Unit Details

I Concept of Personality, Personality - Definition and meaning, Importance,

Leadership and Management, Leader vs Manager, Essential qualities of an
effective leader
II Personality Characteristics Personality: Concept and Definition, Determinants
of personality, Personality traits, Personality characteristics in organization
III Self-evaluation Self- evaluation, Locus of control, Self-efficacy, Self-esteem,
Self monitoring: Positive and negative Impact. Organizational Context of
Leadership and Personality - Contemporary Business Leaders.
IV Qualities of Personality Development Body language - Problem-solving -
Conflict and Stress Management - Decision-making skills - Character building
- Team-work – Time management - Work ethics and etiquette
V Aspects of Employability Resume building- Interactive session – Facing the
Personal (HR & Technical) Interview – Self Introduction - Psychometric
Analysis - Mock Interview Sessions.
 UNIT – I
Concept of Personality : Personality - Definition and meaning, Importance, Leadership
and Management, Leader vs Manager, Essential qualities of an effective leader

Meaning and Definitions of Personality

The word ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means to
‘speak
through’. This Latin word means the mask worn by the actors. Therefore, the personality
refers
to role which an individual displays to the public. Personality does not only mean the charm,
beauty, smiling face and attitude of a person towards life. But, it is a dynamic concept which
describes the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system. The
concept of personality traditionally refers to how people-influence others through their
external appearances and actions. But for the psychologists personality includes:
I. Eternal appearances and behaviour
ii. The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force, and
iii. The particular organization of measureable traits, both inner and outer.
Personality is an individual difference that lends consistency to a person's behaviour;
Personality is a relatively stable set of characteristics that influence an individual's
behaviour and can be described as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others. The concept of personality can be better understood through the
following mentioned Definitions:
According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual
of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”
According to Fred Luthans, “Personality means how a person affects others and how he
understands and views himself as well as pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the
person-situation interaction.”
Different psychologists interpreted personality in different ways. The above mentioned
definitions of personality clearly explain that meaning of personality is much more than just
the role which an individual displays to the public. Combining all these definitions together
it can be said that personality represents the sum total of several attributes which are
noticeable in an individual and which determine his pattern of behaviour.
DEFINITION: “Personality is that pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours that distinguishes one person from another and that persists over time” “It is the
sum of biologically based and learnt behaviour which forms the person's unique responses to
environmental stimuli”

Personality is multidimensional concept. It is unique set of traits, behaviors and

characteristics that define who we are and how respond with our surroundings. Here, we will
see definitions, nature, characteristics of personality, personality tests with the help of
authentic
sources. “Personality” word comes from the Latin word “persona” which means a mask worn by an
actor.

DEFINITIONS
1. “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual, of those psycho-physical systems
that characterize his/her characteristic adjustment to the environment” (Allport, 1937).

2. “It refers to the unique and consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving” (Pervin, 1996).
3. Raymond Cattell defines personality as “the traits that predict a person’s behaviour” (Cattell,
1950).

4. According to the American Psychological Association, “Personality refers to individual

differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving” (APA, 2023).
5. “It is the sum total of all biological, innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and
instincts of the individual and the acquired dispositions and tendencies acquired by experiences”
(Prince, 1924).
6. “It is the more or less stable and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament,
intellect, and physique that determine his unique adjustment to his environment” (Eysenck, 1952).
7. “Personality usually refers to the distinctive patterns of behaviour (including thoughts and
emotions) that characterize each individual’s adaptations to the situations of his life or her life”
(Mischel, 1981).
8. “It is generally defined as an individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour,
thoughts, and emotions” (Baron, 1993)

History and nature

History and nature Historically, personality theory was taught from a ‗grand theorist‘
approach in which selected theories proposed by individuals were presented separately.
Many of these theorists (Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Gordon Allport, Carl Rogers, to
name a few) have become well known and are cited in most introductory psychology texts.
(See Table 1.2.) This telling of our discipline‘s history has the advantage of presenting
comprehensive theories that have an internal logic, but the disadvantage of omitting or
understating more recent advances that seldom fit this model. The classical grand theories
often reflected the professional and life experience of their originators (Monte 1977), and
their fundamental assumptions (Skinner‘s belief in environmental determination; Maslow‘s
optimism; Freud‘s assumption of conflict) are not universally shared. This particularity
fosters fragmentation in the discipline of personality. Followers of each grand
Milestones in the history of personality
1890 William James publishes Principles of psychology (with sections on the self and other
personality-related issues)
1900 Sigmund Freud publishes The interpretation of dreams
1907 Alfred Adler publishes A study of organic inferiority and its psychical compensation
1908 Mary Calkins describes the self (in several papers)
1910 Carl Jung publishes The association method (research on complexes)
1923 Sigmund Freud publishes The ego and the id (structures of personality)
1927 Gordon Allport publishes Concepts of trait and personality
1935 Henry Murray publishes the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
1936 Anna Freud publishes The ego and the mechanisms of defence
1937 Gordon Allport publishes Personality: a psychological interpretation
1937 Karen Horney publishes The neurotic personality of our time
1938 B. F. Skinner publishes The behaviour of the organisms
1938 Henry Murray publishes Explorations in personality
1939 John Dollard and Neal Miller publish Frustration and aggression
1943 Abraham Maslow publishes A theory of human motivation
1950 Erik Erikson publishes Childhood and society
1951 Carl Rogers publishes Client-centered therapy
1952 Hans Eysenck publishes The structure of human personality
1954 Abraham Maslow publishes Motivation and personality
1955 Lee Cronbach and Paul Meehl publish Construct validity in psychological tests
1955 George Kelly publishes The psychology of personal constructs
1957 Lee Cronbach publishes The two disciplines of scientific psychology
1961 The Journal of Humanistic Psychology begins
1961 Albert Bandura and collaborators describe learning of aggression through modelling
(Bobo doll study)
1962 Founding of the Association for Humanistic Psychology
1900 Sigmund Freud publishes The interpretation of dreams
1907 Alfred Adler publishes A study of organic inferiority and its psychical compensation
1908 Mary Calkins describes the self (in several papers)
1910 Carl Jung publishes The association method (research on complexes)
1923 Sigmund Freud publishes The ego and the id (structures of personality)
1927 Gordon Allport publishes Concepts of trait and personality
1935 Henry Murray publishes the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
1936 Anna Freud publishes The ego and the mechanisms of defence
1937 Gordon Allport publishes Personality: a psychological interpretation
1937 Karen Horney publishes The neurotic personality of our time
1938 B. F. Skinner publishes The behaviour of the organisms
1938 Henry Murray publishes Explorations in personality
1939 John Dollard and Neal Miller publish Frustration and aggression
1943 Abraham Maslow publishes A theory of human motivation
1950 Erik Erikson publishes Childhood and society
1951 Carl Rogers publishes Client-centered therapy
1952 Hans Eysenck publishes The structure of human personality
1954 Abraham Maslow publishes Motivation and personality
1955 Lee Cronbach and Paul Meehl publish Construct validity in psychological tests
1955 George Kelly publishes The psychology of personal constructs
1957 Lee Cronbach publishes The two disciplines of scientific psychology
1961 The Journal of Humanistic Psychology begins
1961 Albert Bandura and collaborators describe learning of aggression through modelling
(Bobo doll study)
1962 Founding of the Association for Humanistic Psychology
1967 Hans Eysenck publishes The biological basis of personality
1968 Abraham Maslow publishes Toward a psychology of being
1968 Walter Mischel challenges the trait model in Personality and assessment
1971 B. F. Skinner publishes Beyond freedom and dignity
1973 Albert Bandura publishes Aggression: a social learning analysis
1976 Richard Dawkins publishes The selfish gene
1978 Mary Ainsworth describes attachment in young children
1987 McCrae and Costa present data on the Five-Factor trait Model
1987 Daniel Schachter describes implicit memory (alternative view of unconscious
cognition)
1989 David Buss describes cross-cultural universals in the evolution of mating behaviour
2000 Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi publish Positive psychology

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:
 Personality development includes activities that improve awareness and identity, develop
talents and potential, build human capital and facilitate employability, enhance quality of life
and contribute to the realization of dreams and aspirations.
 When personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the
methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems that support human
development at the individual level in organizations.
 Personality development includes activities that develop talents, improve awareness,
enhances potential and looks to improve the quality of life. It involves formal and informal
activities that put people in the role of leaders, guides, teachers, and managers for helping
them realize their full potential.
 Hence, it can be concluded that the process of improving or transforming the personality
is called personality development.
SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:
Most people underestimate the importance of having a pleasing personality. Majority think it
just means being born good-looking, that there isn’t anything much to do about it. But this is
not true. The scope of personality development is quite broad. It includes knowing how to
dress well, social graces, grooming, speech and interpersonal skills. Whatever your career,
these are very important skills that will promote your objectives.
An individual's personality refers to his/her appearance, characteristics, attitude,
mindset and behavior with others.
a. Confidence:
Personality development gives more confidence to people. When you know you are
appropriately attired and groomed, this makes you less anxious when meeting a person.
Knowing the right things to say and how to conduct yourself will increase your confidence.
b. Credibility:
Personality development makes people more credible. Despite the saying that you don’t
judge a book by its cover, people do tend to judge people by their clothing and how it is
worn. This does not mean buying expensive clothes. We all know people who look shabby
in expensive clothes. There are also people who look great even if their attire is inexpensive.
Because of this, you must know what to wear and you must be aware of other aspects of
enhancing your physical features.
c. Interaction:
Personality development encourages people to interact with others. Studies have consistently
shown that people communicate more openly with people they are comfortable with. If your
hygiene and social graces are unrefined, then expect to have a much harder time connecting
with people.
d. Leading and Motivating:
Personality development enhances the capacity to lead and motivate. A person with a
winning personality will be able to motivate better. People are less likely to get bored, and
our ideas will have more credibility. We can lead better if we project an aura of confidence
and credibility.
e. Curiosity:
A single wrong word can destroy a business relationship. Knowing the right things to say
shows both respect and intellectual sophistication. This is especially the case if you are
dealing with foreigners or if you conduct business outside the country. The right thing to do
in our country could be horrible blunders in a different culture. These are the soft skills that
may break or make a deal.
f. Communication skills:
It improves your communication skills. People are more receptive to what you say if they are
impressed with your personality. Verbal communication skills are also part of personality
development; improving your speech will strengthen the impact of your message.
g. Personality development grooms a individual and helps him make a mark of his/her
own. Individuals need to have a style of their own for others to follow them. Do not blindly
copy others. You need to set an example for people around. Personality development not
only makes you look good and presentable but also helps you face the world with a smile.
h. Personality development goes a long way in reducing stress and conflicts. It encourages
individuals to look at the brighter sides of life. Face even the worst situations with a smile.
i. Personality development helps you develop a positive attitude in life. An individual
with a negative attitude finds a problem in every situation. Rather than cribbing and
criticizing people around, analyze the whole situation and try to find an appropriate solution
for the same.

LEADERSHIP DEFINITION:

“Leadership is the exercise of authority and making of decisions” – Dubin,

R.Leadership is the ability to build up confidence and zeal among people and to create an
urge in them to be led. It is the practice of influence that stimulates subordinates or followers
to do their best towards the achievement of desired goals.

Leadership is defined as ―the process whereby one individual influences other group
members towards the attainment of defined group or organizational goals.‖other group
members towards the attainment of defined group or organizational goals.
According to Hollander, ―Leadership is a process of influence between a leader and
those who are followers.
According to Hamphill and Coons, ―Leadership is the behavior of an individual
when he is directing the activities of a group toward a share goal.
Best Ways To Improve Your Management and Leadership Skills
Anyone who wants to be successful in business or their career must possess strong leadership
qualities. The good news is that it is possible to learn how to develop effective leadership
abilities. In the long run, developing your leadership abilities will be beneficial. It will
improve your management skills and enable you to make more progress toward your
objectives.

As a leader, it’s essential to understand the fundamentals of managing and leading.

This means having the right mindset, developing relationships, and inspiring others. Good
management and leadership skills are essential for running a successful business. Not only do
they give you the ability to manage and lead your team more effectively, but they also enable
you to become a great leader.

What Are Leadership And Management Skills?

Leadership skills involve the ability to inspire and motivate people, as well as collaborate
with others in order to achieve a common goal. This includes the ability to delegate tasks,
build effective teams, and create a positive work atmosphere. Leadership skills also involve
the ability to envision a future goal and develop a plan to achieve it, as well as the ability to
communicate that vision to others and gain their support.

Management skills involve the ability to organize, plan, and prioritize tasks. This includes the
ability to set goals, create strategies to achieve those goals, and develop systems to measure
progress. Management skills also involve the ability to make decisions, solve problems, and
manage resources, as well as the ability to manage personnel in a way that encourages their
growth and development.

How do you develop leadership skills and management skills?

 Develop Your Communication Skills

 Learn From Others

 Take Initiative

 Accept Criticism

 Lead by Example

 Learn from Experienced Managers

 Practice Active Listening

 Take on Leadership Roles

It is not enough to simply have a great idea; you need to be able to execute it, motivate your
team, and manage resources effectively. Here are 9 best ways on how to improve your
leadership skills and management skills

 Focus On Developing Your People

People are the most important asset to any business. As a leader, it’s essential to
invest time and energy into developing your people to their fullest potential. Take the
time to understand their strengths, weaknesses, and ambitions, and use that knowledge
o help them grow and develop.

 Communicate Effectively:

Communication is key to managing and leading a team. Make sure to clearly

articulate your expectations and goals so that everyone is on the same page.
Additionally, be sure to listen to your team and encourage dialogue to ensure that
everyone is heard. Effective communication is the key to successful management.
Being able to communicate your ideas to your team and understand their perspectives
is essential for successful collaboration.
  Set Clear Goals:

Establishing clear goals and objectives is essential to effective management and

leadership. Make sure to set measurable goals that are achievable and realistic, and
provide guidance and support in helping your team reach them. Setting realistic goals
is important for team motivation and progress. Make sure that the goals are
challenging yet achievable. Effective management involves staying organized and
keeping track.

 Develop a Growth Mindset:

Having a growth mindset is critical for any leader. This means having a positive
attitude and being open to new ideas. You should also be willing to take risks and be
comfortable with failure.

 Build Strong Relationships:

Strong relationships are essential for a successful leader. Build relationships with your
team and colleagues by getting to know them, understanding their strengths and
weaknesses, and working together to solve problems.

 Listen and Learn:

Listening is an important skill for any leader. Listen to your team and learn from their
ideas. By doing this, you can gain more knowledge.

 Understand Your Team:

It is essential to understand the strengths and weaknesses of your team. Knowing their
individual skills and abilities will help you assign tasks and responsibilities
effectively.

 Learn Conflict Resolution:

A leader needs to be able to resolve conflicts between team members and manage
difficult conversations.

 Encourage Teamwork:

Encourage team collaboration and create a sense of unity. This will help to create a
positive working environment and foster better performance.

Why is it important to develop Leadership and Management Skills?

Developing strong leadership and management skills is important in virtually all aspects of
life. They help create a positive and successful environment. From the home to the
workplace, having effective leadership and management skills can help ensure success and
satisfaction.

Leadership and management skills are critical for creating a secure place, ensuring that
resources are used effectively and efficiently, and ensuring that everyone’s needs are met.

How to improve leadership skills in the workplace?

In the workplace, leadership and management skills are essential for creating a productive
and successful environment. Leaders must be able to motivate and inspire their teams to
achieve goals, while managers must be able to effectively organize and manage resources to
ensure the team is operating efficiently. Leadership and management skills can also help to
create a positive work culture, encourage collaboration, and provide direction and guidance to
employees.

organization, there are individuals who play crucial roles in guiding and directing the team
towards achieving goals and objectives. Two such important roles are that of a leader and a
manager. While both leadership and management are essential for the success of an
organization, they differ significantly in terms of their focus, approach, and impact.
Understanding the difference between a leader and a manager is crucial for individuals
aspiring to take on these roles and for organizations seeking to maximize their potential. In
this article, we will explore the key differences, as well as the advantages, disadvantages, and
similarities between leaders and managers.

Points Leader Manager

1. Focuses on people and their development Focuses on tasks and processes

2. Sets the vision and inspires others Implements the vision and ensures execution

3. Empowers and motivates employees Controls and directs employees

4. Encourages innovation and risk-taking Ensures stability and efficiency

5. Leads by influence and example Manages through authority and supervision

6. Provides guidance and support Provides instructions and resources

7. Creates a culture of trust and collaboration Emphasizes adherence to rules and

procedures

8. Focuses on long-term goals and strategies Focuses on short-term objectives and

deadlines

9. Adapts to change and encourages flexibility Maintains stability and ensures consistency

10.Inspires followers and promotes personal growth Ensures productivity and achieves
targets

Key differences between Leader and Manager

A leader focuses on people and their development, while a manager focuses on tasks and
processes.

Leaders set the vision and inspire others, whereas managers implement the vision and ensure
execution.

Leaders empower and motivate employees, while managers control and direct employees.

Leaders encourage innovation and risk-taking, while managers ensure stability and
efficiency.

Leadership is based on influence and example, while management is based on authority and
supervision.

Leaders provide guidance and support, whereas managers provide instructions and resources.

Leaders create a culture of trust and collaboration, while managers emphasize adherence to
rules and procedures.

Leaders focus on long-term goals and strategies, whereas managers focus on short-term
objectives and deadlines.
Leaders adapt to change and encourage flexibility, while managers maintain stability and
ensure consistency.

Leaders inspire followers and promote personal growth, while managers ensure productivity
and achieve target.

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE LEADER

Good leadership is essential to business, to government and to the numerous groups
and organisations that shape the way we live, work and play. Having a great idea, and
assembling a team to bring that concept to life is the first step in creating a successful
business venture.
While finding a new and unique idea is rare enough; the ability to successfully
execute this idea is what separates the dreamers from the entrepreneurs. And this is where
leadership transforms potential into reality.
Leaders are a key human resource in any organization. We generally think of
companies competing by means of their products, but they probably compete more by means
of their leaders than their products.
Better leaders develop better employees and the two together develop better products.
The importance of leadership in management cannot be overemphasized. To get things done
by people, management must supply leadership in the organization.
Team-work is essential for realizing organizational goals. Managers must influence
the teamfor work accomplishment through leadership. Secondly, leadership aids authority.
To gain a further insight into the importance of leadership in business success I
recently had the privilege of speaking to Mark Bilton, founder of Thought Patrol and one of
Australia‘s leading authorities on the subject matter.
Mark has journeyed from Sales Assistant to multi-national CEO and led
transformational change across many industries His last turnaround was as Group Managing
Director of Gloria
Jean‘s Coffees, leading forty countries. He is now on a mission to hack leadership and
humanize the workplace.
Mark‘s impressive track record of taking broken businesses in diverse industries and
turning them around seems to make his case. Whilst he speaks to seemingly ‗soft‘ principals
they drive hard commercial results.
Below he shares his thoughts on what he believes to be the top 8 most common
characteristics of great leaders.
 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Leadership is a personal quality.
2. It exists only with followers. If there are no followers, there is no leadership.
3. It is the willingness of people to follow that makes person a leader.
4. Leadership is a process of influence. A leader must be able to influence the behaviour,
attitude and beliefs of his subordinates.
5. It exists only for the realization of common goals.
6. It involves readiness to accept complete responsibility in all situations.
7. Leadership is the function of stimulating the followers to strive willingly to attain
organizational objectives.

8. Leadership styles do change under different circumstances.

9. Leadership is neither bossism nor synonymous with management.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP:
The importance of leadership in any group activity is too obvious to be
overemphasised.
Wherever there is an organized group of people working towards a common goal, some type
of leadership becomes essential. A good dynamic leader is compared to a ‘dynamo generating
energy’ that charges and activates the entire group in such a way that near miracles may be
achieved. The success of an enterprise depends to a great extent, upon effective leadership.
The importance of leadership can be highlighted from the following:
1. It improves motivation and morale: Through dynamic leadership managers can improve
motivation and morale of their subordinates. A good leader influences the behaviour of an
individual in such a manner that he voluntarily works towards the achievement of enterprise
goals.

2. It acts as a motive power to group efforts: Leadership serves as a motive power to group
efforts. It leads the group to a higher level of performance through its persistent efforts and
impact on human relations.
3. It acts as an aid to authority: The use of authority alone cannot always bring the desired
results. Leadership acts as an aid to authority by influencing, inspiring and initiating action.

4. It is needed at all levels of management: Leadership plays a pivotal role at all levels of
management because in the absence of effective leadership no management can achieve the
desired results.

5. It rectifies the imperfectness of the formal organizational relationships: No

organisational structure can provide all types of relationships and people with common
interest may work beyond the confines of formal relationships. Such informal relationships
are more effective in controlling and regulating the behaviour of the subordinates. Effective
leadership uses these informal relationships to accomplish the enterprise goals.

6. It provides the basis for co-operation: Effective leadership increases the understanding
between the subordinates and the management and promotes cooperation among them.

LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN:

Most of the leaders who surround us lead their companies and businesses, day after
day, in an anonymous and silent way. Other people have or have had a major influence on
many people because of their notoriousness: they are “worldwide” leaders, as was the case of
such a legendary man as Abraham Lincoln.
Emotional intelligence and empathy
President Lincoln was aware of the importance of establishing bonds with his
electorate. From the very first day he tried to gain the respect of those who knew him and
during his presidency, citizens could go visit him in his office. No leader is born a leader.
Unlike other presidents that were generals or governors, Lincoln did not have experience
leading teams and yet no one questioned his leadership.
Communication

Much of Lincoln’s success throughout story was due to his ability to communicate
and connect with others. The iconic US president was a renowned storyteller, who could get
his audience involved in his stories and vision of his projects. To be a leader is essential to
establish oneself as a good communicator and know how to convey messages clearly.

Social skills

Besides empathy and emotional intelligence, the ability to mix with others is a
characteristic trait of good leaders and their skills to persuade and lead teams. During the
American Civil War, Lincoln formed a cabinet composed of political rivals, in whom he put
his faith. A strong leader knows when to rely on others and is able to recognize the success of
his team above his own. If you want to develop the skills of negotiation and conflict
resolution, we suggest that you practice with the negotiation simulator Merchants.

Motivation
Motivation possibly is the most characteristic lesson from leadership. Sharing and
spreading the passion for a project is vital to get support from a teamand work together to
achieve objectives and goals. Lincoln had his principles always clear and struggled to put
them into practice throughout his career.

Inspiring trust

A leader can’t really be a leader if he doesn’t convey a positive message. In the recent
movie about Lincoln directed by Steven Spielberg, the First Lady tells her husband: “No one
is loved as much as you by the people. Don’t waste that power!” Abraham Lincoln took her
advice and always tried to inspire trust to voters with an optimistic attitude.

Accepting criticism and advice

Lincoln was a politician open to criticism and debate. He empowered his leadership
through dialogue with the American society of the time and used the opinion of others to self
correct mistakes and improve his public image. The US President accepted advice but also
followed his own instinct whenever he thought it wise.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Leader
Advantages of Leader
Inspires and motivates: Leaders have the ability to inspire and motivate their team
members, encouraging them to give their best and achieve exceptional results.
Fosters innovation: By creating an environment that promotes creativity and risk-taking,
leaders encourage innovation and push their teams to think outside the box.
Builds strong relationships: Leaders focus on building strong relationships based on trust,
respect, and open communication, which leads to increased collaboration and loyalty among
team members.
Develops future leaders: Effective leaders invest in the development of their team
members, grooming them for future leadership roles and ensuring the continuity of
leadership within the organization.
Drives change: Leaders embrace change and effectively navigate their teams through
periods of transition, helping the organization adapt and stay ahead in a rapidly evolving
business landscape.
Disadvantages of Leader
Lack of structure and control: In their pursuit of inspiring and empowering their teams,
leaders may sometimes overlook the need for structure and control, leading to potential
chaos and lack of direction.
Over-reliance on influence: Leaders primarily rely on influence rather than formal authority,
which can pose challenges in situations where a hierarchical approach is required.
Resistance to authority: Some team members may resist or question the authority of a leader
who does not rely on traditional power structures, potentially leading to conflicts and
difficulties in implementing decisions.
Risk of burnout: Leaders often carry the weight of responsibilities and expectations, which
can lead to burnout if they do not prioritize self-care and delegate effectively

Advantages and Disadvantages of Manager

Advantages of Manager
Ensures efficiency and productivity: Managers establish clear processes, allocate resources
effectively, and monitor performance to ensure tasks are completed efficiently and
productivity targets are met.
Maintains stability and consistency: By emphasizing adherence to rules and procedures,
managers create a stable work environment that allows for consistent outcomes and
minimizes disruptions.
Provides guidance and direction: Managers provide clear instructions, set expectations, and
offer guidance to their team members, ensuring everyone is aligned and working towards the
same goals.
Manages resources effectively: Managers are skilled in resource allocation, ensuring that the
right people, materials, and finances are available to support the successful execution of
tasks and projects.
Resolves conflicts and challenges: Managers play a crucial role in resolving conflicts and
addressing challenges that arise within a team, fostering a harmonious and productive work
environment.
Disadvantages of Manager
Lack of innovation and risk-taking: Managers, in their pursuit of stability and efficiency,
may discourage innovation and risk-taking, which can limit the organization's ability to
adapt and thrive in dynamic markets.
Limited focus on personal growth: Managers may prioritize task completion over the
personal growth and development of their team members, potentially hindering individual
potential and long-term success.
Potential for micromanagement: Some managers may micromanage their team members,
leading to decreased autonomy, demotivation, and reduced creativity among employees.
Resistance to change: Managers focused on maintaining stability may resist change and be
less inclined to embrace new ideas or approaches, potentially hindering organizational
growth and progress.
Similarities between Leader and Manager
Influence and authority: Both leaders and managers have the ability to influence others,
albeit through different means. They may also possess formal authority within the
organization.
Goal-oriented: Both leaders and managers work towards achieving organizational goals and
objectives, albeit with different focuses and approaches.
Communication skills: Effective leaders and managers possess strong communication
skills, enabling them to convey their vision, provide instructions, and foster collaboration
among team members.
Decision-making: Leaders and managers are responsible for making decisions that impact
the organization and its members, although the decision-making process may differ.
Emotional intelligence: Both leaders and managers benefit from having emotional
intelligence, as it helps them understand and navigate the emotions and motivations of their
team members.

UNIT II

Personality Characteristics Personality: Concept and Definition,

Determinants of personality, Personality traits, Personality characteristics
in organization
NATURE OR CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
1. Dynamic Organization- Psychological elements within a personality system are
interrelated but not fixed; they interact and adapt to changes in the environment or personal
circumstances. This means that while different aspects of personality can influence each
other, they are not rigid and can evolve over time. Consider an individual who is generally
introverted (a trait) but becomes more outgoing in a new social group (change in behaviour
due to the dynamic interaction of traits and situation). Their introversion might be
temporarily overridden by their interest in making new friends, illustrating how
psychological elements dynamically interact and adapt to new contexts.
2. Psycho-physical Systems- Personality traits, emotions, intellect, and character are
grounded in biological processes, including neurological and endocrine systems. These
psychological elements are influenced by the brain’s functioning and hormonal changes. A
person with high levels of the hormone cortisol (often associated with stress) might
experience higher levels of anxiety and a more neurotic personality. Conversely, someone
with balanced hormone levels and effective emotional regulation may display a more stable
temperament. This illustrates how psychological traits are connected to biological systems.
3. Unique- Each individual has a distinct personality, shaped by a unique combination
of traits, experiences, and personal history. Two siblings raised in the same environment
may have different personalities due to their unique experiences and genetic predispositions.
One sibling might be more outgoing due to early social experiences, while the other might
be more reserved due to different social interactions or temperament.
4. Consistent Pattern- An individual’s personality is reflected in consistent patterns of
behaviour across different situations, meaning that they tend to react similarly in comparable
circumstances. A person who is generally conscientious will consistently demonstrate
organizational skills and attention to detail at work, in academic settings, and in their
personal life. Their conscientiousness leads them to maintain high standards and
responsibility across various domains.
5. Thinking (Cognition), Feeling (Affect), Behaving (Behaviour)- Personality
encompasses how people think, feel, and behave. These three aspects are interconnected and
contribute to an individual’s overall personality. A person who is optimistic (cognition)
might frequently feel happy and enthusiastic (affect) and engage in proactive behaviours like
taking on new challenges (behaviour). This integrated approach shows how cognitive,
emotional, and behavioural components work together to form a person’s personality.

DETERMINANT
1) Biological Factors:
 Body Built,
 Physical defect,
 Physical attractiveness,
 Health Conditions
2) Psychological Factors:
 Intellectual Determinants
 Emotional Determinants
 Excessive Love and Affection
 Self-disclosure
 Aspiration and Achievements
 Achievements
 Goal Setting
3) Environmental Factors:
 Social Acceptance
 Social Deprivation
 Educational Factors
 Family Determinants
 Emotional Climate of Home and Ordinal Position
 Size of the Family

Determinants of Personality
After understanding the meaning of personality, the next question is what makes the
personality of an individual or how the personality of an individual is developed. Major
determinants of personality are discussed are as below:
a) Heredity: Heredity is referred to those attributes of personality which are determined at
the
time of conception of an individual. The characteristics such as body type, build, facial
attractiveness, eye colour, hair colour, height, temperament, sex, energy level and reflexes
are
generally inherited from the parents either completely or partially. This approach argues that
the basis of human personality lies in the molecular structure of the genes.
b) Environment: No doubt that heredity is an important determinant of the personality, but,
if all traits of personality were determined by heredity, they would be fixed at the time of the
birth and would never change in the life span of an individual. Sadly, it is not true. This
means that personality of an individual is determined as much by the environment as it does
by the
heredity. Environment of a person which affects his personality is comprised of culture,
family, society and situation. Influence of all these factors on personality of an individual
can be explained as below:
Culture: Culture defines the norms, values, attitudes and beliefs which are passed from one
generation to another generation. Every individual learns different values and the way he
should behave in different situations from the culture to which he belongs. The way people
develop their attitude towards independence, competition, aggression, task assigned, risk
taking, and cooperation is determined by the culture.
Every culture has its own sub-cultures, which further establish moral values, style of
dress, standards of cleanliness, definition of success etc. These cultural sub groups have
great
influence on personality development of an individual. For example: A girl who is born and
brought up in a rich family of an urban area will behave differently from a girl who is born
and brought up in a poor family of slum area.
Family: Family is one of very important determinants of personality. It affects the
personality
development of an individual specifically in the early phases of the life. Influence of family
on
a person’s personality is determined by the following factors:
 Socio-economic level of the family
 Family size
 Birth order of the child
 Race
 Religion
 Education level of parents
Every child identifies a role model in the family and tries to behave like the role model
which
he chooses. The process of identification can be viewed from three different perspectives
given
as below:
 It can be viewed as similarity of behaviour.
 It can be viewed as child’s motives and desires to become like role model.
 It is viewed as the process through which it acquires the traits of role model.
Society: Various groups and relevant people of society as well as the organisation exert a
great
influence on the personality development of an individual. This phenomenon is called
socialisation. In other words, it can be said that socialisation involves the process by which a
person learns and acquires from the society, the behaviour patterns that are customary and
acceptable to the family, society and organisations.
Situation: Situational factors also play a very important role in determining the personality
of an individual. It is often said that life is a collection of experiences. Every individual faces
different experiences in his life which exert a great deal of influence on his personality
development. It sometimes offers constraints and sometimes provides push to a person’s
behaviour. For example, A physically weak and coward person sometimes performs
heroically in saving life of his close one.

METHODS TO STUDY PERSONALITY

1. Self-report Inventories- Standardized questionnaires where individuals report on their
own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.
2. Q-Sort Tests- A technique where individuals sort statements into categories based on
how much they feel the statements describe them.
3. Rating Scales- Tools used to assess the intensity or frequency of behaviours, feelings,
or attitudes, often on a numerical scale.
4. Behavioural Observations- Systematic observation of behaviour in real-life or
controlled settings to gather data on actions and interactions.
5. Interviews- Direct, often structured, conversations to gather detailed personal
information from respondents.
6. Projective Techniques- Indirect assessments where individuals respond to ambiguous
stimuli, revealing unconscious thoughts or feelings (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test).
7. Biological Measures- Assessments that use physiological or neurobiological data
(e.g., brain scans, hormone levels) to understand psychological processes.
8. Document Analysis- Examination of written or recorded materials to analyse
historical, personal, or organizational information.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A ‘GOOD’ PERSONALITY THEORY

 Understanding individual differences- A theory should explain variations in
behaviour, personality, and cognition among individuals.
 Predicting behaviour- It should help predict how people will behave in different
environments like home, school, work, and social settings.
 Testability- The theory should be empirically testable, allowing researchers to
validate or challenge its concepts through scientific methods.
 Growth and adaptability- The theory should evolve by integrating new research
findings and responding to constructive criticism over time.
 Wide applicability- It should be broadly applicable to various contexts, populations,
and cultures to ensure its relevance and utility across diverse settings.

SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT:
Most people underestimate the importance of having a pleasing personality. Majority think it
just means being born good-looking, that there isn’t anything much to do about it. But this is
not true. The scope of personality development is quite broad. It includes knowing how to
dress well, social graces, grooming, speech and interpersonal skills. Whatever your career,
these are very important skills that will promote your objectives.
To better appreciate its importance, some of the key benefits of developing your personality
include the following:
a. Confidence: Personality development gives more confidence to people. When you
know you are appropriately attired and groomed, this makes you less anxious when meeting
a person. Knowing the right things to say and how to conduct yourself will increase your
confidence.
b. Credibility: Personality development makes people more credible. Despite the saying
that you don’t judge a book by its cover, people do tend to judge people by their clothing
and how it is worn. This does not mean buying expensive clothes. We all know people who
look shabby in expensive clothes. There are also people who look great even if their attire is
inexpensive. Because of this, you must know what to wear and you must be aware of other
aspects of enhancing your physical features.
c. Interaction: Personality development encourages people to interact with others.
Studies have consistently shown that people communicate more openly with people they are
comfortable with. If your hygiene and social graces are unrefined, then expect to have a
much harder time connecting with people.
d. Leading and Motivating: Personality development enhances the capacity to lead and
motivate. A person with a winning personality will be able to motivate better. People are less
likely to get bored, and our ideas will have more credibility. We can lead better if we project
an aura of confidence and credibility.
e. Curiosity: A single wrong word can destroy a business relationship. Knowing the
right things to say shows both respect and intellectual sophistication. This is especially the
case if you are dealing with foreigners or if you conduct business outside the country. The
right thing to do in our country could be horrible blunders in a different culture. These are
the soft skills that may break or make a deal.
f. Communication skills: It improves your communication skills. People are more
receptive to what you say if they are impressed with your personality. Verbal
communication skills are also part of personality development; improving your speech will
strengthen the impact of your message.
You cannot win by talent and hard work alone. Personality development is a crucial
ingredient that you must obtain. Most of the people you see as models of great personality
have taken a lot of effort in developing their natural features.
PERSONALITY TRAITS
Popular characteristics including shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal and
timid. Those characteristics, when they exhibited in large number of situations, are called
personality traits or enduring characteristics that describe on individual’s behavior.
Primary Traits
Cattel (1973) identified 16 source traits/Primary Traits. These traits were found to be
generally steady and constant sources of behaviour. But there was found to be no scientific
relevance.
Sixteen Source Traits
1. Reserved - Outgoing
2. Less intelligent - More intelligent
3. Affected by feelings - Emotionally stable
4. Submissive - Dominant
5. Serious - Happy go Lucky
6. Expedient - Conscientious
7. Timid - Venturesome
8. Tough minded - Sensitive
9. Trusting - Suspicious
10. Practical - Imaginative
11. Forthright - Shrewd
12. Self-Assured - Apprehensive
13. Conservative - Experimenting
14. Group-dependent - Self-sufficient
15. Uncontrolled - Controlled
16. Relaxed - Tense
0r

Personality Traits
Personality traits can be defined as enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s
behaviour. A trait can be better described as tendency of an individual to respond in an
equivalent manner to various stimuli he is facing in daily life. In past, various studies have
been conducted to identify the primary traits determining individual behaviour
predominantly. These all studies resulted into a long list of traits which were very difficult to
generalize. But, two studies namely: The MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and The Big
Five Personality Model provided a useful framework for classifying traits of human
personality which are important from an organisation’s point of view. These two
frameworks are discussed as follows:
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
MBTI is an instrument which is very commonly used worldwide to assess personality of an
individual. This instrument is comprised of 100 statements pertaining to human personality.
MBTI
asks people about how they generally feel in particular situations. Based on the responses
given by
the individuals, they are classified as Extraverted or Introverted (E or I), Sensing or Intuitive
(S or
N), Thinking or Feeling (T or F) and Judging or Perceiving (J or P). These terms can be
described
as:
 Extraverted Vs. Introverted: Extraverted people are social, friendly and self-confident
whereas, introverted people are more shy and calm.
 Sensing Vs. Intuitive: Sensing personalities are very practical and prefer to follow routine
and orders. On the other hand, intuitive types of people are not practical and usually rely on
unconscious processes.
 Thinking Vs. Feeling: Feeling types of people generally take decisions based on their
personal values and emotions. Thinking types of people are generally more logical and
rational.
 Judging Vs. Perceiving: Judging types want control and prefer their world to be ordered
and structured. Perceiving types are more flexible and spontaneous.
Higher and lower score in each of these dimensions help in classifying the individuals into
16
different categories of personality. For example: Introverted/Intuitive/Thinking/Judging
(INTJ)
type of people are independent, determined, great creative thinkers and have strong drives
for
their own ideas. Extraverted/Sensing/Thinking/Judging (ESTJs) are logical, rational,
analytical
good organizers and decision makers. Therefore, it can be said that MBTI is a very useful
tool
which is widely used for selection of employees, increasing self-awareness and providing
career
guidance.
The Big Five Personality Model
The Big Five Personality Model is a framework which provides five basic dimensions of
personality viz. Extraversion, Agreeableness, Emotional stability, Conscientiousness and
Openness to experience. These five traits are so important and describe most of the
significant variations of personality that they are named as ‘The Big Five Model of
Personality’. These traits are discussed as follows:
 Extraversion: This dimension of personality describes the comfort level of an
individual in terms of their relationships with others. Extroverts are more talkative,
social, gregarious, friendly and confident. In opposite to this introverts are reserved, less
social and calm.
 Agreeableness: This trait refers to an individual’s ability to get along with others.
Highly agreeable personalities are cooperative and caring. Whereas, people who score
low on this dimension tend to be uncooperative, disagreeable and self-centred.
 Emotional Stability: This trait reflects a person’s ability to withstand stress. People who
are highly emotionally stable tend to be calm, secure and self-confident. On the other
hand, people who are emotionally weak tend to be depressed, nervous and insecure.
 Conscientiousness: This dimension assesses the reliability score of an individual.
Highly conscientious people are more dependable, reliable, systematic and well
organised. Whereas, people who have low conscientiousness are irresponsible, less
dependable, negligent and unorganised.
 Openness to Experience: This dimension measures a person’s interests and creativity.
Extremely open people are highly creative and are always open to new ideas. Whereas,
people who score low on this dimension are less interested or don’t respond to new
ideas. They generally stick to the conventional ways of doing things.