MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

COMPUTER NETWORKS:
• Computer network is a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single
technology.
• Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
• The connection need not be via a copper wire; fibre optics, microwaves, infrared, and
communication satellites can also be used.
• Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms.
• The Internet is not a single network but a network of networks and the Web is a
distributed system that runs on top of the Internet.

Uses of Computer Networks :

1. Business Applications

• resource sharing - a group of office workers share a common printer.

• client-server model - two processes are involved, one on the client machine and one
on the server machine. Communication takes the form of the client process sending
a message over the network to the server process. The client process then waits for
a reply message. When the server process gets the request, it performs the requested
work or looks up the requested data and sends back a reply.
• e-mail
• Videoconferencing
• e-commerce (electronic commerce)

2. Home Applications
• Access to remote information : Accessing Information stored far away through
network. Eg: Searching Google, Reading Wikipedia, Streaming Youtube.
• Person-to-person communication: Sensing messages, Calls over network, Eg :
Whatsapp, Telegram, Email etc.
• Interactive entertainment (Online Games): Real-time gaming with others across the
world. Eg: Pubg, Freefire etc.
• Electronic commerce (E- commerce): Buying and selling online. Eg : Flipkart, Amazon
etc. We place order via website/app, server handles the order, payment happens via
secure network.
3. Mobile Users :
• Mobile computers (notebooks, tablets): Portable devices that access networks.
Example: Using your laptop in a coffee shop to browse the internet.
• Wireless networks: Wi-Fi or mobile networks that allow device mobility. Example:
Using mobile internet (4G/5G) while traveling.
• Mobile computing: The ability to compute and communicate while on the move.
Example: Booking an Uber, checking Google Maps during a trip your phone constantly
exchanges data with servers.
4. Social Issues:
• New social, ethical, political problems: Networks create new challenges:
Privacy: How much personal data is safe?
Misinformation: Fake news spreads faster than ever
 Security: Data breaches, hacking risks.
• Anonymous messages: Internet allows people to communicate without revealing
identity.
Good side: privacy.
Bad side: cyberbullying, trolling.
Example: On Twitter or Telegram anonymous users can post both helpful or harmful
content.

Network Hardware:
Two criterion for classifying networks are
1. Transmission technology
2. Scale
Transmission technology
There are two types of transmission technology
A. Broadcast links

• Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the
machines on the network.
• Short messages, called packets, sent by any machine are received by all the others.
• An address field within the packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon receiving a
packet, a machine checks the address field.
• If the packet is intended for the receiving machine, that machine processes the packet;
if the packet is intended for some other machine, it is just ignored.
• Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all
destinations by using a special code in the address field.
• When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and processed by every
machine on the network. This mode of operation is called broadcasting.
• Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines,
something known as multicasting.
• One possible scheme is to reserve one bit to indicate multicasting. The remaining n - 1
address bits can hold a group number.. When a packet is sent to a certain group, it is
delivered to all machines subscribing to that group.
• Real-life example : When a TV station broadcasts a channel (like Star Sports), anyone
with a set-top box and subscription can receive and watch it. This is broadcasting.

B. Point-to-point links

• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
 • When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing
a point-to-point connection.
• Each pair of devices has a dedicated link for communication. No one else shares this
path.
• Smaller, geographically localized networks tend to use broadcasting, whereas larger
networks usually are point-to-point.
• Point-to-point transmission with one sender and one receiver is sometimes called
unicasting.

Scale

• By physical size of network

• Local Area Networks (LAN)

• Privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in

size.

• They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices
and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.

• LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:

A. size

B. Their transmission technology

C. Their topology.

• LANs are restricted in size

• LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the
machines are attached, like the telephone lines used in rural areas.

• MESH TOPOLOGY - every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes
n(n -1) /2

ADVANTAGE
• Eliminating the traffic problems - the use of dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load
• Mesh topology is robust - If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system
• Privacy or security - When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it.
DISADVANTAGE
• The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number
of I/O ports required
EXAMPLE - connection of telephone regional office.
STAR TOPOLOGY - each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another
• The controller (hub) acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another,
it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device.
ADVANTAGE
• Less expensive than a mesh topology.
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Less cabling needs to be housed,
• Robustness - If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active
• Easy fault identification
DISADVANTAGE
• If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead
EXAMPLE - High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub

BUS TOPOLOGY - A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone
to link all the devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
ADVANTAGE
• Ease of installation.
• Bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
DISADVANTAGE
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
• Difficult to add new devices
• A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission
• Eg : Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology.

RING TOPOLOGY - each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. Repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them .
ADVANTAGE
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections
DISADVANTAGE
• Unidirectional traffic
• A break in the ring can disable the entire network

Hybrid Topology - we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting
several stations in a bus topology
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city.
• Example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities
• Another example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer
Wide area network (WAN)
• A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent.
• The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router that
connects to another LAN or WAN.
• The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV
provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider
(lSP).
• This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.
Wireless Networks
Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless networks. They
generally use radio waves for communication between the network nodes. They allow
devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network
coverage.
 Types of Wireless Networks include:
• Wireless LANs − Connects 2 or more network devices using wireless distribution
techniques.
• Wireless MANs − Connects 2 or more wireless LANs spreading over a metropolitan
area.
• Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs & personal
networks.

Advantages of Wireless Networks include:

• It provides clutter-free desks due to the absence of wires & cables.
• It increases the mobility of network devices connected to the system since the devices
need not be connected to each other.
• Accessing network devices from any location within the network coverage or Wi-Fi
hotspot becomes convenient since laying out cables is not needed.
• Installation & setup of wireless networks are easier.
• New devices can be easily connected to the existing setup since they needn’t be wired
to the present equipment. Also, the number of equipment that can be added or removed
to the system can vary considerably since they are not limited by the cable capacity.
This makes wireless networks very scalable.
• Wireless networks require very limited or no wires. Thus, it reduces the equipment &
setup costs.

Examples of wireless networks include:

• Mobile phone networks

• Wireless sensor networks
• Satellite communication networks
 • Terrestrial microwave networks
Home Networks
A home network is a small sized LAN that is used to connected devices within the small area
of a home. It facilitates sharing of files, peripheral devices, programs & Internet access among
the computers in a home. Home networks may be wired, i.e., connections within devices are
done with cables; or wireless, i.e., connections are provided using Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
Purpose of Home Networks include:
• Modem
• Router
• Network Switch
• Network Bridge
• Home Automation Controller
Internetworks
• An internetwork (or internet with small "i") is a collection of interconnected networks.
• It allows communication between different types of networks (e.g., LAN ↔ WAN, Wi-Fi
↔ fiber).
• Different networks may have different hardware, software, or technologies.
• But people still want to communicate across those networks.
• Internetworks make this possible by connecting incompatible networks.

Term Meaning

Internet (capital I) The global public network we all use (Google, YouTube, etc.)

internet (small i) Any collection of connected networks (LAN + WAN, etc.)

Network Software
Protocol Hierarachies :
• To reduce the design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or
levels, each one built upon the one below it.
• The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the
function of each layer differ from network to network.
• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers, shielding those
layers from the details of how the offered services are actually implemented.
• Each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to the layer above it.
• Layer N on one machine carries on a conversation with layer N on another machine.
The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer
N protocol.
• Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
 • In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer N on one machine to layer N on
another machine.
• Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below
it, until the lowest layer is reached.
• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs.
Layers, protocols, and interfaces:

Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

• A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given

to layer 4 for transmission.
• Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes the
result to layer 3. The header includes control information(sequence numbers) to
allow layer 4 on the destination machine to deliver messages in the right order if
the lower layers do not maintain sequence.
• In some layers, headers can also contain sizes, times, and other control fields.
• Layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller units, packets,
prepending a layer 3 header to each packet.
• Layer 2 adds not only a header to each piece, but also a trailer, and gives the
resulting unit to layer 1 for physical transmission.
 • At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with
headers being stripped off as it progresses.
Design Issues for the Layers
• Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers. Some form
of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific destination
• The rules for data transfer- In some systems, data only travel in one direction; in
others, data can go both ways.
• Error control is an important issue because physical communication circuits are not
perfect. Many error-detecting and error-correcting codes are known, but both ends
of the connection must agree on which one is being used. In addition, the receiver
must have some way of telling the sender which messages have been correctly
received and which have not.
• Not all communication channels preserve the order of messages sent on them. To
deal with a possible loss of sequencing, the protocol must make explicit provision
for the receiver to allow the pieces to be reassembled properly.
• An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender from swamping a
slow receiver with data.
• Another problem that must be solved at several levels is the inability of all processes
to accept arbitrarily long messages. This property leads to mechanisms for
disassembling, transmitting, and then reassembling messages.
• When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route must be
chosen. Sometimes this decision must be split over two or more layers (Routing).
Connection-Oriented Service
• To use a connection-oriented network service, the service user first establishes a
connection, uses the connection, and then releases the connection (E.g.: telephone
system)
• In most cases the order is preserved so that the bits arrive in the order they were
sent.
• The source first makes a connection with the destination before sending a packet.
When the connection is established, a sequence of packets from the same source to
the same destination can be sent one after another.
• In this case, there is a relationship between packets. They are sent on the same path
in sequential order.
• A packet is logically connected to the packet traveling before it and to the packet
traveling after it.
• When all packets of a message have been delivered, the connection is terminated.
Connectionless Service
• In connectionless service, the network layer protocol treats each packet
independently, with each packet having no relationship to any other packet.
• The packets in a message may or may not travel the same path to their destination.
• The Internet has chosen this type of service at the network layer.
Protocols
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines
what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The
key elements of a protocol are syntax,semantics, and timing.
 • Syntax - The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented
• Semantics - The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits
• Timing - The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.

REFERENCE MODELS

1. OSI REFERENCE MODEL:

• A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data from one location to
another.
• The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals from one point of the
network to another. The software consists of instruction sets that make possible the services
that we expect from a network
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a layered framework for the design of
network systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems
• It consists of seven separate but related layers:

PHYSICAL LAYER

• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel

• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.
 Other Responsibilities:

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium – defines the characteristics of the

interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of
transmission medium.

2. Representation of bits - To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals (electrical or

optical). The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).

3. Data rate (The transmission rate) - the number of bits sent each second is also defined by the
physical layer

4. Synchronization of bits - the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.

5. Line configuration - The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link.
In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.

6. Physical topology - The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology ,a star topology ,a ring topology
,a bus topology or a hybrid topology

7. Transmission mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

DATA LINK LAYER

• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next

Other responsibilities:

1. Framing - The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames

2. Physical addressing - If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If
the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the
address of the device that connects the network to the next one 3. Flow control - If the rate at
which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in
the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.
4. Error control - The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame

5. Access control - When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

NETWORK LAYER

• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host

• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer.

• If the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting devices between
the networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-
destination delivery

Other Responsibilities:

1. Logical addressing - The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer
adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the
logical addresses of the sender and receiver

2. Routing - When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks

(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches)
route or switch the packets to their final destination
TRANSPORT LAYER

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message

• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another .
A process is an application program running on a host.

Other responsibilities

1. Service-point addressing - delivery of message not only from one computer to the next but
also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running
program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address).

• The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire
message to the correct process on that computer.

2. Segmentation and reassembly - A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination.

3. Connection control - The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.

4. Flow control - The transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow control at
this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link
5. Error control - Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-to process rather than across a single
link.

• The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication).

• Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

SESSION LAYER

• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

Specific responsibilities:

1. Dialog control - The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex (one way at a time)
or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

2. Synchronization - The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization

points, to a stream of data

PRESENTATION LAYER

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems

Specific responsibilities:

1. Translation - Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation
layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The
presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its senderdependent format into
a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format
into its receiver-dependent format

2. Encryption - To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.

Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends
the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to
transform the message back to its original form
3. Compression - Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as
text, audio, and video

APPLICATION LAYER

• The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access
and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services

Other Responsibilities:

1. Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) - A network virtual terminal is a software version of a

physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. The remote host believes it is
communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.

2. File transfer, access, and management - This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in
the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally

3. Mail services - This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

4. Directory services - This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

2. TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:

Host-to-network

Internet

Transport

Application
Host-to-network

• At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork
can be a local-area network or a wide-area network.

Internet Layer

• TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol.

• IP uses four supporting protocols:
o ARP
o RARP
o ICMP
o IGMP

Internetworking Protocol (IP)

• IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

• It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol.

• IP provides no error checking or tracking.

• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.

• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.

• IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they
arrive at their destination.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• ARP is used to associate a logical address with a physical address.

• In LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted
on the network interface card (NIC).

• ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address (IP address) is
known.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

• RARP allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address.

• It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or when a diskless
computer is booted.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems
back to the sender.

• ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

• IGMP is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

Transport Layer

• Transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP.
• IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to
another.

• UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a
process (running program) to another process.

• A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some newer
applications.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and
length information to the data from the upper layer.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• TCP is a reliable transport protocol.

• TCP is connection-oriented: A connection must be established between both ends of a

transmission before either can transmit data.

• TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments.

• Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, and an
acknowledgment number

• At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the transmission
based on sequence numbers.

Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

• SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport
layer protocol that combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

Application Layer

• The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.

• Many protocols are defined at this layer – FTP, DNS, TELNET, SMTP etc

COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODELS

 PHYSICAL LAYER
• One major task of Physical Layer is to provide services for the data link layer.

• The data in the data link layer consists of 0s and 1s organized into frames that are ready to
be sent across the transmission medium.

• This stream of 0s and 1s must first be converted into signals.

• One of the services provided by the physical layer is to create a signal that represents this
stream of bits.

• The transmission medium must be controlled by the physical layer.

When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be 1st converted into electromagnetic
signals. Data itself can be analogue such as human voice, or digital such as file on the disk.
Both analogue & digital data can be represented in digital or analogue signals.

o Digital Signals : Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of
voltage pulses. Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
Bit Rate - The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1second, expressed in bits
per second (bps).Bit Length - The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on
the transmission medium.
Bit length = propagation speed x bit duration
 o Analog Signals : Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented
by continuous electromagnetic waves.

When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate (Transmission Impairment).
This may have many reasons as given:

1. Attenuation : For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently
strong. When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker. As it covers
distance, it loses strength.

2. Dispersion : As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount
of dispersion depends upon the frequency used.

3. Delay distortion :Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the
signal speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches destination
in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach earlier than the
previously sent ones.

4. Noise: Random disturbance or fluctuation in analogue or digital signal is said to be Noise in

signal, which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be characterized in
one of the following classes:

o Thermal Noise : Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may
introduce noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.
o Intermodulation : When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can
cause noise in the medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if two different frequencies
are sharing a medium and one of them has excessive strength or the component itself is
not functioning properly, then the resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected
o Crosstalk : This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters the media. This is
because signal in one medium affects the signal of second medium.
o Impulse: This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as lightening,
electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is mostly affected by this
sort of noise.

Data Flow / Modes of Communication:

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
❖ Simplex :
• Communication is unidirectional
 • Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
• Eg : Keyboards and traditional monitors

❖ Half Duplex:

• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
• Channel capacity = Bandwidth * Propogation Delay
• Eg: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios.

❖ Full-Duplex

• Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously signals going in one
direction share the capacity of the links.
• This sharing can occur in two ways:
Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving or the capacity of
the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
 • The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time
• The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.
• Channel capacity = 2 * Bandwidth * Propogation Delay
• Eg: telephone network.

SIGNAL ENCODING

o Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of characters,

symbols, alphabets etc., into a specified format, for the secured transmission of data.
o Decoding is the reverse process of encoding which is to extract the information from
the converted format.
o Data Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s & 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link.
o The common types of line encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, & Manchester.
o The data encoding technique is divided into the following types, depending upon the
type of data conversion.
▪ Analog data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as
Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation & Phase Modulation of
analogue signals, fall under this category.
▪ Analog data to Digital signals − This process can be termed as
digitization, which is done by Pulse Code Modulation PCM. Hence, it
is nothing but digital modulation. Sampling & quantization are the
important factors in this. Delta Modulation gives a better output than
PCM.
 ▪ Digital data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as
Amplitude Shift Keying ASK, Frequency Shift Keying FSK, Phase Shift
Keying PSK, etc., fall under this category.
▪ Digital data to Digital signals − There are several ways to map digital
data to digital signals. Some of them are:

1. Non-Return to Zero NRZ

o NRZ Codes has 1 for High voltage level & 0 for Low voltage level. The main behaviour
of NRZ codes is that the voltage level remains constant during bit interval. The end or
start of a bit will not be indicated & it will maintain the same voltage state, if the value
of the previous bit & the value of the present bit are same.
o The following figure explains the concept of NRZ coding.

If the above example is considered, as there is a long sequence of constant voltage level & the
clock synchronization may be lost due to the absence of bit interval, it becomes difficult for
the receiver to differentiate between 0 & 1.

There are 2 variations in NRZ namely –

NRZ - L NRZ–LEVEL

There is a change in the polarity of the signal, only when the incoming signal changes
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. It is the same as NRZ, however, the 1st bit of the input signal
should have a change of polarity.

NRZ - I NRZ–INVERTED

If a 1 occurs at the incoming signal, then there occurs a transition at the beginning of
the bit interval. For a 0 at the incoming signal, there is no transition at the beginning of
the bit interval.
o NRZ codes has a disadvantage that the synchronization of the transmitter clock with the
receiver clock gets completely disturbed, when there is a string of 1s & 0s. Hence, a
separate clock line needs to be provided.
2. Bi-phase Encoding

The signal level is checked twice for every bit time, both initially & in the middle. Hence, the
clock rate is double the data transfer rate & thus the modulation rate is also doubled. The clock
is taken from the signal itself. The bandwidth required for this coding is greater.

There are 2 types of Bi-phase Encoding.

• Bi-phase Manchester

• Differential Manchester

Bi-phase Manchester (important)

In this type of coding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit interval. The transition for
the resultant pulse is from High to Low in the middle of the interval, for the input bit 1.
While the transition is from Low to High for the input bit 0.

Differential Manchester (important)

In this type of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the bit interval. If
there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 0. If no
transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 1.

The following figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester and
Differential Manchester coding for different digital inputs.

PHYSICAL LAYER DEVICES

1. Repeater

• A repeater operates at the physical layer.

• It is a 2 port device.

• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak
or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network.

• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.

• When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original
strength.

2. Hub

• A hub is basically a multiport repeater.

• A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the connector
in star topology which connects different stations.

• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.

• Transmission mode is half duplex.

• Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads
to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub

▪ Active Hub

• These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the signal
along with the network.

• Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals before broadcasting them

▪ Passive Hub

• These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the active hub.

• Can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.

▪ Intelligent Hub
• It works like active hubs and includes remote management capabilities.

• They also provide flexible data rates to network devices.

• It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure
each port in the hub.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from
a source to a destination

1. Guided Media
a) Twisted-Pair Cable

• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together.

• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.

• Noise and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.

• In one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist,
the reverse is true.
• Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences (noise
or crosstalk).

• This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the two, receives no
unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out.
• The number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.

• The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded

twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called
shielded twisted-pair (STP).

b) Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair
cable.

• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.

• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor,
which completes the circuit.

• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected
by a plastic cover.

• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.The most common type of
connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector.

• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, Cable TV networks etc.

• Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs

 c) Fiber-Optic Cable

• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.

• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic
• Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light
along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics.

• Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index

There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables

• The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking
system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices. It
uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ is a connector that is the
same size as RJ45.

• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-
effective.

Advantages:

▪ Higher bandwidth.
▪ Less signal attenuation.
▪ Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
▪ Resistance to corrosive materials.
▪ Light weight.
▪ Greater immunity to tapping.

Disadvantages:

▪ Installation and maintenance

▪ Unidirectional light propagation
▪ Cost
2. Unguided media (Wireless)

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.This

type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally
broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground
propagation, sky propagation, and line-of- sight propagation

a) Radio Waves

• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves.

• Radio waves are omnidirectional and use omnidirectional antennas.

• When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means
that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.

• Radio waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This makes radio
waves a good candidate for long distance broadcasting such as AM radio

• Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls

• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and
paging systems.
b) Microwaves

• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.

• Microwaves are unidirectional.

• The sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

Characteristics of microwave propagation:

• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight

• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls

• The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz

• Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from Authorities

• Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction.
• Microwaves are very useful when unicast (one-to-one) communication is needed
between the sender and the receiver.

• They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs

c) Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to
770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.

• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.

• Infrared signals useless for long-range communication.

• We cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared
waves that can interfere with the communication
• The Infrared Data Association (IrDA)has established standards for using these signals
for communication between devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers.

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

1. Bandwidth

• Bandwidth is the data carrying capacity of the network/transmission medium.

Bandwidth is usually measured in bits transferred per second (bps) through a path or
link.
• bandwidth in hertz: It is the range of frequencies in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.
• bandwidth in bits per second: It is the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.

2. Throughput

• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.

• Practical measure of the amount of data actually transmitted through a channel.

• It depends on the latency.

3. Latency (Delay)
• The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive
at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.

• Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing delay

Propagation Time

• Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination.

Propagation time = Distance/Propagation speed

 Transmission Time

• There is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving at the
receiver.

Transmission time =Message size /Bandwidth

4.Queuing Time

• The time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can
be processed.
5. Bandwidth-Delay Product

• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.

Assume a link is of bandwidth 1bps and the delay of the link is 5s. Let us find the
bandwidth-delay product in this case. From the image, we can say that this product 1 x 5
is the maximum number of bits that can fill the link. There can be close to 5 bits at any
time on the link.
Assume a link is of bandwidth 3bps. From the image, we can say that there can be a
maximum of 3 x 5 = 15 bits on the line. The reason is that, at each second, there are 3 bits
on the line and the duration of each bit is 0.33s.

• For both examples, the product of bandwidth and delay is the number of bits that can fill
the link.

• It gives the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted by the sender at a given
time before waiting for acknowledgment