Comprehensive Notes on Theories of

Language Learning

Behaviorist Theory of Language Learning

Definition
The Behaviorist Theory, rooted in the works of psychologists such as B.F. Skinner and John B.
Watson, posits that language acquisition is a process of habit formation influenced by the
environment and reinforced by conditioning techniques. This theory suggests that language
learning is primarily a result of external stimuli and the learner's response to these stimuli.

Proponents

B.F. Skinner
John B. Watson

Components
Classical Conditioning: This involves associating a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus to elicit an unconditioned response. Over time, the neutral
stimulus alone can elicit a conditioned response similar to the unconditioned response. In
language learning, classical conditioning can be seen in how learners associate certain
sounds or words with meanings or actions.
Operant Conditioning: This type of conditioning involves modifying behavior through
reinforcement or punishment. In the context of language learning, operant conditioning is
used when learners are rewarded for correct language usage or penalized for incorrect
usage.

Reinforcement Strategies
Reinforcement is a key component of the Behaviorist Theory, used to encourage desired
language behaviors. Reinforcement strategies can be categorized into positive and negative
reinforcement:
 Positive Reinforcement: Involves providing a pleasing stimulus following a desired
behavior, such as praising a learner for using correct grammar.
Negative Reinforcement: Involves removing an unpleasant stimulus following a
desired behavior, such as stopping a repetitive, annoying task when a learner correctly
completes a language exercise.

Strengths
Structured Learning Environment: Behaviorist Theory promotes a structured learning
environment where language skills are broken down into manageable components and
taught systematically.
Clear Objectives and Outcomes: The theory supports setting clear, measurable
objectives and outcomes, making it easier to assess learner progress.
Effective for Basic Language Skills: Behaviorist techniques are particularly effective
for teaching basic language skills such as vocabulary and grammar rules.

Criticisms

Oversimplification of Language Learning: Critics argue that the theory

oversimplifies the complex process of language acquisition by focusing too much on
external factors and neglecting the role of internal cognitive processes.
Limited Creativity and Spontaneity: The emphasis on conditioning and reinforcement
can limit learners' ability to use language creatively and spontaneously.
Neglect of Learner's Internal Processes: The theory is criticized for not adequately
considering the learner's internal processes, such as motivation and cognitive strategies,
which play a significant role in language learning.

Cognitive Code Learning Theory

Definition
Cognitive Code Theory suggests that language learning is an active process of
problem-solving, combining ideas from Chomsky’s transformational grammar and Carroll’s
cognitive psychology. It emphasizes the mental processes involved in learning, departing from
behaviorist views that focus on passive habit formation.
Proponents
J.B. Carroll
Noam Chomsky (Transformational Grammar)

Components

Active Mental Processes: Language learning involves active mental processes, not
just habit formation.
Innate Language Abilities: Builds on the idea that humans have innate language
abilities that enable them to learn language rules intuitively.
Problem-Solving: Learners actively work out rules by observing patterns and making
connections, rather than simply imitating examples.
Teacher as Facilitator: Teachers guide learners through activities that encourage
active engagement, allowing learners to discover language patterns themselves.
Errors as Learning Opportunities: Errors are seen as part of the learning process,
providing insights into the cognitive processes at work.
Deductive and Inductive Learning: Language items can be presented deductively
(rules first, then examples) or inductively (examples first, then rules are discovered).

Strengths
Emphasizes Active Learning: Promotes a more interactive and exploratory approach
to language learning.
Focus on Understanding: Encourages learners to draw on existing knowledge and
make connections between new and old information.
Aligns with Communicative Approach: Shaped modern language teaching practices
by focusing on meaningful communication and learner-centered activities.

Weaknesses

While the theory has influenced language teaching methods, there is no single
prescribed approach, which can make its application varied and sometimes inconsistent.
May require more cognitive effort from learners, which could be challenging for some.
Creative-Construction Hypothesis Theory
(Innatist Theory)

Definition
The Creative-Construction Hypothesis, also known as the Innatist Theory, suggests that
language learning is a creative process where learners actively construct internal
representations of the language being learned. It emphasizes that language acquisition is not
merely a matter of habit formation (as in behaviorism) but involves an innate ability to process
and generate language.

Proponents
Stephen Krashen (associated with the Input Hypothesis, which is closely
related) Noam Chomsky (whose work on innate language abilities
influenced this theory)

Components
Innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD): While not explicitly stated as a
component of Creative-Construction Hypothesis in the document, the underlying
concept from Chomsky's work is that humans possess an innate capacity for
language.
Active Construction: Learners are thought to 'construct' internal representations of the
language. This means they are not just passively receiving input but actively building
their understanding of the language system.
Creative Process: Language learning is viewed as a creative process, where learners
generate novel utterances based on their developing internal rules, rather than simply
imitating what they hear.
Input Hypothesis (Krashen): A key related concept is Krashen's Input Hypothesis,
which states that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to
comprehensible input (i+1), meaning input that is slightly beyond their current level of
competence but still understandable.
Natural Order of Acquisition: The theory suggests that learners acquire grammatical
structures in a predictable order, regardless of the order in which they are taught.
Errors as Evidence of Construction: Errors are seen as natural and necessary parts of
the learning process, providing insights into the learner's current understanding and their
active construction of the language system.
Strengths
Explains Creativity: Accounts for learners' ability to produce novel sentences they
have never heard before.
Focus on Comprehensible Input: Highlights the importance of meaningful input for
acquisition.
Explains Natural Order: Provides a framework for understanding why certain
grammatical structures are acquired before others.

Weaknesses
Difficulty in Testing Innate Abilities: The concept of an innate language acquisition
device is difficult to empirically test.
Limited Explanation for Variability: May not fully explain the individual differences
and variability observed in language learning outcomes.
Focus on Input, Less on Output: While Krashen's Input Hypothesis emphasizes input,
some critics argue that it undervalues the role of output and interaction in language
acquisition.

Skill Learning Theory

Definition
Skill Acquisition Theory is a general theory of learning that applies to language development. It
views language learning as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill, similar to learning
any other skill (e.g., playing a musical instrument). It emphasizes a transition from initial
declarative knowledge (knowing what) to procedural knowledge (knowing how), leading to
automatic and fluent performance.

Proponents
Robert
DeKeyser
Richard Schmidt
John R. Anderson (Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) model)

Components
Declarative Knowledge: Initial stage where learners consciously learn facts, rules, and
concepts about the language (e.g., grammar rules, vocabulary definitions). This knowledge
is explicit and
 can be verbalized.
Procedural Knowledge: Through practice and exposure, declarative knowledge is
converted into procedural knowledge. This involves the automatization of skills, where
language use becomes less conscious and more fluent. This knowledge is implicit and is
demonstrated through performance.
Automatization: The process by which controlled processes (requiring conscious
attention) become automatic (requiring less conscious attention). This is achieved
through repeated practice and exposure.
Practice: Essential for the transition from declarative to procedural knowledge and for
automatization. Practice allows learners to refine their skills and make them more
efficient.
Feedback: Provides learners with information about their performance, helping them to
correct errors and improve their skills.
Priming: Refers to a cognitive repetition phenomenon where exposure to specific
language forms or meaning facilitates a speaker's subsequent language processing.

Strengths

Explains Fluency and Automaticity: Provides a clear framework for understanding

how learners move from hesitant, rule-bound language use to fluent, spontaneous
communication.
Emphasizes Practice: Highlights the crucial role of practice and repetition in language
learning, which aligns with many effective teaching methodologies.
Applicable to Various Skills: As a general learning theory, its principles can be applied
across different types of skills, making it broadly relevant.

Weaknesses
May Oversimplify Complexities: While useful, it might not fully capture the nuances
of language acquisition, especially the creative and social aspects.
Focus on Explicit Learning: Some interpretations might overemphasize explicit rule
learning, potentially underestimating the role of implicit learning in language acquisition.
Difficulty in Measuring Implicit Knowledge: It can be challenging to directly
measure the development of implicit procedural knowledge, as it is not consciously
accessible.
Interactional Theory of Learning

Definition
The Interactionist Theory is a significant framework in linguistics that underscores the role of
interaction in language acquisition. This theory posits that language learning is a
collaborative process between the learner and their environment, particularly through social
interactions. It suggests that language acquisition is a dynamic process involving both the
learner\'s innate abilities and their interaction with the environment.

Proponents
Lev Vygotsky: Emphasized the role of social interaction in cognitive development,
including language acquisition, and introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD).
Jerome Bruner: Highlighted the importance of adult-child interaction in language
development through his work on scaffolding and the Language Acquisition Support
System (LASS).

Components
Social Interaction: Language learning occurs through engagement with others,
providing opportunities for meaningful communication.
Input: Learners receive linguistic input from their environment.
Output: Learners produce linguistic output, which is essential for language development.
Negotiation of Meaning: Learners and their interlocutors work together to achieve
mutual understanding, clarifying language use and receiving feedback.
Feedback: Provides learners with information about their language use, helping them to
correct errors and refine their communication.
Scaffolding: Temporary support and guidance provided by more knowledgeable others
to facilitate language use, gradually releasing responsibility to the learner as they
become more proficient.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The range of knowledge that learners can
acquire with the guidance of more knowledgeable others.

Strengths

Comprehensive View: Integrates aspects of both nativist (innate abilities) and

behaviorist (environmental influence) theories, offering a more holistic understanding of
language acquisition.
 Emphasizes Communication: Highlights the crucial role of meaningful interaction and
communication in language development.
Practical Implications: Provides clear implications for language teaching, emphasizing
the creation of interactive learning environments and the provision of scaffolding and
feedback.

Weaknesses

Complexity: The dynamic and multifaceted nature of interaction can make it

challenging to study and apply systematically in all learning contexts.
Variability in Interaction Quality: The effectiveness of this theory depends heavily on
the quality and nature of the social interactions, which can vary greatly.
Less Emphasis on Internal Mechanisms: While acknowledging innate abilities, it may
not delve as deeply into the specific internal cognitive mechanisms of language
processing as purely cognitive theories.

Constructivism Theory of Learning

Definition
Constructivism is both a learning theory and a philosophy of education that suggests learners
actively build their knowledge through experiences and interactions. It posits that knowledge is
not passively received but is actively constructed by learners by relating new ideas to prior
experiences and frameworks. Education, from this perspective, should focus on problem-
solving and critical thinking, encouraging learners to connect new information with prior
knowledge.

Proponents
Jean Piaget: Focused on cognitive constructivism, emphasizing how children actively build
knowledge through interaction with their environment and progress through stages of
cognitive development.
Lev Vygotsky: Focused on social constructivism, emphasizing the social context of
learning, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and the critical role of social interaction
and scaffolding.
John Dewey: Advocated for experiential learning, stressing that education should be
grounded in real-life activities and problem-solving.
Maria Montessori: Developed a child-centered approach emphasizing self-directed,
hands-on learning.
 Jerome Bruner: Emphasized discovery learning and the spiral curriculum, where
learners actively build new ideas upon existing knowledge.

Components
Active Knowledge Construction: Learners are not passive recipients; they actively
build knowledge by integrating new information with existing schemas and experiences.
Meaning Making: Knowledge is interpreted and understood within the context of each
learner’s existing worldview, leading to personalized meaning.
Learner-Centered Approach: The learner\"s perspective, interests, and cultural
background are central to the learning process.
Experiential Learning: Learning is most effective when it is grounded in real-life
activities and problem-solving.
Social Interaction: Learning is both an individual and a collaborative endeavor, with
dialogue and collaboration refining thinking and building deeper understanding.
Scaffolding: Guidance and support are provided by teachers or more knowledgeable
peers, gradually reduced as learners gain confidence.
Reflection: Learners reflect on their experiences, create mental representations, and
incorporate new knowledge into their schemas.
Errors as Learning Opportunities: Mistakes are viewed as valuable insights into the
learner\"s thought processes and opportunities for refinement.

Strengths
Promotes Deep Understanding: Encourages learners to engage deeply with content,
leading to more profound and lasting understanding rather than rote memorization.
Fosters Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: Develops higher-order thinking skills
by requiring learners to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information.
Enhances Learner Autonomy: Empowers learners to take ownership of their learning,
promoting self-direction and intrinsic motivation.
Relevant to Real-World Contexts: Connects learning to real-life situations, making it
more meaningful and applicable.

Weaknesses
Time-Consuming: Constructivist approaches can be more time-intensive than
traditional methods, requiring more planning and facilitation from teachers.
Challenges in Assessment: Assessing learning in constructivist environments can be
complex, as it focuses on understanding and application rather than easily measurable
facts.
 Requires Skilled Facilitators: Effective implementation demands teachers who are
adept at guiding, questioning, and facilitating, rather than simply delivering information.
Potential for Misconceptions: If not properly guided, learners might construct
inaccurate understandings.

Socio-Cultural Learning Theory

Definition
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory emphasizes the profound role of social interaction and culture
in cognitive development and learning. It posits that learning is a fundamentally social process,
where individuals acquire knowledge, values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through
collaborative dialogues and interactions with more knowledgeable members of society within a
cultural context.

Proponents
Lev Vygotsky: The primary proponent of Sociocultural Theory.

Components
Social Interaction: Learning is a socially mediated process. Children (and learners in
general) develop cognitively through collaborative dialogues and interactions with more
knowledgeable individuals (e.g., teachers, parents, peers).
Culture: The values, beliefs, customs, and tools of a community significantly influence how
and what individuals learn. Culture provides the 'tools of intellectual adaptation' that shape
how individuals think and solve problems.
Tools of Intellectual Adaptation: These are culturally developed instruments (e.g.,
language, counting systems, mnemonic devices) that mediate thinking and problem-
solving. Language is considered the most important tool.
Internalization: The process by which social interactions and cultural tools are
transformed into internal mental processes. External dialogue becomes internalized as
thought.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This is the distance between what a learner
can do independently and what they can achieve with the guidance and collaboration of
a more knowledgeable other (MKO). Learning occurs most effectively within this zone.
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): An individual (teacher, parent, peer, etc.) or even
a tool (like a book or computer program) that has a higher level of understanding or
ability than the learner regarding a particular task or concept.
 Scaffolding: A teaching strategy where the MKO provides temporary support and
guidance to the learner within their ZPD. As the learner's competence grows, the
support is gradually withdrawn.
Language: Plays a critical role in cognitive development. It progresses from social speech
(communication with others) to private speech (talking aloud to oneself to guide thought)
and finally to inner speech (silent, internal dialogue for thinking and self-regulation).

Strengths
Emphasizes Social Context: Highlights the crucial role of social interaction and cultural
context in learning, providing a more holistic view than theories focusing solely on
individual cognitive processes.
Practical Educational Applications: Concepts like ZPD and scaffolding have direct
and significant implications for teaching practices, promoting collaborative learning and
individualized support.
Explains Cultural Differences: Accounts for how learning and cognitive development
can vary across different cultures due to the influence of cultural tools and social
practices.
Views Learning as Active: Learners are active participants in constructing knowledge
through interaction, rather than passive recipients.

Weaknesses
Less Emphasis on Individual Cognitive Processes: While acknowledging
individual development, it may not delve as deeply into the specific internal cognitive
mechanisms as some other theories.
Difficulty in Measuring ZPD: The ZPD is a dynamic concept, and precisely measuring
its boundaries can be challenging.
Generalizability: While powerful, some critics argue that the theory's emphasis on
social and cultural context might make it less generalizable across all learning situations
or individual differences.
Limited Empirical Research in Early Stages: Some of Vygotsky's original ideas
were not fully developed or empirically tested due to his early death, leading to various
interpretations and extensions by later researchers.
Comparison of All Theories
Theory Definition Proponents Key Components Strengths Weaknesses

Language
acquisition is a Oversimplifie
process of Classical Structured s language
habit formation Conditioning, learning, clear learning,
Behaviorist influenced by B.F. Skinner, Operant objectives, neglects
Theory John B. Conditioning, effective for internal
the Watson
environment Reinforcement basic skills processes,
and reinforced (Positive/Negative) limited
by conditioning creativity
techniques.

Language
learning is an
active process Active Mental
of problem- Processes, Innate
solving, Language Abilities, Emphasizes
Problem-Solving, active No single
Cognitive combining J.B. Carroll, prescribed
ideas from Teacher as learning,
Code Noam Facilitator, Errors focuses on approach,
Learning transformationa Chomsky can be
l grammar and as Learning understanding,
Theory Opportunities, aligns with cognitively
cognitive communicative demanding
psychology, Deductive/Inductiv
e Learning approach
emphasizing
mental
processes.

Language
learning is a
creative Innate Language
process where Acquisition Device
(LAD), Active Difficulty in
Creative- learners Explains testing innate
actively Construction,
Construction Stephen Creative Process, creativity, abilities,
Hypothesis construct Krashen, focuses on limited
internal Noam Input Hypothesis
Theory (i+1), Natural comprehensibl explanation
(Innatist representations Chomsky e input, for variability,
of the Order of
Theory) Acquisition, Errors explains less focus on
language, natural order output
involving an as Evidence of
innate ability Construction
to process and
generate
language.

Skill Learning Language Robert Declarative Explains May

Theory learning is the DeKeyser, Knowledge fluency and oversimplify
acquisition of a Richard , automaticity, complexities,
complex Schmidt, Procedural emphasizes focus on
Knowledge
,

Theory Definition Proponents Key Components Strengths Weaknesses

 cognitive skill, John R. Automatization, practice, explicit
transitioning Anderson Practice, Feedback, broadly learning,
from Priming applicable difficulty
declarative to measuring
procedural implicit
knowledge, knowledge
leading to
automatic and
fluent
performance.

Language
learning is a
collaborative
process
between the Social Interaction, Complexity,
Comprehensive
learner and Lev Input, Output, view, variability in
Interactional their Vygotsk Negotiation of emphasizes interaction
Theory of environment, y, Meaning, Feedback, communication quality, less
Learning particularly Jerome Scaffolding, Zone of , practical emphasis on
through social Bruner Proximal implications internal
interactions, Development (ZPD) mechanisms
involving both
innate abilities
and
environmental
interaction.

Active Knowledge
Learners Construction,
actively build Jean Meaning Making, Promotes Time-
their knowledge Piaget, Lev Learner-Centered deep consuming,
through Vygotsky, Approach, understanding, challenges in
Constructivis experiences and John fosters critical assessment,
m Theory of Experiential
interactions, Dewey, Learning, Social thinking, requires skilled
Learning integrating new Maria enhances facilitators,
Interaction,
information with Montessori, Scaffolding, learner potential for
existing Jerome Reflection, Errors autonomy, misconceptions
schemas and Bruner as Learning relevant to
experiences. Opportunities real- world
contexts

Socio- Learning is a Lev Social Interaction, Emphasizes Less

Cultural fundamentally Vygotsky Culture, Tools of social emphasis on
Learning social process Intellectual context, individual
Theory where Adaptation, practical cognitive
individuals Internalization, educational processes,
acquire Zone of Proximal applications, difficulty
knowledge Development explains measuring
through (ZPD), More cultural ZPD,
collaborative Knowledgeable differences, generalizability,
limited

Theory Definition Proponents Key Components Strengths Weaknesses

 dialogues and Other (MKO), views empirical
interactions with Scaffolding, learning as research
more Language active in early
knowledgeable stages
members of
society within a
cultural context.

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Definition
The Affective Filter Hypothesis, proposed by Stephen Krashen, suggests that negative
emotions such as stress, anxiety, boredom, and lack of motivation create a psychological
barrier (an "affective filter") that impedes a learner's ability to absorb comprehensible input
and thus hinders language acquisition. Conversely, a low affective filter (characterized by high
motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety) facilitates language acquisition.

Proponent
Stephen Krashen

Components
Affective Variables: Emotions and attitudes (e.g., motivation, self-confidence, anxiety)
that influence language learning.
Filter: A metaphorical barrier that can either block or facilitate the intake of
comprehensible input.
Comprehensible Input: Language input that is slightly beyond the learner's current
level but still understandable (i+1), considered essential for language acquisition.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD): An innate mental faculty (proposed by
Chomsky) that allows humans to acquire language, which Krashen suggests is affected
by the affective filter.

Strengths
Highlights Emotional Factors: Emphasizes the critical role of emotional and
psychological states in language learning, which is often overlooked in purely cognitive
or behavioral
 approaches.
Practical Implications for Teaching: Encourages teachers to create low-anxiety,
supportive, and motivating learning environments to facilitate acquisition.
Explains Variability: Helps explain why some learners, despite receiving ample input,
may struggle with language acquisition due to high affective filters.

Weaknesses
Difficulty in Measurement: The affective filter is a theoretical construct and is
difficult to directly measure or quantify.
Lack of Empirical Evidence for Direct Causation: While correlations exist, proving a
direct causal link between affective states and the blocking of input can be challenging.
Focus on Input: Similar to other aspects of Krashen's theory, it primarily focuses on the
role of input and may not sufficiently address the importance of output and interaction in
reducing the filter or promoting acquisition.