CHAPTER 2 Protocols ,Standards and

architecture
Rules of Communication
The Rules
A network can be as complex as devices connected across the Internet, or as simple as two
computers directly connected to one another with a single cable, and anything in-between.
Networks can vary in size, shape, and function. However, simply having the physical connection
between end devices is not enough to enable communication.

For communication to occur, devices must know “how” to communicate.

People exchange ideas using many different communication methods. However, regardless of
the method chosen, all communication methods have three elements in common. The first of
these elements is the message source, or sender. Message sources are people, or electronic
devices, that need to send a message to other individuals or devices. The second element of
communication is the destination, or receiver, of the message. The destination receives the
message and interprets it. A third element, called a channel, consists of the media that provides
the pathway over which the message travels from source to destination.

Communication begins with a message, or information, that must be sent from a source to a
destination. The sending of this message, whether by face-to-face communication or over a
network, is governed by rules called protocols. These protocols are specific to the type of
communication method occurring. In our day-to-day personal communication, the rules we use
to communicate over one medium, like a telephone call, are not necessarily the same as the
protocols for using another medium, such as sending a letter.

For example, consider two people communicating face-to-face, as shown in Figure 1. Prior to
communicating, they must agree on how to communicate. If the communication is using voice,
they must first agree on the language. Next, when they have a message to share, they must be
able to format that message in a way that is understandable. For example, if someone uses the
English language, but poor sentence structure, the message can easily be misunderstood. Each of
these tasks describes protocols put in place to accomplish communication. This is true of
computer communication, as shown in Figure 2.

Think of how many different rules or protocols govern all the different methods of
communication that exist in the world today.

Establishing the Rules

Before communicating with one another, individuals must use established rules or agreements to
govern the conversation. For example, consider Figure1, protocols are necessary for effective
communication. The protocols used are specific to the characteristics of the communication
method, including the characteristics of the source, destination and channel. These rules, or
protocols, must be followed in order for the message to be successfully delivered and
understood. There are many protocols available that govern successful human communication.
Once there is an agreed upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter,
photography), the protocols put in place must account for the following requirements:

 An identified sender and receiver

 Common language and grammar

 Speed and timing of delivery

 Confirmation or acknowledgement requirements

The protocols that are used in network communications share many of the fundamental traits as
those protocols used to govern successful human conversations, see Figure 2. In addition to
identifying the source and destination, computer and network protocols define the details of how
a message is transmitted across a network to answer the above requirements. While there are
many protocols that must interact, common computer protocols include:

 Message encoding

 Message formatting and encapsulation

 Message size

 Message timing

 Message delivery options

Message Encoding

 One of the first steps to sending a message is encoding it. Encoding is the process of
converting information into another, acceptable form, for transmission. Decoding
reverses this process in order to interpret the information.
 Imagine a person planning a holiday trip with a friend, and calling the friend to discuss
the details of where they want to go, as shown in Figure 1. To communicate the message,
the sender must first convert, or encode, their thoughts and perceptions about the location
 into words. The words are spoken into the telephone using the sounds and inflections of
spoken language that convey the message. On the other end of the telephone line, the
person listening to the description, receives and decodes the sounds in order to visualize
the image of the sunset described by the sender.
 Encoding also occurs in computer communication, as shown in Figure 2. Encoding
between hosts must be in an appropriate form for the medium. Messages sent across the
network are first converted into bits by the sending host. Each bit is encoded into a
pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses depending on the network media
over which the bits are transmitted. The destination host receives and decodes the signals
in order to interpret the message.

Message Formatting and Encapsulation

When a message is sent from source to destination, it must use a specific format or structure.
Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to deliver the
message.

Letter writing is one of the most common forms of written human communication. For centuries,
the agreed format for personal letters has not changed. In many cultures, a personal letter
contains the following elements:

 An identifier of the recipient

 A salutation or greeting

 The message content

 A closing phrase

 An identifier of the sender

In addition to having the correct format, most personal letters must also be enclosed, or
encapsulated, in an envelope for delivery, as shown in Figure 1. The envelope has the address of
the sender and receiver on it, each located at the proper place on the envelope. If the destination
address and formatting are not correct, the letter is not delivered. The process of placing one
message format (the letter) inside another message format (the envelope) is called encapsulation.
De-encapsulation occurs when the process is reversed by the recipient and the letter is removed
from the envelope.

A letter writer uses an accepted format to ensure that the letter is delivered and understood by the
recipient. In the same way, a message that is sent over a computer network follows specific
format rules for it to be delivered and processed. Just as a letter is encapsulated in an envelope
for delivery, so too are computer messages encapsulated. Each computer message is
encapsulated in a specific format, called a frame, before it is sent over the network. A frame acts
like an envelope; it provides the address of the intended destination and the address of the source
host, as shown in Figure 2.

The format and contents of a frame are determined by the type of message being sent and the
channel over which it is communicated. Messages that are not correctly formatted are not
successfully delivered to or processed by the destination host.

Message Size

Another rule of communication is size. When people communicate with each other, the messages
that they send are usually broken into smaller parts or sentences. These sentences are limited in
size to what the receiving person can process at one time, as shown in Figure 1. An individual
conversation may be made up of many smaller sentences to ensure that each part of the message
is received and understood. Imagine what it would be like to read this course if it all appeared as
one long sentence; it would not be easy to read and comprehend.

Likewise, when a long message is sent from one host to another over a network, it is necessary to
break the message into smaller pieces, as shown in Figure 2. The rules that govern the size of the
pieces, or frames, communicated across the network are very strict. They can also be different,
depending on the channel used. Frames that are too long or too short are not delivered.

The size restrictions of frames require the source host to break a long message into individual
pieces that meet both the minimum and maximum size requirements. This is known as
segmenting. Each segment is encapsulated in a separate frame with the address information, and
is sent over the network. At the receiving host, the messages are de-encapsulated and put back
together to be processed and interpreted.

Message Timing

Another factor that affects how well a message is received and understood is timing. People use
timing to determine when to speak, how fast or slow to talk, and how long to wait for a response.
These are the rules of engagement.

Access Method

Access method determines when someone is able to send a message. These timing rules are
based on the environment. For example, you may be able to speak whenever you have something
to say. In this environment, a person must wait until no one else is talking before speaking. If
two people talk at the same time, a collision of information occurs and it is necessary for the two
to back off and start again, as shown in Figure 1. Likewise, it is necessary for computers to
define an access method. Hosts on a network need an access method to know when to begin
sending messages and how to respond when errors occur.

Flow Control

Timing also affects how much information can be sent and the speed that it can be delivered. If
one person speaks too quickly, it is difficult for the other person to hear and understand the
message, as shown in Figure 2. The receiving person must ask the sender to slow down. In
network communication, a sending host can transmit messages at a faster rate than the
destination host can receive and process. Source and destination hosts use flow control to
negotiate correct timing for successful communication.

Response Timeout

If a person asks a question and does not hear a response within an acceptable amount of time, the
person assumes that no answer is coming and reacts accordingly, as show in Figure 3. The
person may repeat the question, or may go on with the conversation. Hosts on the network also
have rules that specify how long to wait for responses and what action to take if a response
timeout occurs.

Message Delivery Options

A message may need to be best delivered in different ways, as shown in Figure 1. Sometimes, a
person wants to communicate information to a single individual. At other times, the person may
need to send information to a group of people at the same time, or even to all people in the same
area. A conversation between two people is an example of a one-to-one delivery. When a group
of recipients need to receive the same message simultaneously, a one-to-many or one-to-all
message delivery is necessary.

There are also times when the sender of a message needs to be sure that the message is delivered
successfully to the destination. In these cases, it is necessary for the recipient to return an
acknowledgement to the sender. If no acknowledgement is required, the delivery option is
referred to as unacknowledged.

Hosts on a network use similar delivery options to communicate, as shown in Figure 2.

A one-to-one delivery option is referred to as a unicast, meaning that there is only a single
destination for the message.

When a host needs to send messages using a one-to-many delivery option, it is referred to as a
multicast. Multicasting is the delivery of the same message to a group of host destinations
simultaneously.

If all hosts on the network need to receive the message at the same time, a broadcast is used.
Broadcasting represents a one-to-all message delivery option. Additionally, hosts have
requirements for acknowledged versus unacknowledged messages.
Protocols

Just like in human communication, the various network and computer protocols must be able to
interact and work together for network communication to be successful. A group of inter-related
protocols necessary to perform a communication function is called a protocol suite. Protocol
suites are implemented by hosts and networking devices in software, hardware or both.

One of the best ways to visualize how the protocols within a suite interact is to view the
interaction as a stack. A protocol stack shows how the individual protocols within a suite are
implemented. The protocols are viewed in terms of layers, with each higher level service
depending on the functionality defined by the protocols shown in the lower levels. The lower
layers of the stack are concerned with moving data over the network and providing services to
the upper layers, which are focused on the content of the message being sent. As the figure
shows, we can use layers to describe the activity occurring in our face-to-face communication
example. At the bottom layer, the physical layer, we have two people, each with a voice that can
say words out loud. At the second layer, the rules layer, we have an agreement to speak in a
common language. At the top layer, the content layer, there are words that are actually spoken.
This is the content of the communication.

Were we to witness this conversation, we would not actually see layers floating in space. The use
of layers is a model that provides a way to conveniently break a complex task into parts and
describe how they work
At the human level, some communication rules are formal and others are simply understood
based on custom and practice. For devices to successfully communicate, a network protocol suite
must describe precise requirements and interactions. Networking protocols define a common
format and set of rules for exchanging messages between devices.

Some common networking protocols are IP, HTTP, and DHCP.

The figures illustrate networking protocols that describe the following processes:

 How the message is formatted or structured, as shown in Figure 1

 The process by which networking devices share information about pathways with other
networks, as shown in Figure 2

 How and when error and system messages are passed between devices, as shown in
Figure 3
  The setup and termination of data transfer sessions, as shown in Figure 4

For example, IP defines how a packet of data is delivered within a network or to a remote
network. The information in the IPv4 protocol is transmitted in a specific format so that the
receiver can interpret it correctly. This is not much different than the protocol used to address an
envelope when mailing a letter. The information must adhere to a certain format or the letter
cannot be delivered to the destination by the post office.
An example of using the protocol suite in network communications is the interaction between a
web server and a web client. This interaction uses a number of protocols and standards in the
process of exchanging information between them. The different protocols work together to
ensure that the messages are received and understood by both parties.

Examples of these protocols are:

 Application Protocol - Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol that governs

the way a web server and a web client interact. HTTP defines the content and formatting
of the requests and responses that are exchanged between the client and server. Both the
client and the web server software implement HTTP as part of the application. HTTP
relies on other protocols to govern how the messages are transported between the client
and server.

 Transport Protocol - Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport protocol that
manages the individual conversations between web servers and web clients. TCP divides
the HTTP messages into smaller pieces, called segments. These segments are sent
between the web server and client processes running at the destination host. TCP is also
responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between
the server and the client.

 Internet Protocol - IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP,
encapsulating them into packets, assigning them the appropriate addresses, and delivering
them across the best path to the destination host.

 Network Access Protocols - Network access protocols describe two primary functions,
communication over a data link and the physical transmission of data on the network
media.
 Data-link management protocols take the packets from IP and format them to be
transmitted over the media. The standards and protocols for the physical media govern
how the signals are sent and how they are interpreted by the receiving clients. An
example of a network access protocol is Ethernet.
Network Protocols and Standards

Protocol Suites

As stated previously, a protocol suite is a set of protocols that work together to provide
comprehensive network communication services. A protocol suite may be specified by a
standards organization or developed by a vendor.

The protocols IP, HTTP, and DHCP are all part of the Internet protocol suite known as
Transmission Control Protocol/IP (TCP/IP). The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard,
meaning these protocols are freely available to the public, and any vendor is able to implement
these protocols on their hardware or in their software.
A standards-based protocol is a process or protocol that has been endorsed by the networking
industry and ratified, or approved, by a standards organization. The use of standards in
developing and implementing protocols ensures that products from different manufacturers can
interoperate successfully. If a protocol is not rigidly observed by a particular manufacturer, their
equipment or software may not be able to successfully communicate with products made by
other manufacturers.

In data communications, for example, if one end of a conversation is using a protocol to govern
one-way communication and the other end is assuming a protocol describing two-way
communication, in all probability, no data will be exchanged.

Some protocols are proprietary. Proprietary, in this context, means that one company or vendor
controls the definition of the protocol and how it functions. Some proprietary protocols can be
used by different organizations with permission from the owner. Others can only be implemented
on equipment manufactured by the proprietary vendor. Examples of proprietary protocols are
AppleTalk and Novell Netware.

Several companies may even work together to create a proprietary protocol. It is not uncommon
for a vendor (or group of vendors) to develop a proprietary protocol to meet the needs of its
customers and later assist in making that proprietary protocol an open standard. For example,
Ethernet was a protocol originally developed by Bob Metcalfe at the XEROX Palo Alto
Research Center (PARC) in the 1970s. In 1979, Bob Metcalfe formed his own company, 3COM,
and worked with Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel, and Xerox to promote the “DIX”
standard for Ethernet. In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
published the IEEE 802.3 standard that was almost identical to Ethernet. Today, 802.3 is the
common standard used on local-area networks (LANs). Another example, most recently, Cisco
opened the EIGRP routing protocol as an informational RFC to meet the needs of customers who
desire to use the protocol in a multivendor network.
The IP suite is a suite of protocols required for transmitting and receiving information using the
Internet. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the first two networking protocols defined for
this standard were TCP and IP. The open standards-based TCP/IP has replaced other vendor
proprietary protocol suites, such as Apple’s AppleTalk and Novell’s Internetwork Packet
Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX).

The first packet switching network and predecessor to today’s Internet was the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), which came to life in 1969 by connecting
mainframe computers at four locations. ARPANET was funded by the U.S. Department of
Defense for use by universities and research laboratories. Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN)
was the contractor that did much of the initial development of the ARPANET, including creating
the first router known as an Interface Message Processor (IMP).

In 1973, Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf began work on TCP to develop the next generation of the
ARPANET. TCP was designed to replace ARPANET’s current Network Control Program
(NCP). In 1978, TCP was divided into two protocols: TCP and IP. Later, other protocols were
added to the TCP/IP suite of protocols including Telnet, FTP, DNS, and many others.

Click through the timeline in the figure to see details about the development of other network
protocols and applications.

Today, the suite includes dozens of protocols, as shown in Figure 1. Click each protocol to view
its description. They are organized in layers using the TCP/IP protocol model. TCP/IP protocols
are included in the internet layer to the application layer when referencing the TCP/IP model.
The lower layer protocols in the data link or network access layer are responsible for delivering
the IP packet over the physical medium. These lower layer protocols are developed by standards
organizations, such as IEEE.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is implemented as a TCP/IP stack on both the sending and receiving
hosts to provide end-to-end delivery of applications over a network. The 802.3 or Ethernet
protocols are used to transmit the IP packet over the physical medium used by the LAN.

Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate the complete communication process using an example of a web
server transmitting data to a client.

Click the Play button to view the animated demonstrations:

1. The web server’s Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) page is the data to be sent.

2. The application protocol HTTP header is added to the front of the HTML data. The header
contains various information, including the HTTP version the server is using and a status code
indicating it has information for the web client.

3. The HTTP application layer protocol delivers the HTML-formatted web page data to the
transport layer. The TCP transport layer protocol is used to manage the individual conversation
between the web server and web client.

4. Next, the IP information is added to the front of the TCP information. IP assigns the
appropriate source and destination IP addresses. This information is known as an IP packet.
5. The Ethernet protocol adds information to both ends of the IP packet, known as a data link
frame. This frame is delivered to the nearest router along the path towards the web client. This
router removes the Ethernet information, analyzes the IP packet, determines the best path for the
packet, inserts the packet into a new frame, and sends it to the next neighboring router towards
the destination. Each router removes and adds new data link information before forwarding the
packet.

6. This data is now transported through the internetwork, which consists of media and
intermediary devices.

7. The client receives the data link frames that contain the data and each protocol header is
processed and then removed in the opposite order that it was added. The Ethernet information is
processed and removed, followed by the IP protocol information, then the TCP information, and
finally the HTTP information.

8. The web page information is then passed on to the client’s web browser software.
Standards Organizations

pen standards encourage competition and innovation. They also guarantee that no single
company’s product can monopolize the market, or have an unfair advantage over its competition.
A good example of this is when purchasing a wireless router for the home. There are many
different choices available from a variety of vendors, all of which incorporate standard protocols
such as IPv4, DHCP, 802.3 (Ethernet), and 802.11 (Wireless LAN).

These open standards also allow a client running Apple’s OS X operating system to download a
web page from a web server running the Linux operating system. This is because both operating
systems implement the open standard protocols, such as those in the TCP/IP suite.

Standards organizations are important in maintaining an open Internet with freely accessible
specifications and protocols that can be implemented by any vendor. A standards organization
may draft a set of rules entirely on its own or in other cases may select a proprietary protocol as
the basis for the standard. If a proprietary protocol is used, it usually involves the vendor who
created the protocol.

Standards organizations are usually vendor-neutral, non-profit organizations established to

develop and promote the concept of open standards.

Standards organizations include:

 The Internet Society (ISOC)

 The Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Each of these organizations will be discussed in more detail in the next couple of pages.
The Internet Society (ISOC) is responsible for promoting open development, evolution, and
Internet use throughout the world. ISOC facilitates the open development of standards and
protocols for the technical infrastructure of the Internet, including the oversight of the Internet
Architecture Board (IAB).

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is responsible for the overall management and
development of Internet standards. The IAB provides oversight of the architecture for protocols
and procedures used by the Internet. The IAB consists of 13 members, including the chair of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). IAB members serve as individuals and not
representatives of any company, agency, or other organization.

The IETF’s mission is to develop, update, and maintain Internet and TCP/IP technologies. One
of the key responsibilities of the IETF is to produce Request for Comments (RFC) documents,
which are a memorandum describing protocols, processes, and technologies for the Internet. The
IETF consists of working groups (WGs), the primary mechanism for developing IETF
specifications and guidelines. WGs are short term, and after the objectives of the group are met,
the WG is terminated. The Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) is responsible for the
technical management of the IETF and the Internet standards process.

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) is focused on long-term research related to Internet and
TCP/IP protocols, applications, architecture, and technologies. While the IETF focuses on
shorter-term issues of creating standards, the IRTF consists of research groups for long-term
development efforts. Some of the current research groups include Anti-Spam Research Group
(ASRG), Crypto Forum Research Group (CFRG), Peer-to-Peer Research Group (P2PRG), and
Router Research Group (RRG).

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”) is a

professional organization for those in the electrical engineering and electronics fields who are
dedicated to advancing technological innovation and creating standards. As of 2012, IEEE
consists of 38 societies, publishes 130 journals, and sponsors more than 1,300 conferences each
year worldwide. The IEEE has over 1,300 standards and projects currently under development.

IEEE has more than 400,000 members in more than 160 countries. More than 107,000 of those
members are student members. IEEE provides educational and career enhancement opportunities
to promote the skills and knowledge with the electronics industry.

IEEE is one of the leading standard producing organizations in the world. It creates and
maintains standards affecting a wide range of industries including power and energy, healthcare,
telecommunications, and networking. The IEEE 802 family of standards deals with local area
networks and metropolitan area networks, including both wired and wireless. As shown in the
figure, each IEEE standard consists of a WG responsible for creating and improving the
standards.

The IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11 standards are significant IEEE standards in computer
networking. The IEEE 802.3 standard defines Media Access Control (MAC) for wired Ethernet.
This technology is usually for LANs, but also has wide-area network (WAN) applications. The
802.11 standard defines a set of standards for implementing wireless local-area networks
(WLANs). This standard defines the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) physical and data link
MAC for wireless communications.
 ISO, the
International Organization for Standardization, is the world’s largest developer of international
standards for a wide variety of products and services. ISO is not an acronym for the
organization’s name; rather the ISO term is based on the Greek word “isos”, meaning equal. The
International Organization for Standardization chose the ISO term to affirm its position as being
equal to all countries.

In networking, ISO is best known for its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.
ISO published the OSI reference model in 1984 to develop a layered framework for networking
protocols. The original objective of this project was not only to create a reference model but also
to serve as a foundation for a suite of protocols to be used for the Internet. This was known as the
OSI protocol suite. However, due to the rising popularity of the TCP/IP suite, developed by
Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and others, the OSI protocol suite was not chosen as the protocol
suite for the Internet. Instead, the TCP/IP protocol suite was selected. The OSI protocol suite was
implemented on telecommunications equipment and can still be found in legacy
telecommunication networks.
You may be familiar with some of the products that use ISO standards. The ISO file extension is
used on many CD images to signify that it uses the ISO 9660 standard for its file system. ISO is
also responsible for creating standards for routing protocols.

Networking standards involve several other standards organizations. Some of the more common
ones are:

 EIA - The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA), previously known as the Electronics
Industries Association, is an international standards and trade organization for electronics
organizations. The EIA is best known for its standards related to electrical wiring,
connectors, and the 19-inch racks used to mount networking equipment.

 TIA - The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) is responsible for developing

communication standards in a variety of areas including radio equipment, cellular towers,
Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, satellite communications, and more. Many of their
standards are produced in collaboration with the EIA.

 ITU-T - The International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication

Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the largest and oldest communication standard
organizations. The ITU-T defines standards for video compression, Internet Protocol
Television (IPTV), and broadband communications, such as a digital subscriber line
(DSL). For example, when dialing another country, ITU country codes are used to make
the connection.

 ICANN - The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is a non-
profit organization based in the United States that coordinates IP address allocation, the
management of domain names used by DNS, and the protocol identifiers or port numbers
used by TCP and UDP protocols. ICANN creates policies and has overall responsibility
for these assignments.

 IANA - The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is a department of ICANN

responsible for overseeing and managing IP address allocation, domain name
management, and protocol identifiers for ICANN.
Familiarization with the organizations that develop standards used in networking will help you
have a better understanding of how these standards create an open, vendor-neutral Internet, and
allow you to learn about new standards as they develop.
Reference Models

A layered model, such as the TCP/IP model, is often used to help visualize the interaction
between various protocols. A layered model depicts the operation of the protocols occurring
within each layer, as well as the interaction of protocols with the layers above and below each
layer.

There are benefits to using a layered model to describe network protocols and operations. Using
a layered model:

 Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined
information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below.

 Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.

 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above
and below.

 Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.

There are two basic types of networking models:

 Protocol model - This model closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite.
The hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the functionality
required to interface the human network with the data network.
 The TCP/IP model is a protocol model, because it describes the functions that occur at
each layer of protocols within the TCP/IP suite.

 Reference model - This model provides consistency within all types of network
protocols and services by describing what has to be done at a particular layer, but not
prescribing how it should be accomplished.
 A reference model is not intended to be an implementation specification or to provide a
sufficient level of detail to define precisely the services of the network architecture.
  The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of the
functions and processes involved.

The OSI model is the most widely known internetwork reference model. It is used for data
network design, operation specifications, and troubleshooting.

As shown in the figure, the TCP/IP and OSI models are the primary models used when
discussing network functionality. Designers of network protocols, services, or devices can create
their own models to represent their products. Ultimately, designers are required to communicate
to the industry by relating their product or service to either the OSI model or the TCP/IP model,
or to both.

I
nitially the OSI model was designed by the ISO to provide a framework on which to build a suite
of open systems protocols. The vision was that this set of protocols would be used to develop an
international network that would not be dependent on proprietary systems.

Ultimately, the speed at which the TCP/IP-based Internet was adopted, and the rate at which it
expanded, caused the development and acceptance of the OSI protocol suite to lag behind.
Although a few of the developed protocols using the OSI specifications are widely used today,
the seven-layer OSI model has made major contributions to the development of other protocols
and products for all types of new networks.

The OSI model provides an extensive list of functions and services that can occur at each layer.
It also describes the interaction of each layer with the layers directly above and below it.
Although the content of this course is structured around the OSI reference model, the focus of
discussion is the protocols identified in the TCP/IP protocol model. Click each layer name to
view the details.

Note: Whereas the TCP/IP model layers are referred to only by name, the seven OSI model
layers are more often referred to by number rather than by name. For instance, the physical layer
is referred to as Layer 1 of the OSI model.
The TCP/IP protocol model for internetwork communications was created in the early 1970s and
is sometimes referred to as the Internet model. As shown in the figure, it defines four categories
of functions that must occur for communications to be successful. The architecture of the TCP/IP
protocol suite follows the structure of this model. Because of this, the Internet model is
commonly referred to as the TCP/IP model.

Most protocol models describe a vendor-specific protocol stack. However, because the TCP/IP
model is an open standard, one company does not control the definition of the model. The
definitions of the standard and the TCP/IP protocols are discussed in a public forum and defined
in a publicly available set of RFCs. The RFCs contain both the formal specification of data
communications protocols and resources that describe the use of the protocols.

The RFCs also contain technical and organizational documents about the Internet, including the
technical specifications and policy documents produced by the IETF.
 The
protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can be described in terms of the OSI reference
model. In the OSI model, the network access layer and the application layer of the TCP/IP model
are further divided to describe discrete functions that must occur at these layers.

At the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not specify which protocols to use
when transmitting over a physical medium; it only describes the handoff from the internet layer
to the physical network protocols. OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to access
the media and the physical means to send data over a network.

As shown in the figure, the critical parallels between the two network models occur at the OSI
Layers 3 and 4. OSI Layer 3, the network layer, is almost universally used to describe the range
of processes that occur in all data networks to address and route messages through an
internetwork. IP is the TCP/IP suite protocol that includes the functionality described at OSI
Layer 3.

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, describes general services and functions that
provide ordered and reliable delivery of data between source and destination hosts. These
functions include acknowledgement, error recovery, and sequencing. At this layer, the TCP/IP
protocols TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide the necessary functionality.

The TCP/IP application layer includes a number of protocols that provide specific functionality
to a variety of end user applications. The OSI model Layers 5, 6, and 7 are used as references for
application software developers and vendors to produce products that operate on networks.
LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post office.

THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late
1970s.

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from

the source host to the destination host

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.