NOTES UNIT 3: ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

PITCH
Pitch or tone varies with the frequency or velocity of vibration. Depending on
the pitch, sounds may be low or high.
In the graphs at the left,
the distance between the
waves as frequency
changes can be
appreciated. The higher the
frequency, the higher the
pitch.
In music, pitch is
represented by musical
notes placed on a staff.
When the notes are too
high or low to fit on the
staff, additional lines called
ledger lines are used.

The modern staff comprises five lines and four spaces

To identify notes on the staff we use the clefs, they assign individual notes to
certain lines or spaces.

7 distinct clefs are used to facilitate writing scores for instruments with
different tessituras, avoiding excessive use of ledger lines.

The pitch can also be modified by alterations. These are symbols that alter by
one semitone the pitch of the note corresponding to the line or space on
which they are placed.
There are three alterations:

Raises a half step

lowers a half step
cancels out

An F-sharp is the same as a G-flat, but a B-sharp is the same as a C. This is

because between F and G there is a tone, but between B and C (and between
E and F) there is only a semitone.

Alterations can be used in two ways: in the key signature and as accidentals.
In the key signature, the symbols are placed as a set immediately after the
clef symbol, and mark the scale or key for the whole piece.
Accidentals are exceptions to the key signature. They are placed immediately
before the note where the alteration begins and the alteration only lasts
until the end of the measure in which it occurs.

An F-sharp is the same as a G-flat, but a B-sharp is the same as a C. This is

because between F and G there is a tone, but between B and C (and between
E and F) there is only a semitone.

MELODY
It’s one of the elements of music related to pitch.
A melody is a sequence of notes of equal or different pitch and duration
having a musical intention or meaning.
The melody is the part of musical pieces that you always remember, because
it is the most intuitive of the elements of music.
The pattern that shapes the different pitches on the staff is called the
melodic line.
The difference in pitch between two notes is called the interval. Intervals are
measured in tones and semitones.
To determine the number of an interval, count the notes including the first
and last.
Intervals can be ascending (if the first note is lower than the second) and
descending (if the first note is higher).

HARMONY
It’s another element of music related to pitch.
A harmony occurs when two or more simultaneous
melodies come together.
Harmony is also the field of music that studies sounds that go together.
When several notes sound at the same time, the resulting sound can be
consonant if it is pleasing to the ear, or dissonant if unpleasant. Harmony
studies these combinations.
The basic unit of harmony is the chord. A chord consists of two or more notes
sounding at the same time.
The most common chord is the triad, consisting of three notes with intervals
of a third between each two and a fifth between the first, called the
fundamental, and the third note. However, any 3 note chord is technically a
triad, but this is the most common type.
The task of finding the most suitable chords to accompany a melody and put
them in their place is called Harmonization.

TEXTURE
It is another element of music related to pitch, is inside of the harmony and
receives its name from its similarity to the texture of fabrics.
It refers to how the different voices and melodies are related and combined
in a musical work.
The simplest texture is monophony formed by a single melody or voice,
although it may be carried out by many performers simultaneously.
The opposite texture is polyphony, in which two or more voices are
superimposed.
Polyphonic texture can be 3 types:

• Homophony or coral: a polyphony in

which all voices share the same rhythm, and
the sonic result is a succession of chords.
• Contrapuntal (counterpoint): in this texture each voice has its own
rhythm. The simplest counterpoint is the canon, formed by all of the
voices having the same melody but starting at different times.

• Accompanied melody: There is a main melody with a chord

accompaniment, which can be broken (arpeggios) or in the usual chord
form (the notes sounding simultaneously).

DURATION
Duration is a quality of sound. It is the time from
which a sound begins to occur until it ends.
Depending on the duration sounds can be short
or long. In music duration is represented by the
musical note symbols and rests (silences).
The duration that the notes and rests represent
is always relative. In the chart below, each note
lasts half the time of the one above it and twice as long as the one below it, as
measured by the number of beats that a note or rest lasts.
 In addition to note and
rest symbols, there are
other graphic symbols
that affect duration,
including the dot, the tie,
and the fermata.
The dot is a point placed
to the right of a note or
rest that lengthens its
duration by half of its
value.

The tie looks like an arc

that “ties” two notes that
are equal in pitch so that
they are played as one
note with the duration of
both added together.

Don’t confuse a tie with a slur. A slur connects two or

more notes of different pitch and means to play the
notes smoothly without any breaks between the
notes (legato).
A fermata is a symbol that is placed above a note or rest
that prolongs the duration of the
note or rest to whatever the
player or conductor considers
appropriate.

RHYTHM
The element of music related to duration is rhythm. Rhythm is the most
instinctive element and is the first one we perceive.
The unit of measure of rhythm is the beat. The beat is the internal heartbeat
or heart of music.
The speed of the beat is called the movement or tempo. Changes in tempo
add expressiveness to a musical work. The actual duration of the notes
depends on the Tempo, as measured by a device called a
metronome.
The metronome was invented by Johann Maëlzel, and he
lived in Germany in the 19th century. He was a
contemporary of Beethoven and his friend.
In fact, he invented the metronome to help his friend keep
the tempo while he was playing or conducting, because he had become deaf.
Tempo indications are always placed above or below the staff, just like those
for dynamics and expression.
There are two types of tempo indications: constant and gradually variable.
Indications of constant tempo can be:
• Words in Italian or occasionally in English.
• Or numbers in beats per minute (metronome setting).

Term Meaning Beats/Minute

Largo Very Slow 40 – 60
Larguetto Slow and stately 60 – 66
Adagio Leisurely speed 66 – 76
Andante Walking speed 76 – 108
Moderato Moderate speed 108 – 120
Allegro Fast and cheerful 120 – 168
Vivace Quick and lively 168 – 176
Presto Extremely Fast 168 – 200
Prestissimo Even Faster 200+
In English there are three terms. Slow, Medium and Fast.

Markings for gradually variable tempo changes indicate a progressive

change and can be:
1. Words in Italian.
 2. Abbreviations of these words.

Accelerando Accel. Gradually faster

Ritardando Rit.
Gradually slower
Rallentando Rall.

RHYTHM and METER

Rhythm is the flow of the sounds according to their duration and accents. The
rhythm is constructed around the beat. (Uses the beat as the foundation).
Beats are grouped and organized into packages called bars or measures.
Graphically, the bars are separated by dividing lines called, sensibly, barlines.
Aurally, bars are separated by accents; an accent is a stronger beat.
The rhythmic structure of the musical bars is called the meter.
When there is an accent every two beats, then the rhythm is duple. Strong,
weak, weaker, is triple. Strong, weak, slightly strong, weaker is a quadruple
(four beat) meter. It can be said that a quadruple meter is formed by the union
of two duple meters.
The meter is indicated by the time signature (also called meter signature).
Time signatures are represented by two numbers in the form of a fraction:
The numerator gives the number of beats per measure, and the denominator
indicates the note duration that makes up one beat.
The whole note (negra) is represented by the number 1.
The half note (blanca)is represented by the number 2.
The quarter note (negra) is represented by the number 4.
The eighth note (corchea) is represented by the number 8.
The sixteenth note (semicorchea) is represented by the number 16.
The thirty-second note (fusa) is represented by the number 32.
The sixty-fourth note (semifusa) is represented by the number 64.
INTENSITY
It’s a quality of sound that indicates the strength or energy that a soundwave
has. It is more commonly called volume. In the graphical representation, the
intensity is marked by the height of the wave.

Depending on the intensity

sounds can be strong or weak.

The score of a musical work is

its most accurate graphical
representation. The musical
graphic is a simplified drawing
of a score used as an aid to
teaching.

The element of music related

to its sound intensity is
Dynamics. Dynamics or
changes in volume contribute
to give more expression to
musical works.

The instructions for dynamics are of two types:

• Constant intensity.
• Gradually variable intensity.

They all can be set above or below the staff.

Instructions for Dynamics of CONSTANT Intensity

pianissimo pp Very weak

piano p Weak

mezzopiano mp Slightly weak

mezzoforte mf Slightly strong

forte f Strong
 fortissimo ff Very strong

The intensity keeps constant till the constant indication changes.

The “f” in forte is the same as the openings of the soundboards of some
stringed instruments.
In the Baroque period (17th century and first half of the 18th), composers
liked to put a multitude of contrasts in their works. In terms of dynamics, one
method that used to be used was called the “echo” effect. The entire work
consisted of playing short musical passages in forte and then repeating them,
either in their entirety or only the last part, in piano, imitating how an echo
would sound.

Dynamics of VARIABLE Intensity

Dynamics of varying intensity are indicated by words or abbreviations in Italian
or by graphic signs called hairpins.
Hairpins can be single or double.
crescend → cresc.

decrescendo → decresc.

diminuendo → dim.

There are also double hairpins, that can be:

(crescendo, decrescendo)

(decrescendo,crescendo)
ACTIVITY “Bohemian Rapsody” (Queen)

Queen was one of the most famous rock groups of the 70s and 80s of the
twentieth century. They mixed rock with a very distinctive vocal polyphony and
sometimes used the techniques and instruments of symphonic music , and for
that reason it was called symphonic Rock.
It was made up of: Brian May (guitarist), John Deacon (bass), Roger Taylor
(drums) y Freddy Mercury (pianist and vocals).
Their lead singer, Freddy Mercury, had been one of the best male voices and
showmen in music. Unfortunately, he died in 1992, a victim of AIDS.
In the era of vinyl records, when a group recorded a new album, it first
published a single, which was a small disc with two tracks, one on each side.
Subsequently the full album, called a Long Play album or LP was launched.
"Bohemian Rhapsody" was released as a single in 1975 and was No. 1 for nine
weeks. It is part of LP album called "A Night at the Opera”, with which Queen
got their first platinum record.

TIMBRE
Timbre is a quality of sound. It is like the color of sound. It permits us to
identify the sound source even without seeing it.
The timbre of an instrument depends on many factors:
1. Shape
2. Material
 3. Method of sound production.
When it comes to human voices, the timbre depends as much on the voice
box (larynx) as it does on the resonators.
The element of music related to timbre is also called timbre, instrumentation
or orchestration.
Choosing instrumentation to express the desired timbre for a musical work is a
composer’s job; the choice also influences the character or expression of it.
INSTRUMENTAL GROUPS
Although there are many works for a single instrument, most musical works
are written for specific instrumental groupings.
Innumerable instrumental groupings are possible, although there are some
that are very well established because:
1. Their resulting sound together is good.
2. Many works have been written for them.
In modern popular music the three most common groups are:
1- The basic Jazz trio.
2- The Big Band.
3- The Rock group.
ACTIVITIES
1- “Help” by The Beatles.
British group, whose members were: John Lennon (vocal y rhythm
guitar), Paul McCartney (bass), George Harrison (lead guitar) y Ringo
Starr (drums).
2- “Oh When The Saints” by Louis Amstrong.
Louis Amstrong has been the most famous trumpet player of all time
and an accomplished jazz singer as well.

INSTRUMENT GROUPS IN CLASSICAL MUSIC

Let’s look at three types:
1- Chamber Music
2- Symphony Orchestra.
3- a Band.
 Chamber Groups
We call chamber music or chamber groups those formed by between 2 and 15
instruments. Chamber means a small living room. Each of the instruments that
make up the group acts as a soloist (plays an independent voice).
They are duets, trios, quartets, quintets.... and from ten instruments it’s called
chamber orchestras.
Symphony Orchestra
Its instruments are grouped by families : strings, woodwind, percussion and
metal wind.
The term "symphony" applied to the orchestra means the union of sounds of
all the instruments together so they sound as if they were a single giant
instrument. It is the timbral grouping with the most spectacular result.
Music Band
Its origin is very old; they were originally associated with war situations. They
are made up mostly of aerophones, but also have membranophones and
idiophones.

FORM
It’s an element of music not related to the qualities of sound.
To find the form of a musical work, we must first find the parts into which it
divides, and then analyze the elements of music present in each part (rhythm,
melody, harmony, texture, dynamics, character, timbre, …)
To discover the form or structure of a musical work we need time to listen to it
in its entirety and memory to remember its phrases and elements.
Each of the parts or sections of a musical work are designated by capital
letters of the alphabet.
The procedures that the composer used to add new parts are, among others,
repetition, contrast, and variation.
In repetition the new part is exactly like the previous one. A A
A variation is a repetition with some small change. A A´
A contrast has a section completely different from the preceding one. A B
Musical forms
There are 4 simple musical forms that are typical:
• Strophic (stanza) form: It repeats the same section, sometimes with
different lyrics, and is used in folk songs that tell stories (Romances). A A A
A.
• Binary form: It has two sections that may repeat (AA), vary (A A´) or
contrast (A B).
• Ternary form: It has three sections with various combinations, of which the
most common are: A A´ B , A B A , A B A´ , A B B´ and A B C
• Quaternary form: It has 4 sections with many combinations of which the
most common is usually A A B B.

CHARACTER
Character is one of the elements of music unrelated to qualities of sound. It
refers to the feelings, emotions and ideas that music conveys.
The composer decides the character of the piece and indicates it in the score
with terms that are often in Italian, but other languages can be used.
The terms of character are usually placed above or below the staff, as with
those of tempo and dynamics.
Some terms of character are: agitato (agitated), passionato (passionate),
lacrimoso (maudlin), espressivo (expressive), con dolore (with pain), marziale
(martial), scherzando (playing), misterioso (mysterious), giocoso (jocular, droll)
con brio (with energy), morendo (dying).
When several musicians interpret a piece, the director or conductor indicates
the character with gestures of his face.
Music provokes 3 types of responses or reactions in human beings.
1) Corporal response: It provokes movement (dance). The dance can either be
improvised (free) or organized in a choreography.
2) Emotional response: music influences our emotions. It is widely used (in
film, for example).
The reason why music is able to influence our emotions so much is because the
sense of hearing has direct connections with our (very primitive) emotional
brain, so that before we are aware that we are listening to music it is already
influencing our emotions.
The music in films can be of two types:
a) Screen music or realistic music: It comes from a sound source that is
present in the film. It is the music that exists in reality.
b) Background, or incidental, music: It’s music that is included to reinforce
the action and influence emotions. Normally, it is composed expressly
for the film, but sometimes is selected from the classical or modern
popular repertoire.
3) Intelectual response: It occurs when we analyze the music consciously to
discover how it was composed and/or is interpreted.
The first two responses are primary or unconscious.
The intelectual response is secondary or conscious.
To achieve a dark character we use a slow tempo, low notes on occasion
dissonant (sound bad) and soft dynamics except in a moment of “fright”.
For an innocent character and spring we use a slow tempo, high notes and
consonant harmony (sounds good), soft dynamics and we can ornament it
with trills and arpeggios.
For a romantic and passionate character, we wander over the entire tessitura
from high to low with strong dynamics, some dissonance, and a slow tempo,
but with a great abundance of scales, arpeggios, and repeated and insistent
chords, descending or ascending in semitones for example.
To reflect a comic character we use high and dissonant notes, a fast tempo,
loud dynamics and ornaments of dissonant clusters of notes (that sound bad).
ACTIVITY: “The Lord of the Rings” by Howard Shore

It is a film trilogy based on the J.R.R. Tolkien work of the same name. In it, two
sides fight to destroy or retrieve a ring of incalculable power:
-On one side are 1) hobbits, small and peaceful creatures, 2) The elves of the
city of Rivendell and the forests of Lothlorien, immortal, beautiful and wise
beings, 3) Men from two realms: Gondor (formerly great and glorious, but now
decaying without a king) and Rohan (nomadic people that make a living
breeding horses), and finally 4) dwarfs, little people but great warriors who
often live underground. An alliance arises among them to form The Fellowship
of the Ring to fight the evil.
-On the other side is Sauron, the Dark Lord who lives in the tower of Mordor,
protected by hordes of Orcs and other evil creatures, and intends to force all of
middle earth into submission. The tower of Isengard, where lived Saruman, an
old white wizard corrupted by Sauron and allied with him in his evil plans. The
nazgul, terrifying beings trapped under the power of the ring. And finally, the
ring itself .
Each of these characters or scenarios has its own leitmotif in this soundtrack.
Howard Shore composed a large number of them to suit different characters,
places and situations.
Howard Shore is a Canadian composer. Already a veteran in the composition of
soundtracks (he had composed over 60), he was commissioned in 2000 to
compose the music of this trilogy. It was a big challenge for him, first due to
the huge dimensions of the story and then having to recreate a fantastic world.
He spent more than 4 months reading all the works of Tolkien for inspiration.
In the end he composed more than 9 hours of music. Today this soundtrack is
one of the classics of film music. He was awarded two Oscars, one for the first
film and one in the last. One of the reasons he did not win an Oscar for the 2nd
part of the trilogy was because the work was excluded from consideration
because of a rule in effect at the time that excluded works from winning a 2nd
Oscar if they were based on the same motifs. This rule was repealed shortly
after, and for that reason he could win his second Oscar for the third film.
To recreate the “Rohirrim” he was inspired by Viking music (Norwegian Violin).

DANCE: TANGO
The tango is one of the set of partner dances
known as “ballroom dancing”. It has an Argentine
origin and is a spectacular and sensual dance.