Computer Networks

Unit 4
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Agenda

Introduction to the Network Layer IPv6 Addressing

Importance of the Network Layer Routing Algorithms (Overview)

Data and Control Planes Popular Routing Protocols

Software-Defined Networking (SDN)

Network Service Model
Control Plane
Switching Techniques
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Internet Protocol (IP) Simple Network Management Protocol

(SNMP)
IPv4 Addressing
Management Information Base (MIB)
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Introduction to the Network Layer

Role in the OSI Model

The Application Layer is the topmost layer in the OSI model, directly interacting with end-user
applications like web browsers and email clients. It provides the necessary protocols and
interfaces that enable software to communicate across a network.

Importance of the Application Layer

It is essential for managing data exchange between networked applications. Protocols like
HTTP, DNS, and SMTP define how requests and responses are formatted, ensuring seamless
communication across different systems and devices.
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Importance of the Network Layer
Data Routing: Determines the best path for data packets to travel, optimizing network traffic and
reducing latency.

Scalability: Supports larger networks by allowing multiple interconnected subnetworks,

accommodating growth.

Protocol Independence: Provides services to the Transport Layer regardless of the underlying
technologies or protocols used, ensuring compatibility and flexibility.

Error Handling and Diagnostics: Uses protocols like ICMP to communicate errors and operational
information, facilitating network management and troubleshooting.
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Data and Control Planes
Data Plane
The Data Plane, also known as the forwarding plane, is responsible for the actual transmission
of user data packets through the network. It handles the tasks associated with the movement of
data from one point to another.
Examples: Switches and routers operate mainly in the data plane, forwarding packets based on their
destination addresses.
Control Plane
The Control Plane is responsible for managing and controlling the routing and forwarding of
data packets across the network. It makes decisions about where traffic is sent and establishes
the paths for the data packets.

Examples: Routers utilize the control plane to build

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Interaction between the Two Planes
Complementary Roles: The data plane and control plane work together to ensure efficient and
reliable network operation.

Data Flow:
The control plane sets up the paths (routes) and rules that the data plane follows to forward
packets.
When network changes occur (e.g., link failures), the control plane updates the rules, allowing
the data plane to adapt accordingly.

SDN Context: In Software-Defined Networking (SDN), the separation of these planes enhances
network flexibility, allowing centralized control without altering the data plane's performance.
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Network Service Model
The Network Service Model defines the way data is transferred across a network and outlines the
expectations between the service provider and the user. It establishes the framework for how
different applications and services communicate over a network, ensuring efficient data transfer
while meeting specific requirements.
Types of Service Models
1. Connection-oriented Service
Establishes a dedicated communication path between sender and receiver.
Guarantees delivery of data packets in the correct order.
Suitable for applications that require reliability, such as video conferencing and online
gaming.
2. Connectionless Service
Sends data packets without establishing a dedicated path.
Each packet is treated independently, and delivery is not guaranteed.
More efficient for applications that can tolerate some data loss, such as streaming services.
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Comparison of Service Models

Feature Connection-oriented Connectionless

Path Establishment Required Not required

Delivery Guarantee Yes No

Order of Delivery Maintained Not maintained

Overhead Higher Lower

Use Cases File transfers, VoIP Video streaming, DNS

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Switching Techniques
Switching is responsible for managing how data packets are directed through a network. It
determines the most efficient path for data to travel from the source to the destination, ensuring
effective communication between devices.

Resource Efficiency: Packet switching is particularly resource-efficient, as it allows multiple data

streams to share the same network resources. This method reduces latency and maximizes
bandwidth utilization, as packets can be routed dynamically based on network conditions.
Quality of Service (QoS): Switching techniques can affect the quality of service in a network.
Circuit switching provides consistent performance due to its dedicated path, while packet
switching can experience variable latency and jitter depending on network congestion.
Application Scenarios: Different switching methods are suited for various applications. Circuit
switching is ideal for real-time communications (like voice calls), while packet switching is best
for data-centric applications (like web browsing and file transfers), and message switching is
useful in systems where data can be stored temporarily (like email services).
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Types of Switching Methods
1. Circuit Switching
Dedicated Connection: Establishes a reserved communication path for the entire session,
ensuring consistent quality.
Delay-Free Communication: Provides real-time transmission without delays, ideal for voice calls.
2. Packet Switching
Dynamic Routing: Breaks data into packets routed independently, optimizing network resource
use.
Efficiency and Scalability: Supports multiple users simultaneously, making it suitable for
applications like web browsing and video streaming.
3. Message Switching
Store-and-Forward Mechanism: Sends entire messages stored at intermediate nodes before
forwarding, introducing potential delays.
Handling of Large Messages: Effective for large data transmissions (e.g., email), but less suitable
for real-time communication due to delays.
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Internet Protocol (IP)
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a fundamental protocol within the Internet Protocol Suite. It is responsible for
delivering packets of data from the source host to the destination host based on their IP addresses. IP
operates at the Network Layer of the OSI model and serves as the primary communication protocol for
transmitting data across networks.
Purpose of Internet Protocol
Addressing: IP assigns unique numerical identifiers (IP addresses) to each device connected to a
network, enabling accurate identification and routing of data packets.
Routing: IP facilitates the determination of optimal paths for data packets to travel through
interconnected networks, ensuring efficient data transmission.
Functionality of IP
Packetization: Encapsulates data into packets with headers and payloads.
Fragmentation: Splits larger packets into smaller fragments to accommodate different network MTUs.
Error Reporting: Utilizes protocols like ICMP for basic error handling, while relying on higher layers
for reliable delivery.
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IPv4 Addressing
Definition: IPv4 addressing is the method used to identify devices on a network using a unique 32-bit
address.
Purpose: It enables communication between devices over the Internet and is essential for routing
data packets.
Structure of IPv4 Addresses
Format:
An IPv4 address consists of 32 bits divided into four octets (8 bits each).
Notation: Dotted decimal format, e.g., 192.168.1.1.
Binary Representation:
Each octet can represent values from 0 to 255.
Example: The binary representation of 192.168.1.1 is 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001.
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Address Classes
Class A: Class D:
Leading Bits: 0 Leading Bits: 1110
Range: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 Purpose: Multicast addressing
Hosts per Network: ~16 million Class E:
Class B: Leading Bits: 1111
Leading Bits: 10 Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 Purpose: Experimental use
Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
Hosts per Network: ~65,000
Class C:
Leading Bits: 110
Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Hosts per Network: ~254
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Subnetting and CIDR
Subnetting:
The process of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable sub-networks (subnets).
Allows for efficient IP address management and improves security.
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):
Introduced to replace traditional class-based addressing.
Uses a notation format (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24) indicating the network prefix length.
Benefits:
Efficient IP address allocation.
Reduces routing table size.
Subnet Mask:
Defines the network and host portions of an IP address.
Example: For 192.168.1.1, the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 indicates that the first three octets are
the network portion.
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IPv6 Addressing
Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
Exhaustion of IPv4 Addresses: The rapid growth of the internet and connected devices has led to
a shortage of IPv4 addresses, as it supports approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.

Need for Expansion: The increasing number of devices, such as smartphones, IoT devices, and
servers, requires a more extensive addressing scheme.

IPv6 Introduction: IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to
address the limitations of IPv4 and to provide a larger address space.
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Structure of IPv6 Addresses
128-bit Addressing: IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, allowing for approximately 340 undecillion
(3.4 x 10^38) unique addresses.
Hexadecimal Representation: Addresses are represented in hexadecimal format, separated by
colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Compression: Leading zeros in each segment can be omitted, and consecutive segments of zeros
can be represented by a double colon (::) only once in an address.

Address Types:
Unicast: Identifies a single interface.
Multicast: Identifies a group of interfaces.
Anycast: Identifies the nearest interface among a group.
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Benefits of IPv6
Larger Address Space: The extensive address range supports the growing number of internet-
connected devices, ensuring connectivity for future innovations.

Simplified Address Configuration: IPv6 supports stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC),

allowing devices to configure their own addresses without manual intervention.

Improved Security: IPv6 was designed with security in mind, incorporating IPsec (Internet
Protocol Security) as a mandatory feature for secure communications.

Enhanced Routing Efficiency: IPv6 simplifies routing tables and enhances routing efficiency by
allowing for better aggregation of routes.
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Routing Algorithms
Definition of Routing Algorithms
Routing algorithms are processes or methods used by routers to determine the optimal path for
forwarding packets through a network. They assess various factors such as network topology,
traffic conditions, and metrics to select the most efficient route for data transmission.
Importance of Routing in Networking
Routing plays a crucial role in ensuring data packets are delivered efficiently across networks. It
enables communication between devices in different networks, supports load balancing,
enhances network reliability, and helps in optimizing bandwidth usage. Effective routing
contributes to improved network performance and user experience.

Types of Routing Algorithms

1. Static Routing: Routes are manually configured by network administrators.
2. Dynamic Routing: Routes are automatically adjusted based on current network conditions.
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Static vs. Dynamic Routing
Feature Static Routing Dynamic Routing

Configuration Manual setup Automatic updates

Suited for large, complex

Scalability Best for small networks
networks

Flexibility Inflexible, fixed routes Adapts to network changes

More complex due to

Complexity Simple to manage
protocols

Resource Usage Lower overhead Higher resource consumption

Fault Tolerance Less tolerant of failures Automatically reroutes

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Popular Routing Protocols
1. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol that uses hop count as its metric, allowing routers to
determine the best path for data across small to medium-sized networks. It has a maximum hop
count of 15 and uses periodic updates to maintain routing information.
2. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF is a link-state routing protocol designed for larger and more complex networks. It uses a
link-state algorithm to create a comprehensive map of the network topology, enabling efficient
routing based on cost metrics related to bandwidth.
3. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
BGP is a path-vector protocol used for exchanging routing information between autonomous
systems on the internet. It utilizes path attributes for routing decisions and is designed to handle
a large number of routes, making it essential for internet scalability.
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Software-Defined Networking (SDN) Control Plane
Introduction to SDN
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is a revolutionary approach to designing and managing
networks. It decouples the network control and data planes, allowing for centralized control
and programmability of the network infrastructure. SDN provides a more agile and flexible
network management framework that can adapt to changing business needs and enhances
overall network efficiency.
Role of the Control Plane in SDN
The control plane in SDN is responsible for the centralized management and orchestration of
network resources.
Unlike traditional networking, where each device makes its own forwarding decisions, the
control plane communicates with the data plane (network devices) to dictate how packets
should be handled.
It uses protocols like OpenFlow to manage the flow of data across the network, enabling
dynamic adjustments based on real-time network conditions. This separation of control and
data allows for greater scalability and simplified network management.
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Software-Defined Networking (SDN) Control Plane
Benefits of SDN
Centralized Management: SDN enables a single point of control for the entire network, simplifying
configuration and monitoring.

Improved Agility: The programmable nature of SDN allows for quick deployment of new services
and applications, significantly reducing time-to-market.

Cost Efficiency: By using commodity hardware and centralized control, organizations can reduce
operational costs while optimizing resource usage.

Enhanced Security: SDN facilitates better security policies by allowing for dynamic updates and
centralized visibility across the network, making it easier to identify and mitigate threats.
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Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Overview of ICMP
Definition: ICMP is a network layer protocol used by network devices to send error messages
and operational information.
Purpose: It facilitates communication between network devices and aids in diagnosing
connectivity issues.
Standards: Defined in RFC 792, ICMP is integral to the Internet Protocol suite.

Functionality and Use Cases

Error Reporting: ICMP reports issues such as unreachable hosts, time exceeded, and packet
fragmentation needed.
Diagnostics: Used in network troubleshooting tools like ping and traceroute.
Network Management: Helps manage and control IP networks by providing feedback about
issues in the communication environment.
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Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Common ICMP Messages
Echo Request/Reply:
Purpose: Used to test connectivity between devices.
Function: `ping` command sends an Echo Request message, and the target device responds with
an Echo Reply.
Destination Unreachable:
Indicates: A packet could not reach its destination for reasons such as network failure or the
host being unreachable.
Time Exceeded:
Usage: Sent when a packet is discarded because its time-to-live (TTL) has expired, often used in
the `traceroute` utility to determine the path packets take.
Redirect Message:
Function: Informs a host to send packets to a different gateway for optimal routing.
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Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Overview of SNMP
SNMP is a protocol used for network management, monitoring, and configuration of network
devices.
Operates at the application layer of the Internet Protocol Suite.
Functionality in Network Management
Facilitates communication between network management systems and devices.
Enables retrieval of operational data and performance metrics.
Supports alerting for network issues through traps.
Components of SNMP
Manager: Central system that monitors and controls network devices.
Agent: Software running on network devices, collecting and sending data to the manager.
MIB (Management Information Base): Database containing the hierarchy of management data
for devices.
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Management Information Base (MIB)
Definition of MIB
MIB is a collection of information organized hierarchically, describing the properties of
managed objects within a network device.

Purpose and Structure of MIB

Provides a standard framework for representing device management data.
Uses a tree structure with OIDs (Object Identifiers) to uniquely identify each managed object.

Role in SNMP
MIB defines the data that SNMP agents can collect and send to managers.
Enables standardized communication for network management across diverse devices and
manufacturers.
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Conclusion
The Network Layer enables communication between different networks.

It consists of the data plane (data transfer) and the control plane (routing management).

Internet Protocol (IP), including IPv4 and IPv6, is used for addressing and routing data.

Routing algorithms (e.g., RIP, OSPF, BGP) find the best paths for data.

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) allows centralized management of network resources.

ICMP and SNMP are important for network diagnostics.

Together, these components ensure efficient and reliable networking.