MODULE -II

INLETS AND COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

Role of the air intakes

Any vehicle with air-breathing propulsion needs at least one air intake to feed its engine
so that it can move. The role of the air intake is to capture the airflow which the propulsion
(engines) and conditioning (radiators) systems need. They must do this in such a way as to
yield the best possible propulsive balance, which is expressed in two objectives:
- provide maximum thrust,
- induce minimum drag.

Maximum thrust is obtained by designing the air intake to transform kinetic energy (i.e.,
the velocity of the flow as it arrives in front of the air intake) into potential energy (the pressure
after the diffuser, at the engine input) with the best possible efficiency. Efficiency is a
parameter that is calculated by taking the ratio of the total pressure in front of the engine to that
of the upstream flow. This thrust is maximum if the air intake captures just what the engine
needs for each flight configuration and provides the engine input with a flow of good
homogeneity (low distortion) to ensure correct engine operation, which is essential for
turbojets. Minimum drag is obtained with air intakes that are dimensioned to just what the
engine needs (critical regime) and the design Mach number (Shock-on-lip Mach number).
Careful attention is paid to the side walls and cowls in light of the small variations in angle of
attack and yaw angle about the flight configurations.

Engine Inlet Ducts

The dynamic intake is the first component that meets the flow in its evolution through
the engine. It is positioned to provide the minimum external resistance. The task of the air
intake is to channel the flow at low velocity throught the compressor (or to the combustor in the
case of the ramjet) without causing the detachment of the boundary layer (because by the
slowdown of the flow, the static pressure increases, and the flow is then submitted an adverse
pressure gradient).

The air intake must be designed to provide the engine the required flow rate and also so
that the output of the dynamic intake flow entering the compressor is uniform, stable, and with
―good quality‖. So the goals of the Inlet are:
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  slow down the flow (up to M = 0.4 to 0.5);
 increase the pressure;
 Uniform flow at the upstream of the compressor;
 Minimal loss of total pressure;
 Minimum aerodynamic disorder;
 Minimum weight (ie minimum length).

The performance should not be prejudice in the presence of an incidence angle or yaw.
It is useful to observe that the requirement that the flow is uniform before the compressor could
be more important than to have small total pressure loss. The inlet is essentially a duct where
the air flows in stationary conditions. it is designed according to rules of gas dynamics; since
such laws have different implications depending on how the flow enters in the duct, if in
supersonic or subsonic conditions, the main classification of distinguishes between:
1. Subsonic inlet;
2. Supersonic inlet

SUBSONIC INTAKES

Subsonic intakes are found in the turbojet or turbofan engines powering most of the
present civil transports.The surface of the inlet is a continuous smooth curve where the very
front (most upstream portion) is called the inlet lip. A subsonic aircraft has an inlet with a
relatively thick lip. Concerning turboprop engines, the intakes are much complicated by the
propeller and gearbox at the inlet to the engine. Subsonic inlets have fixed geometry, although
inlets for some high bypass ratio turbofan engines are designed with blow-in-doors. These
doors are spring-loaded parts installed in the perimeter of the inlet duct designed to deliver
additional air to the aero engine during takeoff and climb conditions when the highest thrust is
needed and the aircraft speed is low.

The most common type of subsonic intake is the pitot intake. This type of intakes
makes the fullest use of ram due to forward speed, and suffers the minimum loss of ram
pressure with changes of aircraft altitude. However, as sonic speed is approached, the
efficiency of this type of air intake begins to fall because of the formation of a shock wave at
the intake lip. It consists of a simple forward entry hole with a cowl lip.

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 The three major types of pitot intakes as shown in Fig 2.1 are as follows

1. Podded intakes
2. Integrated intake
3. Flush intakes.

Fig. 2.2: Types of pitot intakes: (a) podded pitot, (b) integrated pitot, and (c) flush pitot.

Podded intake is common in transport aircraft.The integrated intake is used in combat

(military) aircraft. The flush intake is usually used in missiles since they can be more readily
accommodatedinto missile airframes.

Fig. 2.2:Flow characteristics of podded intakes: (a) ground run, (b) climb, (c) high-
speed cruise, and (d) top speed.
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Subsonic inlet performance

Depending on the flight speed and the mass flow demanded by the engine, the inlet
might have tooperate with a wide range of incident stream conditions. Fig 2.3 a and b show the
performances of subsonic intake during two typical subsonic conditions, takeoff and cruise,
respectively.The first illustrates the stream tube, while the second depicts the pressure and
speed variation and the third is a temperature–entropy diagram.

The flow in intake is identified by three states, namely far upstream that is denoted as
(∞), at the duct entry denoted by (1) and at the engine face denoted by (2). The flow outside the
engine (from state∞to 1) is an isentropic one, where no losses are associated with the total
temperature andpressure. For high speed, or cruise condition (Figure2.3b), the stream tube will
have a divergent shape and following conditions can be stated:

u1 < u∞, P1 > P∞, P01 = P0∞, T01 = T0∞

Fig. 2.2:Subsonic inlet during (a) takeoff and (b) cruise.

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 During low speed high-thrust operation (e.g., during takeoff and climb), as shown in
Figure 2.3a,the same engine will demand more mass flow and the air stream upstream the
intake will b accelerated. The stream tube will have a converging shape and the following
conditions are satisfied:

u1 > u∞, P1 < P∞, P01 = P0∞, T01 = T0∞

For both cases of takeoff and cruise, there will be internal diffusion within the intake up
to theengine face. The static pressure will rise and the air speed will be reduced. The total
pressure will also decrease owing to skin friction while the total temperature remains
unchanged, as the flow through diffuser is adiabatic. Thus, for both takeoff and cruise
conditions

P2 > P1, P02 < P0∞, u2 < u1

Since the inlet speed to the engine (compressor/fan) should be nearly constant for
different operating conditions, then

If this pressure increase is too large, the diffuser may stall due to boundary layer
separation.

Stalling usually reduces the stagnation pressure of the stream as a whole. Conversely,
for cruise conditions (Fig.2.3b) to avoid separation, or to have a less severe loading on the
boundary layer, it is recommended to have a low velocity ratio (u1/u∞) and consequently less
internal pressure rise. Therefore, the inlet area is often chosen so as to minimize external
acceleration during takeoff with the result that external deceleration occurs during level-cruise
operation. Under these conditions the ―upstream capture area‖ A∞ is less than the inlet area A1,
and some flow is spilled over the inlet.

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Supersonic intakes

The design of inlet systems for supersonic aircraft is a highly complex matter involving
engineering trade-offs between efficiency, complexity, weight, and cost. A typical supersonic
intake is made up of a supersonic diffuser, in which the flow is decelerated by a combination of
shocks and diffuse compression, and a subsonic diffuser, which reduces the Mach number from
high subsonic value after the last shock to the value acceptable to the engine.Subsonic intakes
that have thick lip are quite unsuitable for supersonic speeds.

The reason is that a normal shock wave ahead of the intake is generated, which will
yield a very sharp static pressure rise without change of flow direction and correspondingly big
velocity reduction. The adiabatic efficiency of compression through a normal shock wave is
very low as compared with oblique shocks.

At Mach 2.0 in the stratosphere adiabaticefficiency would be about 80% or less for
normal shock waves, whereas its value will be about 95% or even more for an intake designed
for oblique shocks.

.Flight at supersonic speeds complicates the diffuser design for the following reasons

1. The existence of shock waves that lead to large decrease in stagnation pressure even in
the absence of viscous effects.

2. The large variation in capture stream tube area between subsonic and supersonic flight
for a given engine, as much as a factor of four between M∞ = 1 and M∞ = 3.

3. As M∞ increases, the inlet compression ratio becomes a larger fraction of the overall
cycle compression ratios and as a result, the specific thrust becomes more sensitive to
diffuser pressure ratio.

4. It must operate efficiently both during the subsonic flight phases (takeoff, climb, and
subsonic cruise) and at supersonic design speed.

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Supersonic intake may be classified as follows

1. Axisymmetric or two-dimensional intakes

The axisymmetric intakes use axisymmetric central cone to decelerate the flow down to
subsonic speeds.The two-dimensional inlets has rectangular cross sections as found in the F-14
and F-15 fighter aircraft.

Fig. 2.2:Axisymmetric and two-dimensional supersonic intakes.

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2. Variable or fixed geometry

For variable geometry axisymmetric intakes, the central cone may move fore-and-aft to
adjust the intake area. Alternatively, the inlet area is adjusted in the case of rectangular section
through hinged flaps (or ramps) that may change its angles. For flight at Mach numbers much
beyond 1.6, variablegeometry features must be incorporated in the inlet to achieve high inlet
pressure recoveries together with low external drag.

Fig. 2.3:Variable and fixed geometry supersonic intakes.

3. Internal, external or mixed compression

As shown in Fig 2.4. The set of shocks situated between the forebody and intake lip are
identified as external shocks, while the shocks found between the nose lip and the intakes
throat are called internal shocks. Some intakes have one type of shocks either external or
internal and given the same name as the shocks, while others have both types and denoted as
mixed compression intakes.

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 Fig. 2.4:External and internal compression supersonic intake.

External compression intake

External compression intakes complete the supersonic diffusion process outside the
covered portion of the inlet where the flow is decelerated through a combination of oblique
shocks (may be a single, double, triple, or multiple). These oblique shocks are followed by a
normal shock wave that changes the flow from supersonic to subsonic flow. Both the normal
shock wave and the throat are ideally located at the cowl lip. The supersonic diffuser is
followed by a subsonic diffuser, which reduces the Mach number from high subsonic value
after the last shock to the value acceptable to the engine.

The simplest form of staged compression is the single oblique shock, produced by a
single-angled wedge or cone that projects forward of the duct, followed by a normal shock as
illustrated in Fig 2.5.The intake in this case is referred to as a two-shock intake.With a wedge,
the flow after the oblique shock wave is at constant Mach number and parallel to the wedge
surface. With a cone the flow behind the conical shock is itself conical, and the Mach number
is constant along rays from the apex and varies along streamline. Forebody intake is frequently
used for ―external compression intake of wedge or cone form‖.

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 Fig. 2.5:Single oblique shock external compression intake.

Mode of operation
Critical condition
The capture area (Ac) for supersonic intakes is defined as the area enclosed by the
leading edge, or ―highlight,‖ of the intake cowl, including the cross-sectional area of the
forebody in that plane. The maximum flow ratio is achieved when the boundary of the free
stream tube (A∞) arrives undisturbed at the lip. This means

This condition is identified as the full flow [6] or the critical flow [5]. This condition
depends on the Mach number, angle of the forebody and the position of the tip. In this case, the
shock angle θ isequal to the angle subtended by lip at the apex of the body and corresponds to
the maximum possibleflow through the intake.

Subcritical operation
At Mach numbers (or speeds) below the value of the critical (design) value described
above, the mass flow is less than that at the critical condition and the normal shock wave
occurs in front of the cowl lip and this case is identified as subcritical. It is to be noted here that

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Supercritical operation

If the at air speeds is greater than the design value, then the oblique shock will impinge
inside the cowl lip and the normal shock will move to the diverging section. This type of
operation is referred to as the supercritical operation.

Fig. 2.5:Types of flow in an external compression intake.

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Internal compression inlet
The internal compression inlet locates all the shocks within the covered passageway
(Fig 2.6). The terminal shock wave is also a normal one, which is located near or at the throat.
A principal difference between internal and external compression intakes is that with internal
compression, since the system is enclosed, oblique shocks are reflected from an opposite wall,
which have to be considered. The simplest form is a three-shock system. The single-wedge
turns the flow toward the opposite wall. The oblique shock is reflected from the opposite wall
and the flow passing the reflected shock is restored to an axial direction. A normal shock
terminates the supersonic as usual.

Fig. 2.5:Internal compression supersonic intake.

Methods for Starting an Intake

Some methods for overcoming the ‗starting‘ problem have been discussed in the following
section.

Over-speeding
Consider an intake designed for a Mach number of 1.7. The design point for this intake,
represented by the point B in this plot, has been shown in Fig. 2.6.

One of the methods of starting the intake is by increasing the free-stream Mach number.
Referring Fig. 2.6, conditions are modified so as to move the operating point from B to C. Once
at C the intake starts and the expected shock system is developed. Then again the free-stream
flow is decelerated to reach the design point B, while retaining the appropriate shockstructure.
This method of starting the intake is called ‗Over-speeding‘.

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 It is the simplest method for starting the intake from the point of view of design
complexity as it does not require any modifications to the intake aircraft.

Fig 2.6: Method of Over-speeding and Area Variation for Starting an Intake

However, from Fig. 2.6, it can be seen that the amount of over-speeding required even
for modest area ratios is very high. Hence, this method can best be employed for intakes
aircrafts designed for a very low supersonic Mach number. Also, as has been discussed in
Section 3.2, there exists a limiting area ratio (about 1.66) beyond which the intake cannot be
started even if accelerated it to an infinitely high Mach number.

Hence the method of over-speeding cannot be used for intakes which are designed for
Mach numbers beyond 2. Another problem with this method is that the intake remains in the
‗non-started‘ condition for quite some time in the supersonic flight regime, which is not
acceptable. Use of the method of ‗over-speeding‘ has not been reported on any aircraft and its
study is primarily of academic interest. As a result of its deficiencies, other methods need to be
explored for overcoming the starting problem.

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Variable area
Referring again to Fig. 2.6, we can see that another way of modifying the conditions at
point B so as to enable flow starting is by varying the area ratio, without over-speeding. The
area ratio at B can be reduced so as to reach point A. Once the intake starts at point A, the area
ratio can again be modified to operate at the design point. This method is referred to as
‗Variation of Intake Geometry‘ and can be used for starting intakes designed even for high
Mach numbers. However, it does require complex mechanisms for varying the area ratio. This
adds to cost, weight and complexity. This method can further be categorized depending on the
mechanism of modifying the intake geometry.

a) Rotation of a pivoted cowl

In this method, a cowl is pivoted to the main body and the position of the other end of
the cowl is controlled, so as to vary the intake geometry. By this method, the entry area can be
changed, thereby modifying the overall area ratio. This approach is relatively less complicated
and has been employed in hypersonic intakes

b) Lateral movement of the ramp / cowl / centre-body

By moving the ramp or cowl or centre-body, a variation in the throat area as well as the
inlet area can be achieved. Such a system has considerable flexibility and has been used in most
military aircrafts. The centre-body system is for axisymmetric intakes. Although slightly more
complex in design due to the requirement of moving a larger portion of the intake, this method
gives better off-design performance in terms of matching the intake and hence enjoys wide-
spread application.

Porous bleed
Another method employed for starting intakes is the use of porosity in the cowl. By
doing this, the back-pressure at the throat is reduced so that, the normal shock can be
positioned. Also, the use of bleed allows additional flow spillage without creating adverse
conditions at the intake entry. The effective reduction in back pressure is dictated by the
amount of mass removed using porous bleed and thus by the size and density of the holes used.
Use of porosity in a 2D intake at the wedge has been experimentally studied.

The total pressure recovery as well as drag increase as a function of Mach number.
These have been however found to be within limits, when compared with a solid wedge intake.
Other factors that dictate the performance characteristics include the amount of bleed and its
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location. Cubbison, et al have experimentally studied the effects of variation in the location and
bleed amount on the performance in axisymmetric intakes.

It has been reported that the best starting and stability characteristics were obtained
when porosity was located just downstream of the terminal shock. Also, the intake performance
in terms of pressure recovery has been reported to have improved with an increase in bleed
percentage, though at the cost of increased inlet flow distortion.

Thus, it is seen that the use of porosity does enhance the overall performance of the
intake, particularly under off-design conditions. Also, this method does not require any of the
complicated and weight intensive equipment as needed in case of variable geometry. However,
one of the major disadvantages associated with this method is the flow distortion, and this has
been the major deterrent for most applications. Also, there are always losses related to mass
flow even after the intake has started.

This leads to a lower critical performance. An improvement suggested is the use of

variable bleed by controlling the bleed plenum exit area. This however comes at the cost of
added complexity.

Other methods for Starting

Innovative methods for starting an intake designed for high supersonic and hypersonic
speeds have been discussed in this section. The capture cross-section in hypersonic aircraft
intakes employing the airframe-integrated-scramjet concept has been recommended to be
rectangular. The initial compression is performed by the vehicle bow-shock.

The intake is then expected to start at ramjet speeds (around Mach 4) and operate over a
large Mach number range. One of the proposed designs employs a rectangular capture area and
elliptic throat (also known as REST; acronym for Rectangular to Elliptic Shape Transition).
The combustor too is elliptic allowing better combustion characteristics. Three views of such a
design are depicted in Fig. 3.5. Key features of this type of intake include

• Self-starting characteristics at Mach 4.

• Area ratio greater than the critical area ratio required for starting.

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Starting is assisted by the use of spillage holes on the side walls and the peculiar shape of the
cowl. Due to its simple construction which excludes any moving parts, this configuration seems
to have a good scope for development in the future.

Combustion chamber
The combustion process in aircraft engines and gas turbines is a heat addition process to
the compressed air in the combustor or burner. Thus, the combustion is a direct-fired air heater
in which fuel is burned. The combustor is situated between the compressor and turbine, where
it accepts air from the compressor and delivers it at elevated temperature to the turbine.

Main requirements from gas turbine combustors

1. Its length and frontal area to remain within the limits set by other engine components,
that is, size and shape compatible with engine envelop.

2. Its diffuser minimizes the pressure loss.

3. The presence of a liner to provide stable operation [i.e., the flame should stay alight
over a wide range of air–fuel ratios (AFRs)].

4. Fulfills the pollutant emissions regulations (low emissions of smoke, unburned fuel, and
gaseous pollutant species).

5. Ability to utilize much broader range of fuels.

6. Durability and relighting capability.

7. High combustion efficiency at different operating conditions: (1) altitude ranging from
sea level to 11 km for civil transport and higher for some military aircraft and (2) Mach
numbers ranging from zero during ground run to supersonic for military aircraft.

8. Design for minimum cost and ease of maintenance.

9. An outlet temperature distribution (pattern form) that is tailored to maximize the life of
the turbine blades and nozzle guide vanes.

10. Freedom from pressure pulsations and other manifestations of combustion-induced

instabilities.

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 11. Reliable and smooth ignition both on the ground (especially at very low ambient
temperature) and in the case of aircraft engine flameout at high altitude.

12. The formation of carbon deposits (coking) must be avoided, particularly the hard brittle
variety. Small particles carried into the turbine in the high velocity gas stream can erode
the blades. Furthermore, aerodynamically excited vibration in the combustion chamber
might cause sizeable pieces of carbon to break free, resulting in even worse damage to
the turbine.

Classification of combustion chambers

There are three main types of subsonic combustion chambers in use in gas turbine engines,
namely, multiple chamber (tubular or can type), tubo-annular chamber, and the annular
chamber.

Tubular (or can) combustion chambers

Tubular type is sometimes identified as multiple- or can-type combustion chamber. As
shown in Fig 2.7 this type of combustor is composed of cylindrical chambers disposed around
the shaft connecting the compressor and turbine. Compressor delivery air is split into a number
of separate streams, each supplying a separate chamber. These chambers are interconnected to
allow stabilization of any pressure fluctuations. Ignition starts sequentially with the use of two
igniters.

Fig 2.7:Multiple combustion chambers.

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