
optical resolution of the digital camera. Digital photos are quicker and cheaper to
process compared to film photos.

Microphone
A microphone is a device that allows sound signals to be converted into digital files that
may be stored on the computer. Microphones can be stand-alone or incorporated with
headphones or in-built in laptops.

Voice-recognition software uses a microphone to convert a person’s speech into digital

signals by comparing the electrical patterns produced by the speaker’s voice with a set
of pre-recorded patterns stored in the computer. Microphones are also used along with
Internet telephony software to communicate with other people via Internet.

MIDI Devices
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a system designed to transmit information
between electronic musical instruments. A MIDI musical keyboard can be attached to a
computer and allow a performer to play music that is captured by the computer system as a
sequence of notes with the associated timing (instead of recording digitized sound waves).

Graphic Tablet

A Graphic tablet is a pointing device that facilitates the accurate input of drawings and
designs. A drawing can be placed directly on the tablet, and the user traces outlines or
inputs coordinate positions with a hand-held stylus.

A graphic tablet with pen

Sensors
Used to input data to a computer. Used in monitoring and controlling systems.

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PROCESSING

Processing is done by the central processing unit (CPU) also known as the processor or
microprocessor. The CPU is the brain of the computer and it is responsible for
processing data and instructions. The CPU is composed of the Control Unit, Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU) and registers.

Control Unit
The control unit is the command centre of the processor. It generates command signals
that are used to control the operations of all devices in the computer system. The
control unit thus maintains order within the computer system and directs the flow of
traffic (operations) and data. The control unit retrieves instructions from memory and
executes them accordingly. It is responsible for keeping each part of the computer in
proper synchronization. The primary functions of the control unit can be summarized as:
 To read and interpret program instructions
 To direct the operations of internal processor components
 To control the flow of programs and data in and out of RAM.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit performs arithmetic operations such as additions,
multiplication, subtraction and division. It also performs logical operations such as AND,
OR, NAND, NOT and NOR. The actual processing or execution of programs or data
happens in the ALU

Registers
The registers are temporary storage locations found inside the processor. They store
information during processing. The processor executes instructions sequentially (one
after another) hence sub results have to be temporarily stored in registers before they
are recalled for further processing.

Computer Speed
The processor speed also referred to as the clock speed is the rate at which instructions
are executed by the processor. A processor speed is measured in megahertz (MHz)
which means millions of cycles or instructions per second.

OUTPUT
This is the displaying of the results of the processing to the user. Output devices accept
results or data generated by the computer and present this information to the user in a
variety of different means. Output can be in the form of hard copy, softcopy and sound.

 Softcopy - refers to output that can be display on a monitor. A soft copy output
can be referred to as a digital document.

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  Hardcopy - refers to output from a printer or a plotter. Unlike softcopy output,
hardcopy output can be viewed without the need of the computer.
 Sound – refers to output from the speakers

Examples of output devices are printers, monitors, speakers etc.

Printers
Printers produce “hard copies” printed on permanent material. The two categories of
printers are impact and non-impact printers.

Impact Printers
Impact printers are the oldest print technologies still in active production. They are most
functional in specialized environments where low-cost printing is essential such as for
back office printing. Impact Printers use a print head containing a number of metal pins
which strike an inked ribbon placed between the print head and the paper. Some print
heads have only 9 pins to make the dots to build up a character; some have 24 pins
which produce a better resolution.

Ink ribbon used by impact printers

An impact printer showing detail of print head

The three most common forms of impact printers are dot-matrix, daisy-wheel, and line
printers.
Dot-Matrix Printers
It uses a print head to strike the printer ribbon imprints ink dots on the paper which
form human-readable characters. It is ideal for environments that must produce carbon
copies through the use of special multi-part documents.
Each character is made as a group of small dots.

Multi part document

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Examples of dot matrix printers include Epson LX300, Epson LX780 and Citizen Prodot
24s.

Advantages
 Low purchase cost.
 Have one of the lowest printing costs per page
 Can handle multipart forms or make carbon copies.
 They are able to use continuous paper rather that individual sheets
 Low repair cost.
 They can withstand unclean or dusty environment whereas Inkjet or laser jet
printers require clean environment
 Using these printers require negligible operator training
 They are reliable in situations where printed content is more important than
quality

Disadvantages
 They are noisy since the print head has direct contact with the print material
 Produces low quality print particularly for pictures
 They have limited color performance.
 They have lower speeds compared to non impact printers.

Daisy-wheel Printers
It uses the same printing technology as a typewriter.

A daisy wheel showing detail of the characters

Advantages
 They are not expensive
 Can produce letter-quality text
 They can be used for carbon copy printing
 They are able to use continuous paper rather that individual sheets
Disadvantages
 They produce more noise than dot matrix printers when printing
 They cannot print graphics.
 They can print only one type of font hence to change font you have to manually
replace the print wheel
 They are slow
Line printers

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Line Printers are high-speed impact printers in which one line of type is printed at a
time. These printers are similar to dot matrix printers, however, Line Printers use paper
that is provided in boxes of continuous fan folds rather than cut sheets. Line Printers are
still popular for accounting and other business and bookkeeping applications.

Non impact printers

There are three types of non impact printers:
 Ink jet printers
 Laser printers
 Thermal printers

Inkjet printers
Mostly used at home or office with low volume printing needs
Examples of inkjet printers include Canon BJC 620, HP 610C, HP590C, Epson Stylus
Colour 300 and HP859C
Advantages of inkjet printers
 High resolution output
 Quiet
 Small footprint
 Cheaper than laser printer
Disadvantages of inkjet printers
 Higher cost per page than laser printers
 Slower than laser printers
 Printing can smudge is the user is not careful.
 High cost of print catridges

Ink catridges

Laser Printers

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Laser printers use a laser beam and dry powdered ink to produce a fine dot matrix
pattern. It uses the principle of a photocopier and uses a laser beam to print characters
onto a page. Laser printers use toner catridges as consumables.
Examples include HP LaserJet 1100, HP LaserJet 2100, HP LaserJet 4L and Epson EPC
5700.

Advantages of Laser Printers

 High resolution output
 Fast
 Quiet
 Low cost per page
 Can hold very large print Jobs.
Disadvantages of Laser Printers
 High purchase price.

Thermal Printers
Characters are formed by heated elements being placed in contact with special heat
sensitive paper forming darkened dots when the elements reach a critical temperature.

A fax machine uses a thermal

printer

All –in One (multifunction) Printers

The all-in-one printer has emerged as the choice in the home or office with copier,
scanner, and fax needs, too.
Advantages of All-in-One Printers
 Can function as a printer, a scanner, a copier, and a fax machine
 Get four functions for the price of 1 or 2
 Functional specifications close to separate devices (output quality, speed, and so on)
Disadvantages of All-in-One Printers
 Can handle only one function at a time

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  Larger footprint than a comparable printer

Factors to consider when buying a printer

 The quality of the printout normally referred to as print resolution.
 The speed of the printer measured as pages per minute (ppm), characters per
second (cps) or lines per minute (lpm).

Plotters
A plotter is a graphics printer that draws images with multi colored ink pens. Plotters are
large-scale printers that are very accurate at reproducing line drawings. They are
commonly used for technical drawings such as engineering drawings or architectural
blueprints in scientific and engineering sectors. The output includes graphs, drawings,
charts, maps etc. The two basic types of plotters are called flatbed plotters and drum
plotters.

i. Flatbed plotter is a plotter where the paper is fixed on a flat surface and pens are
moved to draw the image. This plotter can use several different colour pens to draw
with. The size of the plot is limited only by the size of the plotter's bed.

Top view of a flat bled plotter

ii. Drum plotters, also called upright plotters, are vertically positioned. They have a
drum that the paper rolls on. Drum plotters usually make more noise and are more
compact than flatbed plotters.

Speakers
Speakers can be plugged into the back of computers carrying a sound card. The sound
card is used to capture as well as play back recorded sounds. The speakers enhance the
multimedia capabilities of computers.

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Voice synthesis has a robotic sound due to the difficulties of replicating the complexities
of human speech and pronunciation. Voice answer back (VAB) is used to respond to
telephone enquiries, such as the speaking clock.

Headphones
Headphones are typically plugged into the front of computers. These are used to hear
sound coming out of the computer. Some headphones incorporate also a microphone.

Monitors
Monitors are devices used to display information from the computer. They are also
reffered to as visual display units (VDU). There are two main types of monitor screens
namely Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Thin film Transistor - Liquid Crystal Display (TFT -
LCD) normally reffered to as flat screens.
CRT monitors are old generation monitors that are large, bulky and heavy. They
however are durable.
Today’s LCD monitors are flat, more attractive, take up minimal desk space and are
relatively light weight. They also consume less power compared to CRT screens

CRT monitor LCD/ TFT monitor

Projectors
A video projector takes a video signal and projects the corresponding image on a
projection screen using a lens system. All video projectors use a very bright light to
project the image, and most modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness, and other
inconsistencies through manual settings. Video projectors are widely used for
conference room presentations, classroom training, and home theatre application.

INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES
Some devices e.g. touch screens and modems can serve as both input and output devices.

Touch screens
Touch screens used in some restaurants and some ATMs (Automated Teller Machines)
can also be used as both input and output devices. Users can input requests for

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information by pressing buttons or menus displayed. The answers to users’ requests are
displayed as output in words or pictures on the screen.

A touch sensitive monitor

Modems
Modems are used as input devices when these receive information from the Internet
(such as email). They are used as output devices when sending information (such as
email) to a recipient.

Terminals
It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two types: hard
copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal provides a printout on
paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on monitor. A terminal when
connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also
classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon the work
situation.

STORAGE

This is the keeping of information for future reference. Storage devices can be
classified into two areas namely:

 Primary storage
 Secondary storage

Primary Storage
Primary storage is also known as main memory. It is subdivided into Random Access
Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM) and Cache Memory.

i. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory temporarily stores jobs when the computer is processing. It is
volatile meaning when the power is switched off data is lost from the computer. It is
directly accessible to the processor. The more RAM you have the better the
performance of your computer. RAM is normally referred to as main memory or simply
memory. Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory. Because of this
the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory

ii. Cache Memory

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Cache memory is an advanced form of RAM. It sits between microprocessors and RAM.
It is used to help speed up the performance of the computer by keeping frequently used
data and instructions. Today’s technology allows integrating the cache memory into the
processor hence improving the speed of data and instruction access by the processor.
Two common layers of cache memory are Level1 (L1) cache and Level 2 (L2) cache.
Normally the L1 cache is integrated into the processor and the L2 cache is found just
outside the processor.

RAM CACHE MEMORY PROCESSOR

iii. Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read Only Memory is non volatile memory that is it continues storing its contents even if
power is switched off. It is used to permanently store programs about the computer’s
configuration settings e.g. booting up programs are stored in ROM chips as well as
instructions that enable hardware devices to communicate.
You can only read data from ROM, and you cannot write into it. Programs are normally
written into ROM during the manufacturing process and once written the data cannot be
erased. There are however other variations of ROM which include:
a. PROM (programmable read-only memory) - a PROM is a memory chip on which
you can store a program or write data to it. Once the PROM has been used, you
cannot wipe it clean and use it to store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are
non-volatile.
b. EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) - an EPROM is a special
type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
c. EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) - an EEPROM
is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical
charge.

Computer memory
A bit is a binary digit (1’s and 0’s). It is the basic unit to measure the size of memory in
the computer. Computer memory is however measured in bytes

Equivalent to
1 bit Either 0 or 1
8 bits 1 byte (one character)
1024 bytes 1Kilobyte (Kb)
1024Kb 1Megabyte(Mb)
1024Mb 1Gigabyte(Gb)
1024Gb 1Terrabyte(Tb)

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Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is often referred to as auxiliary storage. It is used for permanent
storage of data. Examples of secondary storage devices include hard disks, floppy
diskettes, magnetic tapes and flash disks. Secondary storage differs from primary
storage in that it is not directly accessible to the CPU. The computer usually uses its
input and output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data
using intermediate area in a primary storage. Secondary storage media are said to be
non volatile that is in the event of a power cut data stored in any given medium is not
lost.

Secondary storage can be categorized into:

i. Optical storage media

It makes use of random access technology to access data stored in a secondary storage.
Examples of optical storage media are CD and DVD drives.

a. CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read-only memory)

A CD–ROM is an optical disk containing data, which has been written and can be read
through the use of a laser beam. CD-ROMs are read-only media i.e. data on CD-ROMS
cannot be erased or modified – it can only be read. CD-ROM disks have large storage
capacities of about 700MB. Typically, these disks are used to distribute large databases
(catalogues) and reference encyclopedias (e.g. Encarta, Britannica etc).
Other types of optical disks include CD-R and CD-RW.
 CD-R (CD-Recordable) - disks can be written to once. Data on CD-R disks can be
read but cannot be modified or deleted. They are also called Write Once Read
Many(WORM)
 CD-RW (CD-Rewritable) - disks can be erased and written to over and over again.

b. DVD (Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video Disk)

DVDs are very similar to CD-ROMs but they can store much more data than CDs. DVDs
have storage capacities which range from 4.7GB to 17GB. Typically these disks are used
for full-length movies, advanced multimedia games and interactive encyclopedias.

ii. Semiconductor storage media

It makes use of random access technology to access data on a storage media. Examples
are RAM and Flash Disk.

a. USB flash drive

A USB flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board protected inside a plastic,
metal or rubber case. The USB connector is often protected by a removable cap. USB

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flash drives are small and easy to carry around. They can store large amounts of data (up
to 256GB). USB flash drives connect to the computer through USB ports.

b. Memory card
Memory card or flash memory card is a compact disk used to store digital data. Memory
cards are typically used with digital cameras, smart phones etc.

iii. Magnetic storage media

Diskettes and hard drives are examples of magnetic storage media.

a. Hard disk
A hard disk is constructed of rigid magnetic disks sealed in a protective case. Data is
recorded magnetically onto concentric circular tracks, each one divided into a number
of sectors. Hard disks can hold very large amounts of data e.g. (300GB, 500GB and even
1TB).
Most hard disks, referred to as internal hard disks, are fixed inside the computer. There
are also external hard disks which connect to the computer through USB ports (small
rectangular slots in the computer). External hard disks can be carried around easily.

b. Magnetic Tapes

Magnetic tapes are resistant to different environmental conditions. Physically they look
similar to audio cassettes. They are mostly used for backups or archives. Tape drives can
range in capacity from a few megabytes to upwards of 800 GB compressed.
Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers where large
volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in the form of
cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic

materials that store data permanently.

Fig. 2.3 Magnetic Tape

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Advantages of Magnetic Tape:

 Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to hold
800, 1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum capacity of
such tape is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much more compactly
on tape.
 Economical: The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other
storage devices.
 Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast.
 Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long term
storage and a tape can be used repeatedly without loss of data.

Floppy diskettes
They normally come with a 3.5inch disk drive or a 5.25inch disk drive. Floppy diskettes
are used to transfer small amounts of data between computers. A typical 3.5 inch floppy
is holds 1.44MB of data whereas the capacity of a 5.25-inch floppy is 1.2 mega bytes.
Before data is stored on a floppy diskette, the diskette needs to be formatted.

Access mechanisms on secondary storage

There two mechanisms used to access data stored on a storage medium are referred to
as sequential and direct access storage.

a. Sequential access storage

A storage technology that is read or write in a serial (one after the other) fashion.
Magnetic tapes are examples of sequential storage medium.

b. Direct access storage

This is any secondary storage device which has relatively low access time for all its
capacity. The direct access storage use the random access technology which is not the
case in tape drives.

Storage hierarchy
As we go upwards on the storage hierarchy pyramid there is an decrease in access time
due to low capacity. As we go downwards there is an increase in capacity.
Increase in capacity

Decrease in access time

Cache Memory
MEMORY
Primary Storage

Secondary Storage
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SOFTWARE

It is a set of programs and data that controls the operations of the hardware of the
computer system and interface the user to the computer.
A program is a set of instructions.

Software can be subcategorized into three areas:

 System software
 Application software
 Developmental software

SOFTWARE

System software
Application software Developmental software
Firmware Specific purpose e.g. Java, Visual Basic, C++
Operating system General purpose
Utility programs

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software manages the operations of the computer system. This is a set of
programs that controls the overall function of the computer. It is subdivided into four
areas:

 Firmware
 Operating system
 Utility programs

Firmware
This is known as the manufacturer's software. It contains instructions that enable
hardware devices to communicate. It is also referred to as device drivers and is stored in
ROM chips in the computer system

Operating system
This is a set of programs that manage, oversee and control all the activities of a
computer. It acts as interface between hardware, application software and the user.
Operating systems are large complex programs which provides for loading and
execution of other programs. Examples include Windows family (98, 2000, XP, VISTA
etc), Mac OS, Linux and UNIX

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Functions of operating systems

User interface, job management, task management, memory management, file

management, device management, security

Control hardware access - The operating system manages the interaction between
applications and the hardware

File and Folder Management - The operating system creates a file structure on the hard
disk drive to allow data to be stored. Program and data files are grouped together in a
directory (folder). The files and directories are organized for easy retrieval and use.

Application Management - The operating system locates an application and loads it into
the RAM of the computer. Applications are software programs, such as word processors,
databases, spreadsheets, games, and many other applications. The operating system
ensures that each application has adequate system resources.

Memory and Storage Management -The OS makes memory available to an application

when required. When an operating system manages the computer's memory, there are
two broad tasks to be accomplished:

 Each process must have enough memory in which to execute, and it can neither
run into the memory space of another process nor be run into by another
process.
 The different types of memory in the system must be used properly so that each
process can run most effectively.

Processor Management -A system should make it possible for a user’s application to use
the processing unit. Most OSs support a notion that a program in execution by the
processor may be regarded as a process. The heart of managing the processor comes
down to two related issues:

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  Ensuring that each process and application receives enough of the processor's
time to function properly
 Using as many processor cycles for real work as is possible

Other functions include:

 File/disk management
 Memory allocation
 Error detection (error logging)
 Detects errors in CPU, memory, hardware and software
 Loads application programs for execution
 It interfaces the hardware, software and the user
 It keeps record of users and resources they use and it keeps the statistics
 It uses passwords and profiles to protect both resources from harmful users
 It manages all requests to read/write data from input/output devices
 It enables time sharing
 It provides system tools to monitor computer performance

User interface

The operating system enables the user to interact with software and hardware. There
are 3 basic types of user interfaces:

 Command user interface

 Graphic user interface
 Menu driven interface

A good user interface should have the following characteristics:

 It should be user friendly, allowing the user to do basic operations without

having to first read the computer manual
 It should be attractive so that it encourages the user to use it
 It should be effective and easy to use.

Command line interface The user communicates with the computer using typed
commands. A prompt is a character or group of characters which the computer displays
to let the user know that a command can be input. The conversation consists of the
following sequence:

1. The computer displays a prompt

2. The user types a command and presses the ENTER (or RETURN) key
3. The computer carries out the command

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One common interface used is MSDOS found in Microsoft based environments.

Advantages

 It is fast in executing programs

 The user can have great deal of control over the actions to be performed.

Disadvantages

The user has to remember (or look) up a variety of commands and their various options
or parameters, making it difficult for novice users to operate

Menu driven interface

A menu is a list of choices presented to the user by an interactive program. The user
selects one of the options to say what the program should do next. A menu bar is a set
of menu titles displayed across the screen at the top or the bottom so that the user can
pick a menu. A pull down menu is a menu which appears below the menu bar when it is
selected. A full screen menu is one which takes up all or most of the screen

Advantages

It is appropriate when you wish to limit the functions that are available to user

Graphic user interface (GUI)

Interacts with the computer by using a WIMP. Which is the combination of using
Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers.

A window is a rectangular area on the screen selected for a particular display

An icon is a small symbol on the screen which you can select from a menu

A menu: is a list of choices presented to the user by an interactive program. The user
can select from the list. Menu can be a pop up menu or a pull down menu.

Mouse-Used for all “point and click” operations

Bootstrap
This is a set of programs that copy the operating system from the secondary store
mainly the hard disk to the main memory when the computer is switched on. Thus it is
responsible for the booting process.

Utility programs

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Utility programs are also known as service programs. They are responsible for
performing housekeeping functions in a computer system.

The categories of utility programs include:

 Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across
several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to
increase efficiency.
 Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are
corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more
efficiently operating hard drive.
 Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore
either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an
event of accidental deletion).
 Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of
a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data
management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving,
copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry
keys that are no longer in use.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software enables users to perform specific information processing activities.
They can be divided into 2 broad categories: general purpose and specific purpose.

General purpose
These are used to carry out a wide range of common tasks e.g. a word processor is
capable of producing a variety of documents that are suitable for many different
purposes. They can also be referred to as off-the shelf software as they are developed
for use by the general public and are available from all software selling shops. The use of
general purpose application software is varied depending upon the user. Common to
this category includes the following:

Word processing software

Word processors are used to produce written material such as letters, memos, reports,
projects and books. Examples are Microsoft Word, Lotus WordPro, AmiPro, Display
Write, WordPad and Word Perfect.
Spreadsheet programs
These are used for accounting purposes. Examples are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3,
Quattro Pro and Super Cal

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Database Management software (DBMS)
These are programs used to store, sort, search and retrieve information as easily as
possible. A telephone directory is an example of a database. Examples of database
management programs are Microsoft Access, FoxPro, Dbase and Paradox
Graphic and presentation software
They are designed to add interest and clarity to reports and presentations. These
include paint programs, draw programs, photo editing programs, computer aided
drafting and 3D modeling programs. Examples include Microsoft PowerPoint, Ms Paint,
Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw, and Harvard Graphics.
Multimedia Applications
Examples include:
 Encyclopedias such as Microsoft Encarta, EduSoft
 Games such as Need for speed, FIFA
 Educational programs such as Science Advantage 2000
Internet Web Browsers
Examples include MS Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Opera. They are used to
locate and display information at Web sites. Browsers display Web pages with text,
graphics, sounds and video-clips.
Communications software
Examples include MS Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird. They are used for the transmission
of electronic messages or documents between different computers.

Specific purpose
It comprises programs intended to serve a specific purpose or carry out a clearly defined
information processing task. Specific purpose application software is thus developed for
a dedicated task. They can also be referred to as tailor-made or bespoke application
software. Examples include payroll software, accounting software and billing software.

High Level Language

 This is software that allows users to develop their own software in order to carry out
processing tasks.
 Over the years, a wide range of programming languages have been developed,
including BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C++, JAVA, and so on.
 Each language has a unique set of words (codes) that it understands and a special
syntax for organizing program instructions.
 The language the computer actually understands is called machine language, which
comprises numbers only.

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 Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as machine
languages but they enable a program to use names instead of numbers.
 They are written in mneumonics.

The Types Of Computers: Analog and Hybrid (classification based on operational

principle)

 Analog Computers: The analog computer is almost an extinct type of computer

these days. It is different from a digital computer in respect that it can perform
numerous mathematical operations simultaneously. It is also unique in terms of
operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical
computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation.
 Hybrid computers: These types of computers are, as the name suggests, a
combination of both Analog and Digital computers. The Digital computers which
work on the principle of binary digit system of “0” and “1” can give very precise
results. But the problem is that they are too slow and incapable of large scale
mathematical operation. In the hybrid types of computers the Digital counterparts
convert the analog signals to perform Robotics and Process control.

Classifications of computers
A computer’s power is determined by the technology it uses, NOT its physical size.
Greater speed, greater capability and capacity to store information, and greater facility
to accommodate additional peripheral (external) equipment will make one
computer more powerful than another regardless of their overall physical sizes. We do
not go into detail on each of the different types of computers.

Computers are classified according to size, speed and memory capacity. Computers are
of different types:

 Super Computers
 Main frame Computers
 Mini frame Computers
 Personal Computers (PC)

SUPER COMPUTERS
Super Computers are the largest, faster, and the most expensive computer system in
the world. They are used to process complex scientific jobs. They are considered to be
the resources (assets) of any nation. Super Computers are used to perform million of
instructions at the same time.
Uses
Super computers are widely used in meteorological where weather patterns are

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predicted by manipulating vast amount of data.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
The Mainframe Computers are the large computers available in different models,
capacities and prices etc. They are designed for large scale processing such as processing
the organization’s payroll. Examples include IBM 370, DEC 1090 and NEC etc. The main
characteristics of mainframe computers are:

 They are based on the principle of strong physical computing power. Many
people can make use of the same machine at the same time.
 They are sensitive to variations in temperature, humidity, dust etc., and are
hence in a controlled environment, i.e., air conditioned rooms.
 Qualified operators and programmers are required for their operations. They
support :
 Wide range of peripherals.
 They have a large storage capacity.
 They can make a use of wide range of software
 These systems generally support 500 to 2000 local and remote users

MINI COMPUTERS
Mini-computers are mid-sized multi-processing computers. Mini Computers were
introduced in the 1960s. They have less capacity to manipulate and store data,
compared to mainframe computers. Some of the characteristic of minicomputers are:

 They offer limited range of peripherals.

 Limited software can be used.
 There is facility for direct operation of the machine by the end user
 Air conditioning is not necessary for minicomputers.
 Computers are widely used for data processing and in industry.
 These systems generally support 10 to 200 users.

MICRO COMPUTRES/PERSONAL COMPUTERS (PCS)

 These are computers that are used by one person at a time and they are at times
referred to as single user systems.

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  They are also referred to as microcomputers.
 PCs may be divided into 2 categories namely the desktop computers and the laptop
computers.
 Desktop computers are designed for use in a fixed location while the laptop is
designed for portability.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND COMPUTER NETWORKING

Communication is the transmission of data from the source to the destination by means
of a transmission media. Data communications involve the use of computers and
communication aided devices to transmit data from one point to the other. A
communication channel is the path through which the message is transmitted that is,
medium in a data communication system. Communication mode refers to the means
data can be transmitted.

Reasons for Networking

Resource sharing (physical resources such as printers and scanners, data resources such
as customer records, inventories, accounts receivables etc)
Communication medium (email, video conferencing, ebusiness)

What Are the Benefits of Networking?

The benefits of networking (either wired or wireless) in homes are:

 file sharing - Network file sharing between computers gives you more flexibity than
using removable drives such as flash drives. Networks allow you to transfer
documents as well as save copies of all of your important data on a different
computer.

 printer / peripheral sharing - Once a home network is in place, it's easy to then set
up all of the computers to share a single printer. No longer will you need to bounce
from one system or another just to print out an email message. Other computer
peripherals can be shared similarly such as network scanners, Web cams, and CD burners.

 multi-player games - Many popular home computer games support LAN mode where friends
and family can play together, if they have their computers networked.

Disadvantages of networks

The cost of installing the network and ensuring a secure and reliable network service.

What is a network protocol?

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Protocols serve as a language of communication among network devices. Network protocols like
HTTP, TCP/IP, and SMTP provide a foundation that much of the Internet is built on.

Communication media

The transfer of data from any two points can take place over a combination of different media.

Twisted pair cable

Used in many telephone networks each pair of wire connects to a single telephone or data
circuit.

Coaxial cable
This consists of a central conducting core which is insulated by multiple layers of material.

Fiber optic cable

Carry signals in the form of modulated forms of light. Data cannot be tapped. Fiber optic is
suitable for high speed transmission. It is more difficult to cut so it need specialized equipment.

Methods of data transmission

Analogue transmission

Data transmission is achieved using continuous wave patterns. This is an excellent way of
transmitting voice data, but data emanating from a computer is in digital form. In order for
computer data to be transmitted over analogue links such as the twisted pair, it must be
translated into an analogue pulse.

Digital transmission

Data are transmitted over the channel in the form of discrete binary coded pulses. This method
of transmission is capable of much faster communications and the circuits needed for this
method are much cheaper.

Communication modes

Simplex transmission

Transmission of data that is possible in one direction only that is the sender and receiver are
well defined and they maintain their roles. It does not offer feedback to the sender. Examples
are address systems and broadcasting .

Half duplex

It permits the transfer of data in both directions but one direction at a time that means
transmission is never bi directional even though the channel permits transfer in either direction.

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For example in some computer devices such as disk drives which can communicate with the rest
of the system in only one direction at a time.

Full duplex

The method of data transmission which permits perfect bi directional transfer of data. This
method of transmission mode apply to telephone networks (it is up to the communicating
parties not the system to regulate the exchange). Duplex communication are at play when the
user sees data on the screen as it is keyed in.

Wired technologies

Twisted pair

Is the most widely used medium for telecommunications. It is ordinary telephone wires which
consists of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data
transmission. The transmission speed ranges from two million bits per second to hundred
million bits per second.

Coaxial cable

Is widely used in TV system, office buildings and other worksites for LANs. The cables consists of
copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulated layer typically of a flexible material with a high
dielectric constant all of which are surrounded by a conducive layer.

Fiber optic

Consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective layers. It transmit light
which can travel over extended distances without interference. Fiber optic cables are not
affected by electromagnetic radiation. The transmission speed of optic fiber is 100s of times
faster than for coaxial cables and 1000s times than of twisted pair.

Wireless technologies

Bluetooth

A short range wireless technology that operate at approximately 1 mbps with range from 10 to
100 metres. It is an open wireless protocol for data exchange over short distances.

Wireless web

The wireless web refers to the use of world wide web through equipment like cellular phones
and other portable communication devices.

Communication satellites

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It uses microwave radio as their telecommunication medium which are not deflected by the
earth atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space typically 22000 miles above the equator.
These earth orbiting system are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data and TV signals.

Wireless LANs

Wireless LANs use a high frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low
frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable
communication between multiple devices in a limited area.

CATAGORIES OF NETWORKS

A network can be established when two or more computers are connected together. Networks
can be classified by size or the capabilities of a given network. There are three types of networks
that is:

Local Area Network (LAN)

It consists of computers confined to a given local area or building. A LAN can be made of
computers in different network segments to form one network by interconnecting the available
network segments.

Municipal Area Network (MAN)

Refers to a network that covers a large area such as a city and the its surrounding towns. It is
larger than a LAN in both capabilities and size that is, the number of computers available on that
network.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is an interconnection of all networks globally to form one entire network. The world wide web
(www) is an example of a WAN.

Network Topologies
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
 bus
 ring
 star

Bus Topology
In a bus network, each computer or device is connected to a common central line.
Data is transmitted in any direction along the central cable.

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Advantages
1. It is easy to add a new computer or a device to the network.
2. If one device or computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.
3. It saves costs because it doesn’t need a hub or a switch.
Disadvantage
1. It is difficult to isolate any fault on the network.
2. If the central line has a fault then the whole network fails.
3. Its performance worsens noticeably as more and more devices /computers are added.

Ring Topology
This topology consists of a collection of work stations and peripheral devices linked together
in a circular configuration.
There is no central host computer in a ring network, though one node may control overall
access to the network

Advantages
1. The system is no dependent on a central computer.
2. Using fiber optic links, good transmission speeds can be achieved over a wide area.
3. The system work effectively when processing is distributed across a number of remote sites
Disadvantages
1. If one node malfunctions, it can have a negative effect on the whole system.
2. If there is a faulty in the wiring between two computers then the whole network will fail.

Star Topology
There is a central computer called hub that connects all the nodes of the network.
All data communication between workstations/printers/servers go through this central hub.

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Advantages
1. If one computer or device fails then the rest of the network is unaffected.
2. Problems on the network are easy to identify and work can be carried out on a faulty device
without affecting the rest of the network.
3. It is easy to expand the network.

Disadvantage
1. If the central hub breaks the whole network crashes.
2. Both the hardware and software required for the effective running of a star network are
expensive to set up.

FILE ORGANISATION TECHNIQUES

Refers to the manner in which records of a file are arranged on secondary storage. The most
commonly used file organization schemes are:

Sequential

 Records are placed in physical order. The next record is the one that physically follows the
previous record.
 The organization is used for file stored on magnetic tapes and printed output.
 Disk files may also be sequentially organized.

Indexed sequential

 Records are arranged in logical sequence according to a key contained in each record.
 Indexed sequential records may be accessed sequentially in key order or they may be
accessed directly by a search the system created index.

Direct

 Records are directly accessed by their physical address on a direct access storage device.
 Direct files require that the application user be familiar with the detailed physical
organization of the disk upon which files are stored.

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