Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics

School of Environmental Technology

Federal University of Technology, Minna

Lecture Note

On

GIS Tools and Applications

(SVG 516)

Surv. E A Adesina (PhD)

Lecture 1

GIS Subsystems

GIS (Geographic Information Systems) subsystems refer to distinct components or

modules that work together to facilitate the overall functionality and capabilities of a GIS.
Each subsystem serves a specific purpose and performs essential tasks within the GIS
environment. The major GIS subsystems include:

Data Collection and Input: Data collection and input form the foundational stage of
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), playing a pivotal role in the creation and
maintenance of accurate and comprehensive spatial databases. In the context of GIS, the
significance of data collection and input cannot be overstated, as it is the process through
which valuable geographic information is acquired and integrated into the system. The
quality and precision of the input data directly impact the validity and reliability of
subsequent analyses and decision-making processes. Through meticulous data
collection, GIS professionals can harness a wide array of methods and technologies to
gather spatial data, ranging from precise Global Positioning System (GPS) data to
comprehensive aerial imagery from remote sensing platforms

a. Different Methods and Technologies for Collecting Spatial Data:

1. Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS is a satellite-based navigation system that

enables the collection of accurate spatial data by using signals from multiple satellites.
GPS receivers can determine precise positions on the Earth's surface, providing
coordinates (latitude, longitude, and sometimes elevation). This method is widely
used for real-time data collection, asset tracking, and field surveys.

2. Remote Sensing: Remote sensing involves the use of sensors mounted on satellites,
aircraft, or drones to capture data about the Earth's surface without direct physical
contact. These sensors can capture various electromagnetic radiation, such as visible
light, infrared, and microwave, allowing the creation of images and data related to
land cover, vegetation, temperature, and more.

3. Surveys: Traditional ground surveys involve manually collecting spatial data through
measurements and observations on-site. Techniques like total statioSVGns, laser

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 scanners, and measuring tapes are used for land surveys. Surveys are useful for
obtaining accurate and detailed data for a specific area or infrastructure.

b. Data Formats and Standards:

1. Shapefiles: Shapefile is a popular vector data format developed by ESRI. It stores

geographic features as a collection of files with .shp, .shx, and .dbf extensions.
Shapefiles support points, lines, and polygons along with attribute data, making them
widely compatible with various GIS software.

2. GeoJSON: GeoJSON is a lightweight data interchange format based on JavaScript

Object Notation (JSON). It is commonly used to represent geographical features and
their attributes. GeoJSON files are easy to read, edit, and share, making them popular
for web mapping applications.

3. Geodatabases: Geodatabases are spatial databases that store and manage GIS data.
They provide a more robust and efficient way to organize spatial data compared to
shapefiles. Examples include ESRI File Geodatabase and Personal Geodatabase, which
can handle large datasets and offer better data integrity and relationships.

4. OGC Standards: The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) establishes standards to

ensure interoperability between different GIS systems. Some widely used OGC
standards include Web Map Service (WMS) for sharing map images, Web Feature
Service (WFS) for sharing geographic features, and Keyhole Markup Language (KML)
for representing geographic data in 3D formats.

2. Data Storage and Retrieval:

a. Different Data Storage Approaches:

1. File-based Systems: File-based systems involve storing GIS data in individual files,
like GeoTIFF for raster data or shapefiles for vector data. This approach is
straightforward and suitable for smaller datasets but can become cumbersome to
manage as the data volume grows.

2. Databases: Spatial databases like PostGIS are designed to store, manage, and query
large volumes of spatial data efficiently. They offer robust data integrity, support for

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 spatial indexes, and SQL-based querying capabilities, making them ideal for complex
GIS applications.

3. Geodatabases: Geodatabases, such as ESRI File Geodatabase and Personal

Geodatabase, are specialized spatial databases tailored to ESRI's ArcGIS software.
They provide a more integrated and feature-rich solution for managing GIS data
within the ArcGIS environment.

b. Data Organization Techniques and Indexing Methods:

1. File Directories: For file-based systems, organizing data into directories or folders is
essential for efficient data management. Logical grouping and hierarchical structure
aid in finding and accessing specific datasets.

2. Tables and Layers: In databases and geodatabases, data is organized into tables
representing different types of features. Each table contains attributes related to the
spatial objects, and the geometry column stores the spatial information. Layers are
representations of these tables in GIS software.

3. Indexing Methods: Spatial indexing is crucial for quick retrieval of data based on
spatial relationships. Common indexing techniques include R-Tree, Quadtree, and
Grid-based methods. Indexes help accelerate spatial queries and analysis by reducing
the search space.

3. Data Manipulation and Analysis:

a. Common GIS Operations:

1. Buffering: Buffering involves creating a zone around a spatial feature, typically a

buffer zone of a specified distance. This operation is useful for proximity analysis,
assessing impact zones, and spatial data generalization.

2. Overlay Analysis: Overlay combines multiple spatial datasets to create new

information by intersecting, unioning, or differencing geometries. It helps analyze the
relationship between different features, identify areas of overlap, and perform
suitability analysis.

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3. Spatial Joins: Spatial joins link attributes from one dataset to another based on their
spatial relationships. For example, joining population data to administrative
boundaries to determine population distribution.

4. Attribute Queries: Attribute queries involve selecting features based on their

attribute values, such as querying all roads with a specific road type or all buildings
with a certain area.

b. Spatial Analysis Techniques and Tools:

1. Interpolation: Interpolation estimates values at unsampled locations based on

known data points. Techniques like IDW (Inverse Distance Weighting), Kriging, and
Spline interpolation are used to create continuous surfaces from discrete data, such
as creating a temperature map from weather station data.

2. Clustering: Clustering identifies groups of spatially related features based on their

proximity or similarity. This is helpful for identifying patterns, hotspots, and spatial
distribution of data points.

3. Network Analysis: Network analysis involves finding the shortest or optimal routes
between points on a network, considering factors like road networks, transportation
networks, and utility networks. Tools like Network Analyst in ArcGIS or pgRouting in
PostGIS are used for such analysis.

4. Visualization and Reporting:

a. Techniques for Visualizing Spatial Data:

1. Maps: Maps are the primary medium for visualizing spatial data. They represent
geographic features using symbols, colors, and labels to communicate information
effectively.

2. Charts and Graphs: Besides maps, charts like bar graphs, pie charts, and scatter plots
can be used to represent spatial data trends and patterns. For example, a bar graph
could show the population of different cities.

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b. Cartography Principles and Data Communication:

1. Symbolization: Symbolization involves selecting appropriate symbols to represent

different features on a map. Proper symbolization improves map readability and
helps convey information clearly.

2. Color Schemes: Color schemes are essential for visualizing thematic maps, where
colors represent different data categories or ranges. Careful selection of colors
ensures accurate representation and avoids misinterpretation.

3. Map Layout: The map layout includes the arrangement of elements such as title,
legend, scale bar, and north arrow. A well-designed layout enhances map aesthetics
and usability.

4. Effective Data Communication: Effective data communication through visualization

involves simplifying complex information, focusing on the main message, and using
visuals that resonate with the target audience. Clear and concise communication
avoids misunderstandings and helps decision-making.

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Lecture 2

Introduction to SQL and its Role in Managing Relational Databases:

SQL, which stands for Structured Query Language, is a powerful and standardized
programming language used for managing relational databases. In the context of
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), SQL plays a crucial role in handling spatial data
stored in databases. It provides a standardized way to interact with the database,
allowing users to define, manipulate, and query the data effectively. SQL allows users to
create, modify, and delete database structures, insert and update data, and retrieve
information based on specified conditions. Its ability to handle complex relationships
between different tables makes it an essential tool for managing and analyzing vast
amounts of spatial data efficiently. By leveraging SQL's capabilities, GIS professionals can
perform a wide range of spatial operations, from basic data retrieval to advanced spatial
analysis, facilitating informed decision-making and insightful geospatial analysis.

Explanation of SQL Syntax, Basic Query Structure, and Common SQL Commands:

SQL syntax follows a set of rules that dictate how statements should be structured and
executed. The basic query structure consists of the following elements:

 SELECT: This clause indicates the columns or attributes to retrieve from the database.

 FROM: This clause specifies the table or tables from which the data should be
retrieved.

 WHERE: This optional clause allows users to define conditions that filter the data
based on specific criteria.

 GROUP BY: This clause is used to group the data based on specified columns, often
used with aggregate functions like SUM, COUNT, AVG, etc.

 HAVING: This optional clause filters grouped data based on specified conditions.

 ORDER BY: This clause arranges the results in ascending or descending order based
on specified columns.

Common SQL commands include:

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 CREATE TABLE: Used to create a new table in the database, defining its structure and
data types.

 INSERT INTO: Used to add new rows of data into an existing table.

 UPDATE: Used to modify existing data in a table based on specified conditions.

 DELETE: Used to remove specific rows of data from a table based on specified
conditions.

 SELECT: Used to retrieve data from one or more tables in the database, often
involving complex queries with conditions, joins, and aggregations.

Demonstration of SQL for Spatial Data Retrieval, Manipulation, and Analysis:

SQL is not only powerful for managing traditional data but is also highly valuable for
handling spatial data in GIS. Some key SQL commands for spatial data manipulation and
analysis include:

 Spatial Data Retrieval: To retrieve spatial data, SQL can be used in conjunction with
spatial functions like ST_AsText, which converts spatial data into text representation,
and ST_GeomFromText, which converts text representation back into geometry. For
example, to retrieve the geometry of all points within a specific area, we can use a
query like:

Example

CREATE TABLE cities (

city_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

city_name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,

population INT,

location VARCHAR(20)

);

4. Basic Query Structure: The basic structure of SQL queries involves the following
clauses:

 SELECT: Specifies the columns to be retrieved from the database.

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 FROM: Identifies the table or tables from which the data will be retrieved.

 WHERE: Sets conditions to filter the data based on specific criteria.

 GROUP BY: Groups the data based on specified columns.

 HAVING: Filters grouped data based on specific conditions.

 ORDER BY: Sorts the results in ascending or descending order based on specified
columns.

Example:

SELECT city_name, population

FROM cities

WHERE population > 100000

ORDER BY population DESC;

5. Common SQL Commands:

 INSERT: Used to add new records into a table.

 UPDATE: Used to modify existing records in a table based on specified conditions.

 DELETE: Used to remove specific records from a table based on specified conditions.

 JOIN: Used to combine data from multiple tables based on related columns.

Example:

INSERT INTO cities (city_name, population)

VALUES ('New York', 8537673);

UPDATE cities

SET population = 9000000

WHERE city_name = 'New York';

DELETE FROM cities

WHERE city_name = 'New York';

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SELECT *

FROM cities c

JOIN countries co ON c.country_code = co.country_code;

6. Retrieving, Manipulating, and Analyzing Spatial Data: SQL extends its capabilities
to handle spatial data by supporting specific data types and spatial functions. Spatial data
types include POINT, LINESTRING, POLYGON, and GEOMETRY, which allow the
representation of geographical features. Spatial functions enable tasks such as calculating
distance, performing spatial joins, buffering, and overlay analysis on spatial data.

Example:

SELECT city_name

FROM cities

WHERE ST_Distance(location, ST_GeomFromText('POINT(10 20)')) < 10000;

Examples of SQL Queries for Spatial Analysis:

 Proximity Analysis: To find all cities within a certain distance of a reference point.

 Overlay Analysis: To identify areas where two different types of land use intersect.

 Spatial Filtering: To retrieve all points within a specific polygon.

Example:

SELECT city_name

FROM cities

WHERE ST_Within (location, (SELECT geom FROM polygons WHERE name = 'Park'));

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Lecture 3

Introduction to Database Management Systems (DBMS) IN GIS:

Database Management Systems (DBMS) play a fundamental and indispensable role in the
field of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). At the heart of GIS lies the need to
efficiently store, manage, and retrieve vast amounts of spatial data, which can include
various types of geographic features and attributes. DBMS serves as the backbone for this
data management, providing a structured and organized environment where spatial data
can be stored and accessed with ease. By employing DBMS in GIS, professionals can
ensure data consistency, integrity, and security, enabling seamless integration and
analysis of geospatial information. Whether it's capturing geographic coordinates,
performing complex spatial queries, or facilitating real-time multi-user interactions,
DBMS provides a robust foundation that supports GIS applications and empowers
decision-makers with valuable insights derived from spatial data.

Types of DBMS in GIS:

1. Relational DBMS: Relational DBMS is a widely used type in GIS due to its flexibility
and data structuring capabilities. It organizes data into tables, where each row
represents a record, and each column represents an attribute. GIS spatial data can be
stored in relational databases by incorporating geometry or geography data types.
Popular relational DBMS used in GIS include PostgreSQL with the PostGIS extension
and MySQL with spatial extensions.

2. Object-Oriented DBMS: Object-oriented DBMS (OODBMS) extends the relational

model by directly incorporating objects and their relationships. In GIS, OODBMS can
be suitable for storing complex spatial objects with specific behavior and attributes.
However, OODBMS adoption in GIS has been limited due to the dominance of
relational DBMS.

3. Spatial DBMS: Spatial DBMS is specifically designed to handle spatial data efficiently.
It enhances the capabilities of relational DBMS by providing spatial data types,
indexing, and spatial query optimization. Examples include ESRI ArcSDE, Oracle
Spatial, and Microsoft SQL Server with spatial extensions.

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Review of Existing GIS Software Database Design and Implementation Approaches:

The design and implementation of databases in GIS software vary based on the specific
GIS software's architecture and requirements. Some common approaches and
methodologies include:

 Topological Data Model: This approach focuses on preserving the topological

relationships between spatial features to ensure data consistency and accuracy.

 Geodatabase Model: ESRI's geodatabase model provides a unified and

comprehensive approach to manage spatial and attribute data, supporting complex
relationships and data validation rules.

 Tile-Based Storage: Some GIS software, especially for web mapping, use tile-based
storage to efficiently serve map data at different zoom levels. Tiles are pre-rendered
images that cover specific geographic extents, allowing rapid data retrieval and
display.

Functions and Capabilities of DBMS in Handling Spatial Data:

1. Data Integrity: DBMS enforces constraints on spatial data to ensure its validity and
consistency. This includes checking for valid geometries, preventing overlapping
polygons, and maintaining referential integrity between related tables.

2. Concurrency Control: In multi-user GIS environments, concurrent access to the

database can lead to conflicts and inconsistencies. DBMS employs concurrency
control mechanisms like locking and transaction isolation levels to ensure data
consistency and prevent data corruption.

3. Data Security: Protecting sensitive geospatial information is critical. DBMS

implements access controls, authentication, and encryption to safeguard data from
unauthorized access and potential threats.

4. Spatial Indexing: DBMS employs spatial indexing techniques such as R-Tree and
Quadtree to optimize spatial queries and reduce query processing times, improving
GIS application performance.

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5. Spatial Analysis Support: Advanced spatial functions provided by DBMS facilitate
spatial analysis tasks like proximity analysis, buffering, spatial joins, and overlay
operations.

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Lecture 4

GIS Software

In computing, the software is the component that drives the hardware and data using
certain methods and rules. There are a number of software packages that are used in GIS
operations. GIS software packages are designed to handle geographical or spatial data. In
this unit, you will learn about the nature as well as types of GIS software.

Generally, software is a digital language comprising of set(s) of rules, commands,

algorithms or programs, logically and systematically written to perform certain tasks.
The software elements allow the user to input, store, manage, transform, analyse and
output data (Heywood, Cornelius, and Carver, 1998).

Basically, GIS software is a package of programs, rules or commands used to perform

certain GIS operations such as the input, storage, retrieval, editing, querying, analysis,
manipulation, update, display and output of geographic data, in a computer environment
(Uluocha, 2007).

GIS software encompasses a broad range of applications, all of which involve the use of
some combination of digital maps and geo-referenced data. In the main, GIS software
provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyse, and display geographic
information. Different software packages are important for GIS. Central to this is the GIS
application package. Such software is essential for creating, editing and analysing spatial
and attributes data; therefore these packages contain a myriad of GIS functions inherent
to them. Extensions or add-ons are software that extends the capabilities of the GIS
software package. Component GIS software is the opposite of application software.
Component GIS seeks to build software applications that meet a specific purpose and thus
are limited in their spatial analysis capabilities. Utilities are stand-alone programs that
perform a specific function. For example, a file format utility that converts from one type
of GIS file to another. There is also Web GIS software that helps serve data through
Internet browsers.

Typical GIS software consists of four distinct but interrelated subsystems or modules.
These are:

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 Data input software subsystem (used for e.g. digitising or scanning, checking, editing,
topology building, etc).

Data storage and retrieval software subsystem.

Data manipulation and analysis software subsystem (e.g. for querying, sorting or
indexing, overlay operations, buffer creation, etc.)

Data output software subsystem (e.g. for screen display, page set up formatting, hard
copy generation, etc.)

Numerous GIS software packages are nowadays available which cover all sectors of
geospatial data handling. However, the GIS software systems can be sorted into different
categories. (for example, the Wikipedia Web link listed in the references section of this
unit).

Presented below is a list of some notable GIS software packages. It should be noted that
some of the packages mentioned are also used for digital cartographic (map-making),
CAD, and remote sensing (image processing) operations. (For more details on GIS
software packages and their manufacturers, see Uluocha, 2007).

GRASS GIS: Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, open source: a
complete GIS.

SAGA GIS (System for Automated Geo-scientific Analysis):hybrid GIS software. SAGA
has a unique Application Programming Interface (API) and a fast growing set of
geo scientific methods, bundled in exchangeable Module Libraries.

Quantum GIS: QGIS is an Open Source GIS that runs on Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, and
Windows.

Map Window GIS: Free, open source GIS desktop application and programming
component.

ILWIS: ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) integrates image,
vector and thematic data.

gvSIG: Open source GIS written in Java.

JUMP GIS/OpenJUMP: (Open) Java Unified Mapping Platform

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(the desktop GIS OpenJUMP, SkyJUMP, deeJUMP and Kosmo emerged from JUMP).

Whitebox GAT: Open source and transparent GIS software.

Kalypso (software): Kalypso is an Open Source GIS (Java,

GML3) and focuses mainly on numerical simulations in water management.

TerraView: GIS desktop that handles vector and raster data stored in a relational or
geo-relational database, i.e. a frontend for TerraLib.

Capaware: Capaware is also an Open Source GIS, an incredible fast C++ 3D GIS
Framework with multiple plug-in architecture for geographic graphical analysis and
visualisation.

Falcon View: Falcon View is a mapping system created by the Georgia Tech Research
Institute for the Windows family of operating systems. A free, open source version is
available.

PostGIS: Spatial extensions for the open source PostgreSQL database, allowing
geospatial queries.

MySQL Spatial

TerraLib is a spatial DBMS and also provides advanced functions for GIS analysis.

Spatialite: Spatial extensions for the open source SQLite database, allowing geospatial
queries.

GeoNetwork open source: A catalog application to manage spatially referenced

resources.

Chameleon: Environments for building applications with MapServer.

MapPoint, a technology ("MapPoint Web Service," previously known as MapPoint .NET)

and a specific software program created by Microsoft that allows users to view, edit and
integrate maps.

Autodesk: Products include Map 3D, Topobase, MapGuide and other products that
interface with its flagship AutoCAD software package.

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 Bentley Systems: Products include Bentley Map, Bentley PowerMap and other products
that interface with its flagship MicroStation software package.

ERDAS IMAGINE by ERDAS Inc; products include Leica Photogrammetry Suite, ERDAS
ER Mapper, and ERDAS ECW JPEG2000 SDK (ECW (file format) are used throughout the
entire mapping community (GIS, Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry, and image
compression).

ESRI: Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, ArcWeb services and
ArcGIS Server.

Intergraph: Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia Professional, GeoMedia WebMap,

and add-on products for industry sectors, as well as photogrammetry.

MapInfo by Pitney Bowes: Products include MapInfo Professional and MapXtreme.

Smallworld: developed in Cambridge, England (Smallworld, Inc.) and purchased by

General Electric and used primarily by public utilities.

Cadcorp: Products include Cadcorp SIS, GeognoSIS, mSIS and developer kits.

Caliper: Products include Maptitude, TransModeler and TransCAD.

ENVI: Utilised for image analysis, exploitation, and hyperspectral analysis.

Manifold System: GIS software package.

Netcad: Desktop and Web based GIS products developed by Ulusal CAD ve GIS
Çözümleri A.Ş.

Dragon/ips: Remote sensing software with some GIS capabilities.

Field-Map : GIS tool designed for computer aided field data collection, used mainly for
mapping of forest ecosystems.

VISIONLABS: Products - VISION Enterprise GIS Suite earlier named VISION MapMaker,
Complete 2D/3D mapping -Installations in Indian Government and Defence.

Regio Graph by GfK GeoMarketing: GIS software for business planning and analyses;
company also provides compatible maps and market data.

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 IDRISI: GIS and Image Processing product developed by Clark Labs at Clark University.
Affordable and robust, it is used for both operations and education.

Boeing's Spatial Query Server spatially enables Sybase ASE.

DB2: Allows spatial querying and storing of most spatial data types.

Informix: Allows spatial querying and storing of most spatial data types.

Microsoft SQL Server 2008: The latest player in the market of storing and querying
spatial data. At this stage only some GIS products such as MapInfo and Cadcorp SIS can
read and edit this data while ESRI and others are expected to be able to read and edit this
data within the next few months.

Oracle Spatial: Product allows users to perform complex geographic operations and
store common spatial data types in a native Oracle environment. Most commercial GIS
packages can read and edit spatial data stored in this way.

PostGIS: a spatial database based on the free PostgreSQL database

Safe Software: Spatial ETL products including FME Desktop, FME Server and the ArcGIS
Data Interoperability Extension.

Mapnik: C++/Python library for rendering - used by Open StreetMap

GeoServer.

MapGuide Open Source : Web-based mapping server.

MapServer: Web-based mapping server, developed by the University of Minnesota.

MapLarge: Web-based mapping server for large datasets. Software Development

Frameworks and Libraries (for Web Applications)

Open Layers: open source AJAX library for accessing geographic data layers of all kinds,
originally developed and sponsored by MetaCarta.

Map Fish.

Geo Base (Telogis GIS software): Geospatial mapping software available as a Software
development kit, which performs various functions including address lookup, mapping,
routing, reverse geocoding, and navigation. Suited for high transaction enterprise

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environments.

Not all that are called GIS software actually have the full range of GIS functionalities.
Whereas some packages are general-purpose in nature, some others are thematic or
dedicated to performing some specific, usually limited, tasks. Full-fledged GIS software
are relatively few.

The GIS technology runs on software – a set of logically related rules, commands,
algorithm and programs. Some of the software elements are designed to perform a single
broad task while some are multi-purpose and multi-functional. The choice of software to
install and run on a GIS platform, therefore, depends on the intended use of such a system.
By and large, care must be taken to select software that can conveniently perform any of
the four major tasks of GIS software identified above.

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