➔ What is the difference between Cycle time, standard time & Critical standard time?

Object 1

● cycle time--
THE TIME TAKEN TO RETURN TO ITS STARTING POINT AFTER THE
COMPLETION OF ALL PROCESSES.
STANDARD TIME-
The time which should be followed by the all processes
during the completion of the cycle.
means cycle time should be closer to the STANDARD time.
CRITICAL STANDARD TIME--
Maximum time that can be used by the processes during its
complete cycle is called CRITICAL STANDARD TIME.

Study hardware and software platforms for DCS

Introduction
In any process plant, the purpose of automation to maintain the product quality, consistency, reduce
start-up time, and increase speed of operation with human safety. Control system whether it is a
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) or a Distributed Control System (DCS) is required for the same
purpose. The purpose of Industrial automation laboratory is to understand the theory and
programmingaspects of DCS.

Definition
A Control system which is functionally as well as physically distributed is called Distributed Control
System.

Evolution of DCS
The control systems were developed along with the technology and as the difficulties faced by each
technology were realized.

1. Open Loop: offline

In this technology, digital computers were applied for acquisition and processing of plant
data/laboratory data or test field data. At this time operator had to read this data and store them, which
was an offline process for acquisition and processing of data. No optimization and feedback control.
2. Closed Loop : offline

In this technology, set point values were calculated by computer but still manually set by plant operator.
Thus offline closed loop control was formed. This was only acceptable when timing condition of
process control is not severe as manual intervention leads to introduction of time delay in the control of
the process.
3. Open Loop : online
In this era of 50’s computers were provided for process interface for data acquisition and process
control, by connecting inputs directly to the computer. But still used as open loop control.
4. Closed Loop : online

At the end of 50’s era output elements were also connected to the computers for online process
monitoring and control. Thus data transfer in both the directions was the first step towards online
closed loop control.
5. Distributed Dedicated Computers

In the first half of 60’s computers were used for dedicated functions i.e. their functions were clearly
defined like data processing, data acquisition etc. with no interconnection between them. Data inter-
exchange was only possible via a transportable medium.
6. Centralized Dedicated Computers
The information inter-exchange which was not possible in the distributed dedicated computer control
was possible by introducing another central computer in which data from all the dedicated computers is
collected, which can be shared later on. This led to the information exchange but with computational
speed and reliability of computer at stake.

7. Decentralized Computer System

In the beginning of the 70’s it was accepted that the central computer will solve central automation
problem only and peripheral computers have to solve local problems in their close surrounding. A two
stage hierarchical automation system structure called Decentralized Computer System was introduced
because of this .
Architecture and Block Diagram
Functionally Decentralized or Distributed Control System is divided into four different levels as
follows performing the functions as described below:

LEVEL 0: FIELD LEVEL

As the name suggests this level comprises of the basic field instruments like sensors, transmitters etc.
which are directly connected to the process.

LEVEL 1: DIRECT PROCESS CONTROL

This level handles various functions as:
• Data Acquisition
• Data Check
• Plant Monitoring
• Open and Closed loop Control
• Reporting

LEVEL 2: PLANT SUPERVISORY CONTROL

This level handles various functions as:
• Plant Performance Monitoring
• Plant Coordination
• Optimal Process Control
• Adaptive Control
• Failure Detections

LEVEL 3: PRODUCTION SCHEDULING AND CONTROL

This level handles various functions as:
• Production Dispatching
• Inventory Control
• Production Supervision
• Production Re-Scheduling
• Production Reporting

LEVEL 4: PLANT MANAGEMENT

This level handles various functions as:
• Market and Customer Analysis
• Orders And Sales Statistics
• Capacity and Order Balance
• Order Dispatching
• Production Planning
• Terms Supervision
• Financial Surveys

Working of DCS
The working of DCS can be divided into two parts
1. Hardware Flow
In any process the sensory organs of a process are sensors and /or transmitters through which the status
of the process is known. The flow of signal passes from sensors/ transmitters to a local field junction
box where number of wires comes. From field junction box through a multi core cable it goes to the
main junction box. Again from main junction box it comes to a marshalling cabinet where the wires
enter into the control panel. In the control panel, controller and I/O cards are placed. After signal
entering the panel, the signal wire with or without a relay card goes into the input card connected to the
controller. Controller thereby processes the data according to the logic created and gives output to the
Final Control Element through output cards, following the same route.
2. Software
There is a scan cycle which needs to be completed for the execution of an instruction needed to control
the process. The scan period is set by the user while configuring DCS and the following steps occur for
each scan period:
• Firstly the status of inputs from the process through the input cards are checked.
• Then the values are updated in the program and according to the logic prepared by the programmer
output values are decided.
• These outputs then go to the field through output cards.
• Moreover the status is updated in the SCADA as well as the changes are stored for future reference in
the historian. Any alarms i.e. deviations in the process are there, then they are also noted and stored.

Functions of DCS
• I/O signal characterization
• Signal filtering
• Alarming I/O modules
• Ranging and engineering units
• Control logic
• Control interlocks
• Sequencing
• Batch control
• Passing on trending information
• Passing on report information

Performance Evaluation of DCS

• Available memory for configuration
• Available idle time (based on a given scan rate)
• I/O loading or criticality
• Number of available software addresses for Input/output blocks
• Number of available software addresses for control blocks

Internals of DCS
DCS can be divided into two parts for understanding purpose.

Hardware: It consists of the following

• Controller
• Power supply for controller
• I/O Terminal Block
• DIN Rail
• I/O Interface Carrier
• Bulk Power Supply
• System Power Supply
• Server
• Professional Stations
• Operator Stations
• Application Stations
• Remote Workstations
• Relays

Software: It consists of the following

• To view and control the process using mimic, same as the real process (SCADA).
• Programming environment wherein logic can be created.
• A hierarchical view of the whole system
• Advance Control Strategy Schemes
• Configuration Suite to configure the hardware attached.
• Diagnostic Suite
• Alarm Module
• History Module
• Trends Module
• Database management module

Advantages
• System implementation can be carried out in a modular fashion due to which system growth can be
easily achieved as each processor has clearly defined set of functions; if carefully designed.
• System overloading is less in case of DCS.
• In case of failure of a part, DCS doesn't affect the whole system/ process.
• Backup i.e. redundancy feature possible in DCS.
• Reliability of DCS is more than that of Centralized Control.
• Reduction of cost of interfacing to computer due to reduction in wire usage for control purpose.
• DCS is more flexible in terms of altering configurations within a specified range so as to confrm to
the change requirements if any.
• Duplicate storage of critical data can be done easily.
• Independent or standalone processors communicate with each other which make management of
computers easy.
• Minimization of data loss as well as errors due to placement of controllers in the nearby vicinity in
DCS.
• Advanced control strategies are easy to implement in DCS.
Limitations
• Cost is high when compared with PLC/PC Combination.
• Specialized support from engineering personnel required.
• DCS’s require a clean control room environment compared to PLC/ PC environment.
Selection Procedure
There are number of considerations for selecting a proper automation tool for a particular application
For multiple product manufacturing, varied receipe parameters, multiple procedures, often changes
required in receipes, complex batch processes with number of regulatory loops, DCS is preferred.
If the operator’s interaction is required to keep process to fulfill target performance, For observing
process with faceplates, critical trends, for responding effectively during plant upsets, DCS is preferred.
DCS gives adjustable scan time, online configuration changes, simple to advanced PID control and
advanced process control strategies.
Difference Between PLC and DCS
Introduction to Control Systems
Variables Involved in a Control System
In designing a control system, two types of variables are normally involved. These variables are used in
control system to achieve the required position.

1. Controlled Variable
It is the value or prerequisite that is determined and controlled. These variables are independent
variables and are usually not influenced by external factors. These variables are controlled by the
engineer, designing the control system, and those values are chose for these variables at which the
system gives the best output.

2. Manipulated Variable
The value or prerequisite that keep on changing as the controlled variables are changed. These
variables are dependent variables and usually dependent on controlled variables. Let’s take a simple
example of a fan dimmer.
As someone changes the dimmer position i.e. changes the voltage, rpm of fan also decreases. In this
example, voltage is the controlled variable while rpm of fan is the manipulated variable.

Types of Control Systems

There are three basic types of control systems that are feed forward control systems, feedback or closed
loop control systems and the third type is open loop control systems. Let’s have a look on the
functionalities of these different control systems.

1. Feed Forward Control System

Feed forward is a type of system which counters the changes in its surroundings. It is used to maintain
the wanted status of the system. The biggest advantage of this system is that it doesn’t permit the huge
disturbance in the output.
A system working on feed-forward behavior reacts to a calculated disturbance in a pre-defined way
which is in contrast with a feedback system. It is used in automotive as engine torque demands, in
servo systems (robotics) etc.
2. Feedback or Closed Loop Control System
A feedback control system is also known as closed loop control system. In these systems out is
recorded and alternations are made on the basis of feedback. It can generate the desired output
condition compared to the original one. It is insensitive to external disturbances. It useful as the output
of system can be measured with ease.

3. Open Loop Control System

An open-loop control system is also referred as a non-feedback control system. These systems may not
require a mathematical model of the physical system. It takes input under the consideration and doesn’t
react on the feedback to determine the state of output. It doesn’t encounter any disturbance within the
system or recompense them.
Stepper motors are one of the major examples of open-loop control systems. Automatic washing
machine is yet another good example.

Conclusion
Control systems today have various uses. In industry these systems are used to control the production
or working of other machines. Different types of control systems work on different purposes. Control
systems manage the behavior and working of a machine.
The usefulness of control systems is in the precision and reliability of functions and equipment they can
deliver. The field of control systems has its roots in industry and home appliances as well.
In this tutorial I have just introduced the control systems, its basic types and their working. In
the next article I will be analyzing open loop and closed loop control systems in more detail and
will study what differentiates the two.
Difference Between Open Loop & Closed Loop Systems

Control systems are used to arrange and manage components in a way that the required condition or
output is obtained. The word ‘control’ itself shows the command over any system. It is controlled when
the systems is stable.
There are two attributes of control system:
1. Stability
2. Desired output
A control system can be functioned electrically, mechanically, pressure by fluid (gas or liquid), or it can
be combination of these ways. In the preceding tutorial we introduced control systems, their principle
of working, the variables involved in the functioning of control systems and the basic types.
In this tutorial we will be conferring over the major types of control systems namely: Open loop
systems and closed loop systems. The tutorial will deal with the chief differences between the two
types. Let’s have a look on the basic working of the two systems:

Open loop control systems

An open-loop control system takes input under the consideration and doesn’t react on the feedback to
obtain the output. This is why it is also called a non-feedback control system.
There are no disturbances or variations in this system and works on fix conditions.

Closed loop control systems

A closed loop system is also referred as a feedback control system. These systems record the output
instead of input and modify it according to the need. It generates preferred condition of the output as
compared to the original one. It doesn’t encounter any external or internal disturbances.

Differences between Open-loop and Closed-loop control systems

These two types of control system have contrast with each other. They have dissimilarities some of
which are discussed below:
1. Effect of output
– An open loop control system acts completely on the basis of input and the output has no effect
on the control action.
– A closed loop control system considers the current output and alters it to the desired condition.
The control action in these systems is based on the output.
2. Reaction to Internal and External Disturbances
– An open loop control system works on fixed operation conditions and there are no
disturbances.
– A closed loop control system doesn’t encounter and react on external disturbances or internal
variations.
3. Stability
– Open loop control systems are mostly stable.
– In closed loop control systems stability is a major issue.
4. Effect on gain
– There is no effect on gain.
– There is no-linear change in system gain.
5. Implementation
– The structure of open loop control system is rather easy to construct. These systems can be
easily implemented.
 – The working principle and structures of closed loop control systems are rather complex and
they are often difficult to implement.
6. Cost
– As an open loop control system is easy to implement, it needs lesser number of components to
be constructed. Such systems need good calibration and lesser power rating. The overall cost of
these systems is low.
– As the principle is complex, a closed loop control system needs larger number of components
than an open loop control systems. These systems comparatively need less calibration and
higher power rating. The overall cost of these systems is higher.
7. Examples

– Stepper motors are one of the major examples of open-loop control systems. Automatic
washing machine is yet another good example.
– Television remote is the most significant example of closed loop control systems. A computer
mouse is another good example.

Conclusion
The two types of control systems, open loop and control loop are entirely different from each other.
Open loop is simple and works on the input while closed loop is complex and works on the output and
modifies it.
In the upcoming tutorial we will study time domain analysis of control systems in detail. So stay tuned
to have more insight about the control structures.

Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems

Introduction
In our earlier articles we discussed about control systems. The system, in which, we arrange and
combine constituents in such a way that our desired output is obtained.
Also, the system is controlled so that the stability of system in not disturbed in any span of time. It
depends upon two factors:
 1. Desired output
2. Stability

We analyze the features and functioning of every measurement system to know the working of system.
There are two types of analysis in control systems:
1. Time Domain Analysis
2. Frequency Domain Analysis

Time Domain Analysis

In this article we will concentrate on time domain analysis. Time domain gives the view that how the
state of dynamic system changes with respect to time when specific input is given. It gives you the
manner of signal over time characteristics of a measuring signal.
Models which we have consist of differential equations so some integration is being done to determine
time response. For simple linear system, analysis is being done easily by analytical solutions. However,
for nonlinear systems or those which have complicated inputs, their integration is carried out
numerically or by using MATLAB.
In time domain analysis, the time response of a linear dynamic system to an input is denoted as time’s
function c(t). We can calculate the time response if the input and model of system is known.
The time response of linear system is the addition of transient response which depend on preliminary
conditions and the steady-state response which is based on input of system.
1. Transient Response
The element of the system that vanishes with time is called Transient response. It is the response
of the system from rest or equilibrium to steady state. It is denoted by (t).
2. Steady-State Response
It is the element of system response that is achieved when the time approaches to infinity. The
response of the system after transient response is basically called steady state response. It is
denoted by (t).
Transient response doesn’t depend upon input of systems therefore can be analyzed using step
input. Steady state depends upon input and dynamics of system and can be determined using
different test signals by final value theorem.
The equation of time response will be:
Stability in Time Domain Analysis
Stability in control system is said to be achieved if the output ultimately comes back to the state of
equilibrium, when system is processed to an initial state. There are two terminologies in stability:
1. Crucially Stable: In this case, the oscillation of output of system continues without end.
2. Unstable: In this case, the output of system increases to a particular point.

Steady State Error

It indicates that the error between desired and actual output. It shows that at steady state the output is
not corresponding with the input.

Conclusion
We have two ways to analyze working of any control system that are time domain analysis and
frequency domain analysis. Both are two different principles to study functioning of any system.
In this article we thoroughly discussed time domain analysis of control systems. How it works,
Transient and steady-state response and the stability in time domain. The next tutorial will focus on
Typical Test Signals in Time Domain Analysis. The next part of tutorials will be more informative for
you so stay connected.

What is Cascade Control?

In single-loop control, the controller’s set point is set by an operator, and its output drives a final
control element. For example: a level controller driving a control valve to keep the level at its set point.
Single Loop Control
In a cascade control arrangement, there are two (or more) controllers of which one controller’s output
drives the set point of another controller. For example: a level controller driving the set point of a flow
controller to keep the level at its set point. The flow controller, in turn, drives a control valve to match
the flow with the set point the level controller is requesting.

Cascade Control
The controller driving the set point (the level controller in the example above) is called the primary,
outer, or master controller. The controller receiving the set point (flow controller in the example) is
called the secondary, inner or slave controller.
What are the Advantages of Cascade Control?
There are several advantages of cascade control, and most of them boil down to isolating a slow control
loop from nonlinearities in the final control element. In the example above the relatively slow level
control loop is isolated from any control valve problems by having the fast flow control loop deal with
these problems.
Imagine that the control valve has a stiction problem (see blog on valve problems.) Without the flow
control loop, the level control loop (driving the sticky valve) will continuously oscillate in a stick-slip
cycle with a long (slow) period, which will quite likely affect the downstream process. With the fast
flow control loop in place, the sticky control valve will cause it to oscillate, but at a much shorter
(faster) period due to the inherent fast dynamic behavior of a well-tuned flow loop. It is likely that the
fast oscillations will be attenuated by the downstream process without having much of an adverse
effect.
Or imagine that the control valve has a nonlinear flow characteristic (see blog on valve problems.) This
requires that the control loop driving it be detuned to maintain stability throughout the possible range of
flow rates. (Of course there are better ways to deal with nonlinearities, but that is the topic of another
blog.) If the level controller directly drives the valve, it must be detuned to maintain stability – possibly
resulting in very poor level control. In a cascade control arrangement with a flow control loop driving
the valve, the flow loop will be detuned to maintain stability. This will result in relatively poor flow
control, but because the flow loop is dynamically so much faster than the level loop, the level control
loop is hardly affected.
When Should Cascade Control be Used?
Cascade control should always be used if you have a process with relatively slow dynamics (like level,
temperature, composition, humidity) and a liquid or gas flow, or some other relatively-fast process, has
to be manipulated to control the slow process. For example: changing cooling water flow rate to control
condenser pressure (vacuum), or changing steam flow rate to control heat exchanger outlet
temperature. In both cases, flow control loops should be used as inner loops in cascade arrangements.
Does Cascade Control Have any Disadvantages?
Cascade control has three disadvantages. One, it requires an additional measurement (usually flow rate)
to work. Two, there is an additional controller that has to be tuned. And three, the control strategy is
more complex – for engineers and operators alike. These disadvantages have to be weighed up against
the benefits of the expected improvement in control to decide if cascade control should be
implemented.
When Should Cascade Control Not be Used?
Cascade control is beneficial only if the dynamics of the inner loop are fast compared to those of the
outer loop. Cascade control should generally not be used if the inner loop is not at least three times
faster than the outer loop, because the improved performance may not justify the added complexity.
In addition to the diminished benefits of cascade control when the inner loop is not significantly faster
than the outer loop, there is also a risk of interaction between the two loops that could result in
instability – especially if the inner loop is tuned very aggressively.
How Should Cascade Controls be Tuned?
A cascade arrangement should be tuned starting with the innermost loop. Once that one is tuned, it is
placed in cascade control, or external set point mode, and then the loop driving its set point is tuned. Do
not use quarter-amplitude-damping tuning rules (such as the unmodified Ziegler-Nichols and Cohen-
Coon rules) to tune control loops in a cascade structure because it can cause instability if the process
dynamics of the inner and outer loops are similar.

Process Control Loops: Trending PV, SP, OP and Mode

Modern manufacturing and process industries are often largely run by distributed control systems
(DCSs), with minimal input from operating personnel. This has largely been made possible by the
evolution of computer and controller hardware and software.
The basic building block of a process control systems is the process control loop. Process control loops
utilize sensors, transmitters, calculations or algorithms, processing systems, and actuators or outputs.
Their ultimate goal is to help a process run in a stable, predictable, consistent manner. Some common
examples of process variables that are controlled by control loops include tank levels, liquid flows, air
temperatures, and steam pressures.
A large industrial processing facility, like an oil refinery or paper mill, utilizes thousands of process
control loops. This type of facility also typically utilizes a data historian to store data related to their
control system or systems, plus other significant data. This data contains a wealth of information that
can be used as a powerful troubleshooting or optimization tool. The trick is knowing how to use it.

What is a process control loop?

Before we delve into some of the ways data can be used, it is important to understand the process data
that is typically available. We’ll begin by describing the elements of a very basic process control loop
and then the data it generates. More complicated control loops are also often used, but a thorough
description of all possible control loop types is not necessary here.

The temperature of a fluid in a tank can be automatically controlled by a process control loop using
steam.
A simple single-input-single-output (SISO) feedback control loop consists of following:

Process input
An outside variable that affects a process. In a control loop, you must be able to control and manipulate
this variable. For example, the steam flow into a tank could be the process input in a control loop
controlling the fluid temperature out of a tank. (Note that the process input is sometimes referred to as
the “input variable.”)

Process output
A characteristic of the process that affects the outside world. In a process control loop, this must be
measurable and vary in a consistent wa y with the process input. In the tank temperature control
example, the temperature of the fluid exiting the tank would be the process output. (The process output
is sometimes referred to as the “output variable.”)

Setpoint
The desired value for the process output. In the tank example, this is the desired temperature of the
fluid.

Controller
The hardware and software which compare the measured process output to the setpoint, and calculates
if the process input needs to change and by how much. The controller then sends a signal to an actuator
to make an adjustment to the process input, if necessary. In the tank example, this could be an actuator
on a control valve on the steam line to the tank.

What type of data do historians store?

The temperature indicating controller (TIC) compares a process variable (PV) value to a setpoint (SP)
value, and calculates and sends an output (OP) signal to the steam flow control valve.
The process data associated with the tank temperature control loop in a data historian would include:
PV or MV
The process variable or measured variable. This is the measured value of the process output – in this
case, the temperature of the fluid exiting the tank. This value is transmitted from the sensor to the
controller.

SP
The setpoint value, which is the desired value for the process variable (PV). The desired setpoint value
can be entered by an operator, or it can be calculated or based on a signal from an outside source.

OP
The output from the controller. The output signal is transmitted from the controller to an actuator to
make an adjustment, if necessary, or it can be sent to another controller (this is described in greater
detail in the next bullet).

Mode
This determines when and how a controller works. The three most common controller modes are
Automatic, Manual, and Cascade.
In Automatic mode, the controller receives the setpoint value (SP) and the measured value of the
process variable (PV), and calculates and sends an output signal (OP) to the actuator.
In Manual mode, the controller is overridden, allowing operating personnel to send the output signal
(OP) directly to the actuator.
Cascade mode is similar to Automatic mode, except the controller receives its setpoint (SP) from an
outside source, usually another controller. To help illustrate this concept, imagine in our tank example
if the temperature controller sent an output (OP) signal to a steam flow controller instead of a valve
actuator. The steam flow controller would receive a setpoint (SP) from the temperature controller, plus
a PV signal from a flow meter on the steam flow into the tank, and calculate and send an output signal
(OP) to the actuator. This “Cascade” control strategy would improve the temperature control response
because it would largely remove outside influences, such as variations in the steam supply or any
control valve non-linearity. (Note that this is no longer a simple single-input-single-output control
loop.)

Process Monitoring
During production, operating and supervising personnel can monitor current and time-trended process
variables (PVs) to monitor processes. Current PV values can be displayed on DCS graphics or other
computer-based graphics applications, while time-trended values can be viewed using a trending
application.
Many data historians (like dataPARC) have graphics applications and trending applications (i.e.
PARCgraphics and PARCview) to display process data. The most useful trending applications allow
multiple variables to be displayed on each trend and multiple trends to be viewed on a single screen.
This can be very helpful when trying to correlate data or troubleshoot a problem.
dataPARC’s PARCview displays can include multiple variables on each trend and multiple trends on
each screen for any available data over any time period.
Key process variables that are frequently monitored include chest and tank levels, steam and liquid
temperatures, steam and oil pressures, and liquid and gas flows. The only requirement is that the
monitored characteristic be measurable, so pH, conductivity, and turbidity can be monitored, while
odors and tastes currently cannot.
The advantage of time-trended data displays vs. single-point data displays is that in addition to seeing
where the process is currently, you can also see where the process has been and where it is headed. This
is extremely valuable in facilities processing large volumes of product, because control changes can
take a long time to take effect.

Tuning Control Loops

Another valuable application of process data is tuning of control loops. Without going into too much
depth, tuning a control loop involves adjusting numerical values in the controller’s calculation to
optimize the controller’s output (OP) response to process disturbances or to changes in the setpoint
(SP). Tuning can be performed manually or automatically by tuning software.
A good trending application is essential to manual control loop tuning – preferably, one that allows the
SP, OP and PV to be trended together on a single trend. Trending applications are also useful for spot
checking of control loops, because loops sometimes require tuning adjustments.
A control loop can be “tuned” to modify its response to a change in the setpoint value (SP = blue line).
This particular trend shows three control loop tuning attempts. The blue line is the setpoint (SP) value.
It shows when and by how much the setpoint was changed. The purple, green, and red lines show how
the process variable (PV) responded to three different sets of tuning constants. In the purple attempt,
the controller reacted quickly to the setpoint change, but the PV response overshot the setpoint quite a
bit. At the other extreme, the red attempt, the controller was much slower to respond but there was no
overshoot. The desired response of PV depends a lot on the process being controlled. For each control
loop, you need to decide how much overshoot is acceptable, and how quickly the process variable
needs to reach the setpoint.
Troubleshooting
Last, but not least, trends of PV, OP, SP, and Mode can be invaluable when troubleshooting process
upsets and disturbances. The ability to observe measured values for multiple process variables (PVs)
over time allows correlations to be determined, which assists with root cause analysis.

Plotting multiple process variable (PV) values on a single trend can help identify correlations between
them.
Time trends of the other process control values can also be helpful:
• Setpoint (SP) trends reveal the changes that have occurred to operator-entered setpoint values
and calculated setpoint values. This is valuable because unauthorized or unwarranted setpoint
changes can lead to process instabilities and upsets.
• Mode trends show when controllers have been put into Automatic, Manual and Cascade
modes. Like setpoint changes, mode changes can lead to process instabilities and upsets.
• Controller output (OP) trends can reveal problems with equipment or the process. For
example, if a previously functioning control loop has moved to an output of 0% or 100%, and is
failing to meet the setpoint, that is a good indication of an equipment malfunction or a change in
the process.
•

What is split range control system?

A very common control scheme is split range control in which the output of a controller is split to
two or more control valves. For example: Controller output 0% Valve A is fully open and Valve B fully
closed.
What is a single element control?
Single-element Control (Feedback Control) One or more boiler feedwater pumps push water through
one or more feedwater control valves into the boiler drum. The water level in the drum is measured
with a pressure and temperature-compensated level transmitter.

What is override control system?

Override control is used to regulate a process input to maintain one process output at target without
violating a constraint on another output. → Two controllers and a control selector (Low or High) are
required for override control.

What is the ratio control?

The ratio control architecture is used to maintain the flow rate of one stream in a process at a defined
or specified proportion relative to that of another. A common application for ratio control is to
combine or blend two feed streams to produce a mixed flow with a desired composition or physical
property.

What is selective control?

Selective control is a process in which some condition is checked and a deci- sion is made about
whether a certain segment of the program code will execute. For example, if an employee works
overtime, the calculation to compute his pay may be different than if the same person was a salaried
employee.

What is the difference between feedback and feedforward

control?
The book states: Feedback is reactive: there must be an error before corrective actions are taken.
However, in some circumstances, it is possible to measure a disturbance before the disturbance has
influenced the system. ... This way of controlling a system is called feedforward.

Split Range Control

A very common control scheme is split range control in which the output of a controller is split to two
or more control valves. For example:
 Controller output 0% Valve A is fully open and Valve B fully closed.
 Controller output 25% Valve A is 75% open and Valve B 25% open.
 Controller output 50% Both valves are 50% open.
 Controller output 75% Valve A is 25% open and Valve B 75% open.
 Controller output 100% Valve A is fully closed and Valve B fully open.
Different arrangements are possible. For example, figure 1 shows a split range pressure controller on a
separator with two valves, one to the flare and one to the compressor suction. In this case, the ‘split’ is
configured as follows:
 Controller output 0% Both valves are closed.
 Controller output 25% Valve A is 50% open and Valve B still closed.
 Controller output 50% Valve A is fully open and Valve B closed.
 Controller output 75% Valve A is fully open and Valve B 50% open.
 Controller output 100% Both valves are fully open.
The idea is that the suction valve is used for normal pressure control while the flare valve only opens to
disperse high pressures.
 Figure 1. Split range control scheme

In this application, the flare valve will need to open quickly in response to high pressures, but the
compressor suction valve will need to move much more slowly to prevent instability in the
compressors. The main problem with split range control is that the controller only has one set of tuning
parameters. If the controller is tuned to be fast acting to optimise the performance of the flare valve, the
suction valve will also move rapidly to produce unstable gas flows to the compressors. If the controller
is tuned slower to stabilise the compressors, then the flare valve will not open fast enough as the
pressure rises. A further issue is that the process response of the route to flare generally differs to the
process response of the route to the compressors, so both routes will anyway require very different
tuning for optimal control.
The solution is to replace the split range controller with two independent controllers, both reading the
same pressure transmitter, but one controlling the flare valve and the other the suction valve. Not only
can each controller be tuned correctly for its dedicated service, but different setpoints can also be used
to prevent the flare valve from ‘popping’ unnecessarily.
 Figure 2. Correct implementation
The ease with which a split range controller can be replaced with two ordinary controllers depends on a
number of factors. If the ‘split’ is calculated in the DCS or PLC so that each valve has its own output
from the control system, then the addition of a new controller is simply a matter of software
configuration. However, occasionally, the control system only has one output wired to both controllers
and the ‘split’ produced by configuration of the valve positioner. A new output will then be required
from the control system to one of the valves and the valve positioners must be reconfigured to operate
over the full 0-100% output range.
Override or Constraint p. 340 – 346
Override - Two controllers, two transmitters, one valve, working to control to two
different objectives.
In Experiment 1, our objective is to control the level at some valve as well as
prevent the flow from exceeding a controlled rate. We configure an override
control using the control selector block,
CTLSL.
This method allows one controller to "take control" over the other.
Constraint Control – In Experiment 3 we will control the valve position of the
maximum % open valve of both flow loops at 90% by controlling the pressure
controller's set point. Method used for energy reduction, if we had a variable
speed pump as a supply, subject of future lecture.
Constraint Control Examples
Ratio Control p. 333
Permits a second controller to follow a ratio of a master flow controller..
Example: pH control, pH controller output setting a ratio of the reagent flow to
the effluent flow. Effluent flow disturbances can adjust the reagent flow rather
than have the pH change and adjust the reagent flow.

Split Range - The Splitter (SPLTR) function block

This block is used to define the action of two valves from a single controller.
Example: A vessel that needs heating and cooling, half of the output action is
devoted to cooling while half is devoted to heating. Also called "Split Range"
Can be set by valve position control settings.

The ratio control architecture is used to maintain the flow rate of one stream in a process at a defined or
specified proportion relative to that of another. A common application for ratio control is to combine or
blend two feed streams to produce a mixed flow with a desired composition or physical property.
Consistent with other articles in this e-book, applications of interest are processes with streams
comprised of gases, liquids, powders, slurries or melts.
The conceptual diagram below (click for a large view) shows that the flow rate of one of the streams
feeding the mixed flow, designated as the wild feed, can change freely. Its flow rate might change based
on product demand, maintenance limitations, feedstock variations, energy availability, the actions of
another controller in the plant, or it may simply be that this is the stream we are least willing to
manipulate during normal operation.
The other stream shown feeding the mixed flow is designated as the controlled feed. A final control
element (FCE) in the controlled feed stream receives and reacts to the controller output signal, COc,
from the ratio control architecture. While the conceptual diagrams in this article show a valve as the
FCE, we note that other flow manipulation devices such as variable speed pumps or compressors may
also be used in ratio control implementations.
Relays in the Ratio Architecture
As the above diagram illustrates, we measure the flow rate of the wild feed and pass the signal to a
relay, designated as RY in the diagram. The relay is typically one of two types:

A ratio relay, where the mix ratio is entered once during configuration and is generally not
available to operations staff during normal operation.

A multiplying relay (shown), where the mix ratio is presented as an adjustable parameter on
the operations display and is thus more readily accessible for change.
In either case, the relay multiplies the measured flow rate of the wild feed stream, PVw, by the entered
mix ratio to arrive at a desired or set point value, SPc, for the controlled feed stream. A flow controller
then regulates the controlled feed flow rate to this SPc, resulting in a mixed flow stream of specified
proportions between the controlled and wild streams.
Linear Flow Signals Required
A ratio controller architecture as described above requires that the signal from each flow
sensor/transmitter change linearly with flow rate. Thus, the signals from the wild stream process
variable, PVw, and the controlled stream process variable, PVc, should increase and decrease in a
straight-line fashion as the individual flow rates increase and decrease.
Turbine flow meters and certain other sensors can provide a signal that changes linearly with flow rate.
Unfortunately, a host of popular flow sensors, including inferential head flow elements such as orifice
meters, do not. Additional computations (function blocks) must then be included between the sensor
and the ratio relay to transform the nonlinear signal into the required linear flow-to-signal relationship.
Flow Fraction (Ratio) Controller
A classic example of ratio control is the blending of an additive into a process stream. As shown below
(click for a large view), an octane booster is blended with straight-run gasoline stream being produced
by an atmospheric distillation column. For any number of reasons, the production rate of straight-run
gasoline will vary over time in a refinery. Therefore, the amount of octane booster required to produce
the desired octane rating in the mixed product flow must also vary in a coordinated fashion.

Rather than using a relay, we present an alternative ratio control architecture based on a flow fraction
controller (FFC). The FFC is essentially a “pure” ratio controller in that it receives the wild feed and
controlled feed signals directly as inputs. A ratio set point value is entered into the FCC, along with
tuning parameters and other values required for any controller implementation.
Ratio Relay or Flow Fraction Controller
The flow fraction (ratio) controller is a preconfigured option in many modern computer based DCS or
advanced PLC control systems. It provides exactly the same functionality as the ratio relay combined
with a single-input single-output controller as discussed above.
The choice of using a relay or an FFC is a practical matter. The entered ratio multiplier value in a relay
is not a readily accessible parameter. It therefore requires a greater level of permission and access to
adjust. Consequently, the use of the ratio relay has the advantage (or disadvantage depending on the
application) of requiring a higher level of authorization before a change can be made to the ratio
multiplier.
Multiplying Relay With Remote Input
The ratio controller shown below (click for a large view) presents an additional level of complexity in
that, like the cascade architecture, our ratio controller is contained within and is thus part of a larger
control strategy.
In the example below, an analyzer sensor measures the composition or property
we seek to maintain in the mixed flow stream. The measured value is compared to
a set point value, SPA, and a mix ratio controller output signal, COA, is generated
based on the difference. Thus, like a cascade, the outer analyzer controller
continually sends mix ratio updates to the inner ratio control architecture.

The updated mix ratio COA value enters the multiplying relay as an external set point. The objective of
this additional complexity is to correct for any unmeasured changes in the wild feed or controlled feed,
thus maintaining the mixed flow composition or property at the set point value, SPA.
The term “analyzer” is used broadly here. Hopefully, we can indentify a fast, inexpensive and reliable
sensor that allows us to infer the mixed flow composition or property of interest. Examples might
include a capacitance probe, an in-line viscometer, or a pH meter.
If we are required to use a chromatograph, spectrometer or other such instrument, we must allow for
the increased maintenance and attention such devices often demand. Perhaps more important, the time
to complete a sample and analysis cycle for these devices can introduce a long dead time into our
feedback loop. As dead time increases, best attainable control performance decreases.

DI, DO, AI and AO are acronyms for, respectively, digital input, digital output,
analog input and analog output.
Digital refers to the state of a single-bit, or binary signal. This binary signal typically has two states: on
and off. A digital input signal contains the state of an input from such devices as a tank level switch or a
door-closed switch. A digital output signal contains the state of an output to such devices as a motor
starter or panel signal light.
Analog refers to a continuously changing voltage or current level signal. Using analog to digital (A/D)
circuitry, the PLC converts this analog signal to a digital signal represented in the PLC by combining a
number of contiguous binary signals together. SCADAPack controllers use 16-bit registers to contain
the analog input signal. An example of an analog input signal is a sonar tank level. An example of an
analog output signal is a variable speed motor starter.
AI- means input of 4-20mA comes from transmitter to DCS
AO- means output of 4-20mA comes from the controller on DCS
DI- means input of 0 and 1 comes from switch to DCS
DO- means output of 24VDC come from DCS going to solenoid.

What is the difference between analog and digital inputs?

Most commonly digital signals will be one of two values – like either 0V or 5V. Timing graphs of these
signals look like square waves. Or a digital signal might be a discrete representation of an analog
waveform. ... That's the big difference between analog and digital waves.

What is difference between DI and DO?

A DI unit (direct input) is an electronic device typically used in recording studios and in sound
reinforcement systems to connect a high-output impedance, line level, unbalanced output signal to a
low-impedance, microphone level, balanced input, usually via an XLR connector and XLR cable.

What is analog input and output?

ADC = Analog to Digital Converter. An analog input converts a voltage level into a digital value that
can be stored and processed in a computer. Why would you want to measure voltages? There are a
multitude of sensors available which convert things like temperature, pressure, etc. into voltages.

What is the difference between analog and digital technology?

In analog technology, a wave is recorded or used in its original form. So, for example, in an analog
tape recorder, a signal is taken straight from the microphone and laid onto tape. ... In digital
technology, the analog wave is sampled at some interval, and then turned into numbers that are stored
in the digital device.

What is the difference between analog and digital channels?

Current television broadcasts use analog technology, which is prone to fading, snow, and ghosts.
Digital TV reproduces crystal-clear picture and sound without fading or interference. Digital
technology also enables TV stations to broadcast multiple channels with different programming.

What are the difference between analog and digital signals?

There are two types of signals that carry information – analog and digital signals. The difference
between analog and digital signals is that analog is a continuous electrical signal, whereas digital is
a non-continuous electrical signal.

Why analog is better than digital?

This jump in elevation can create a digital noise. The smooth analog signal matches the recorded
sound wave better than the steps of a digital recording. However, the analog medium (vinyl or
magnetized tape) the recording is imprinted on can have tiny imperfections that cause cracking and
popping noise.

What are the advantages of a digital signal?

Advantages of digital signals. Digital signals carry more information per second than analogue
signals. This is the same whether optical fibres, cables or radio waves are used. Digital signals
maintain their quality over long distances better than analogue signals.

temperature sensors
Most people have heard the phrase “Birds of a feather flock together,” which describes people who
have similar characteristics or interests and choose to spend time together. Is it possible that some
temperature sensors tend to flock together, too?

Of the sensing technologies, temperature sensing is the most common due to the multitude of
applications in which it is critical to know and process the actual or the relative temperature. For
instance, pressure, force, flow, level, and position sensors often require temperature monitoring to
ensure accuracy. Most sensors use resistive-bridge configurations to measure pressure and force. The
temperature errors of the resistive elements in these bridges can exceed the sensor’s actual
measurement range, making the pressure sensor’s output useless—unless you know the temperature of
the bridge. Flow- and level-sensor accuracies depend on the density of the liquid or the gas. The
temperature of that material is one variable that affects accuracy.

Today’s most popular temperature sensors are thermocouples, RTDs (resistance-temperature detectors),
thermistors, and silicon-based sensors. These sensors flock together because these well-characterized
devices typically can solve temperature-measurement problems. These sensor technologies cater to
specific temperature ranges and environmental conditions. You can use specifications such as the
sensor’s temperature range, ruggedness, and sensitivity to determine whether the device will satisfy the
requirements of the application.

Keep in mind that no one temperature sensor is right for all applications. The thermocouple has an
unrivaled temperature range, and the RTD sensor has excellent linearity. Table 1 summarizes the main
characteristics of thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, and silicon-based temperature sensors. This table
can be useful during your first pass in the sensor-selection process.

A thermocouple comprises two wires of dissimilar metals that are bonded together at one end. This
configuration produces an EMF (electromotive-force) voltage between the two wires at the unbounded,
or measurement, end. The EMF level is a function of the two dissimilar metals and the temperature
gradient along the length of the thermocouple wires. The thermocouple is not particularly accurate;
however, it can quickly sense over a wide temperature range.
RTDs provide excellent accuracy in a temperature-sensing environment. Their temperature range is
narrower than that of thermocouples but wider than those of thermistors and silicon-based sensors.
Select an RTD sensor if your application requires a high-quality, accurate temperature measurement.

Thermistors often provide the lowest-cost approach for your temperature-sensing system. You can
overcome the devices’ high nonlinearity with a simple resistive network. Although this type of network
reduces thermistors’ temperature range, this trade-off is acceptable in many temperature-sensing
applications.

IC-temperature or silicon-based sensors offer another alternative to solving temperature-measurement

problems. Their advantages include user-friendly output formats and easy installation during PCB
(printed-circuit-board) assembly. Although silicon-based temperature sensors respond slowly due to
their package mass, their plug-and-play features make them attractive. Table 2 complements the
specifications in Table 1 with a list of typical applications for these four temperature sensors. Examples
of appropriate applications include biophysics and metal-cutting research for thermocouples, cold-
junction compensation and calibration for RTDs, pyrometer calibration for thermistors, and battery
management for silicon-based sensors.

Of the temperature sensors now on the market, thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, and silicon-based
sensors continue to dominate. The thermocouple is most appropriate for higher-temperature sensing,
whereas the RTD is best suited for lower-temperature applications requiring good linearity. The
thermistor is a low-cost alternative for applications having smaller temperature ranges, and silicon-
based sensors sometimes win out because of their ease of use. The next four Baker’s Best columns will
dig into the temperature-sensor details of these four families of sensors.
Different Types of Sensors and Their Applications
Different Types of Sensors and Their Applications
The sensor is a sophisticated device that is frequently used to sense and respond to electrical (or)
optical signals. Usually, the output of the sensor will be in the form of an electrical signal or optical
signal. In our daily life, we use different types of sensors frequently in various applications like the
Infrared sensor is used to operate the TV remote, PIR sensor is used in automatic door opening and
closing, LDR sensor is used in street lighting system, etc. In this article, e will discuss a few kinds of
sensors and their uses in brief.

Different Types of Sensors and Their Applications

The most frequently used types of sensors for making electrical projects are classified based on the
quantities, namely IR (infrared), speed, PIR (passive infrared), temperature, touch, ultrasonic sensors.

Different Types of Sensors

What is a Speed Sensor?

The speed sensor is used to detect the speed of an object or vehicle. There are different kinds of sensors
to detect the speed like speedometers, Wheel speed sensors, LIDAR, ground speed radar, Doppler
radar, pitot tubes, airspeed indicators, and so on.
Speed Sensor

Speed Sensor Application

The typical application of speed sensor is speed synchronization of multiple motors in industries using
wireless technology based on PIC microcontroller. One of the several motors in the industry is
considered as the main motor which performs as transmitters and other motors acting as receivers, will
track the motor’s speed. The motors used in this project are BLDC motors that are controlled using
PWM with the RF (radio frequency) wireless communication mode.

Application of a Speed Sensor

Reference RPM is given to each motor shaft which has an IR sensor mounted and a closed loop is
found by feeding this o/p to the microcontroller in the circuit. Full speed will show on the display unit
and the mandatory speed of all motors can be attained by giving the chosen percentage using the
keypad. The given percentage is matched with running RPM by keeping appropriate DC power to the
motor with automatic change of pulse width o/p of the microcontroller.
Thus, by changing the speed of transmitting motor, we can change the speed of all motors using this
technology

What is a Temperature Sensor?

A sensor which gives the measurement of temperature as an electrical signal is termed as Temperature
sensor.This electrical signal will be in the form of electrical voltage and is proportional to the
temperature measurement.

Temperature Sensor
There are different kinds of temperature sensors used for measuring temperature, namely Contact type,
Non-contact type temperature sensors. These two are again divided as Mechanical temperature sensors
such as Thermometer & Bimetal. Electrical temperature sensors such as Thermistor, Resistance
Thermometer, Thermocouple, and Si bandgap temperature sensor.

Temperature Sensor Application

The design of “Industrial Temperature Controller” for adjusting the temperature of devices used in
industrial applications is one of the often used practical applications. In this circuit, IC DS1621 is a
digital thermometer used as a temperature sensor, which gives 9-bit temperature readings. This circuit
mainly comprises of 8051 microcontrollers, temperature sensor, EEPROM, LCD display and other
required electrical and electronic components.
Temperature Sensor Application
The LCD is used to show temperatures in the range of -55degress to +125degrees. EEPROM is used to
store pre-defined temperature settings by an operator through the 8051 series microcontroller. The
contact of the relay is used to load, is driven by the microcontroller using a transistor driver.

What is a PIR Sensor?

A PIR sensor is used to measure the IR radiation produced from objects in its field of view. Every
object has a temperature that emits heat energy in the radiation form, that radiates at infrared
wavelengths which are unseen to the human eye but can be noticed by special purpose electronic
devices like PIR motion detectors.

PIR Sensor
PIR Sensor Application
The typical application of PIR sensor is an Automatic Door Opening System, which is proposed for
automatic door opening operations based on body movement near the door. PIR sensor-based automatic
door opening system is built with an 8051 microcontroller, PIR sensor, a driver IC, a door motor.

PIR Sensor Application

If any of the body movement is present nearby the door, then IR radiation produced by the body will
make the sensor to generate sensing signal which is fed to 8051 series microcontroller.
Then the door motor is operated and then controlled by the microcontroller through driver IC. So, if
anyone comes close to the door, then a signal will be sent by the microcontroller for door opening and a
time delay is fixed for closing door automatically. The proposed system is projected for operating and
closing the doors at public places like theaters, shopping malls, and hotels.

What is an Ultrasonic Sensor?

The principle of the ultrasonic sensor is like radar in which clarification of echoes from radio to
estimate the qualities of a target by producing the high-frequency sound waves (around 40kHz).The
transducer is used to convert energy into ultrasound with ranges above the range of human hearing
range is named an ultrasonic transducer.

Ultrasonic Sensor

Application of Ultrasonic Sensor

The typical application of the ultrasonic sensor is the distance measurement at unreachable areas. This
circuit contains an ultrasonic module, LCD display, and 8051 series microcontroller. The ultrasonic
module is interfaced with the 8051 series microcontroller and this transducer comprises a transmitter
and receiver.
Application of Ultrasonic Sensor
The waves transmitted by the transducer are received back again after the waves are reflected back
from the object. The velocity of sound is considered for calculating the time taken for sending and
receiving waves. The distance is calculated by executing a program on the microcontroller, and then it
is displayed on the LCD display.
What is a Touch Sensor?
The touch sensor is a switch that can be activated by the touch. There are different kinds of touch
sensors that are categorized based on the type of touches like a resistance touch switch, capacitance
touch switch, and a piezo touch switch.
Touch Sensor

Touch Sensor Application

A touch sensitive load is intended to control the load. The touch controlled load switch project block
diagram is shown in the figure.
The block diagram of touch controlled load switch consists of various blocks like power supply block,
555 timers, touch sensor plate or touch plate, relay, and load as shown in the block diagram of touch
controlled load switch.

Touch Sensor Application

The 555 timer IC is used in the circuit that is connected in monostable mode. This circuit is used for
switching ON a load by driving a relay for a fixed time duration. The trigger pin of the IC is connected
to the touch plate, thus this IC can be activated by touch.
Whenever 555 timers is activated by touch it gives logic high for a fixed time interval. This fixed time
interval can be changed by varying the RC time constant which is connected to the timer. Thus, the
output of the timer drives the load using the relay and the load turns off automatically after fixed time
duration.
Similarly, we can develop simple and innovative engineering projects different types of sensors For
designing different types of sensor-based projects on your own. You can also approach us for technical
help by posting your ideas in the comments section below. Here is a question for you, what are impact
sensors?
Sensors & Transmitters
A sensor element measures a process variable: flow rate, temperature, pressure, level, pH, density,
composition, etc. Much of the time, the measurement is inferred from a second variable: flow and level
are often computed from pressure measurements, composition from temperature measurements.
A transducer is a device that receives a signal and retransmits it in a different form. For example, we've
discussed I/P transducers that convert a current signal to pneumatic form. Most industrial sensors act to
detect process variables in the form of a position or voltage change, and hence most sensors also
function as transducers. For example, a thermocouple represents a temperature change as a voltage
change, while a displacer represents a level change as a change in position of a rotating element.
If the sensor element does not produce a signal suitable for transmission through the plant, an
additional transducer element is needed. This combined sensor/transducer device is typically called a
transmitter, at least in industrial settings. Laboratory equipment manufacturers are likely to refer to the
combined device as a transducer.
Signals produced by sensor measurement and transducer transmission are processed by the control
system. They may be displayed on control panels as indicators, stored by recorders, or used by alarms
or switches. Standard symbols for these devices consist of two letter groups -- the first indicates the
process variable, the second the control function. So:
• PI - pressure indicator
• TC - temperature controller
• LAH - level alarm high
• FS - flow switch
• PRC - pressure recorder/controller
• TIC - temperature indicator/controller

and so on.
A sensor device which provides local readout only is usually referred to as a gage. Local pressure gages
and level gages (sight glasses) are very common.
When acquiring a transmitter, certain properties are important. These include:
• Accuracy -- the difference between the measured value obtained by the sensor and the true value
• Repeatability -- the difference between the sensed values obtained for the same true value
• Rangeability -- the ratio of large to small readings that maintains accuracy
• Sensor Dynamics -- the time constant of the sensor; how long it takes to detect and transmit a
changed value
For an automatic control system, repeatability is the most critical of these; more so than accuracy.
The users of a transmitter must periodically calibrate the device. This is done by using the sensor to
measure some fixed standard and adjusting its settings to ensure accuracy and repeatability.
Users of a sensor/trasmitter typically specify three values:
 • the zero is the measurement value corresponding to minimum signal (20 C set to produce 4 mA)
• The range specifies the boundaries of an operating region. This term is used loosely and so it is
important to distinguish between
• the instrument range which is characteristic of the device and set by tolerances,
materials of construction, etc. (0 to 500 C can be seen without mechanical failure)
• the operating range or calibrated range which the device is set to detect (for example,
20 C to 200 C)
• The span is the size of the calibrated operating region (180 C)

Most transmitters have set screws or other means of adjusting the zero and span; this is done during the
calibration process to obtain a desired operating range.
EXAMPLE: Consider a tank whose level is being measured and transmitted. The level is expected to
fall between 0 and 24 inches.
The zero of the transmitter will be set to 0 inches.
The span of the transmitter will be set to 24 inches.
Thus, the "calibrated" or operating range of the transmitter will be 0-24 inches.
Next, consider the case where the level is expected to fall between 4 and 30 inches.
The zero will be set to 4 inches.
The span will be set to 26 inches.
The calibrated range will be 4-30 inches; the instrument range will remain 0-40 inches.

Sensor Response
The key factor in sensor response is the measured variable -- pressure and flow measurements are
usually fast, temperature slow, and composition slowest.
Sensor time constants are usually on the order of a few seconds, except for composition. The
transmitter time constant adds less than 1 second for an electronic signal.
Usually, we want a linear relationship between the measured variable and the signal transmitted.
Adjustments must be made for nonlinearities; most notably by using square root extractors in flow
measurement.

Introduction to Industrial Control Systems

Industrial process control system consists of four basic elements:
1. A measurement to know the status of the condition of a process
2. A controller to take action by considering the set value and measured value
3. An output signal to manipulate the process that results from the controller
4. The process itself that reacts to the signal (Input or output)
The two most important signals considered considered in industrial control systems are:
 • Process Variable (PV)
• Manipulating Variable (MV)

Process variable (PV) is an input signal to the automated controller, which is measured by field
devices. Depending on this value, the controller action is decided by either the operator manually or
through the automatic controller.
The manipulating variable (MV) is a variable to be manipulated in order to have control over the
process variable. Suppose, for a particular flow control operation, the flow control valve position is the
manipulated variable to control the flow rate (process variable PV).

Nature of Industrial Control System

The nature of the industrial control system is shown in the above figure wherein the process is
controlled through sensory, controller and actuator systems. The controller gets the input signals from
the process measurement devices like sensors. These values are compared with the set point values in
the controller and the resultant is used to control the actuator in order to produce control input to
control the process as shown in the figure.

Basic Control Strategies Used in Industrial Control System

How well the process parameters are controlled depends on the control strategy implemented for that
process. Basic control strategies used in most of the industries are
• ON – OFF Control
• Open-Loop Control
• Feed- Forward Control
• Closed-Loop control

1. ON – OFF Control:
It is also called as two- position control system that has only two states fully on and fully off. It is the
oldest type of control strategy that gives simple on- off mechanism for the set limits. When the process
variable (PV) or measurement is below the set limit, then the controller is switched ON and the
manipulated variable (MV) changes to maximum value. Similarly, if the PV is above the set limit, then
the controller gets turned OFF and the MV changes to minimum value.
But, practically ideal on-off controller is not recommended since it is subject to process disturbances
and other electrical interferences. To prevent this, on –off hysteresis or differential is added to the
control function.

ON – OFF Control
2. Open-Loop Control:
In this control structure, control action is not a function of process variable or any load changes. This is
also not a self-correcting one. This control scheme independently calculates control output needed to
the actuator to produce the desired response. But this system never knows the status of actuator output
or process condition and also controller doesn’t consider any disturbance inputs in the process. That’s
why this is limited for most of the applications.

Open Loop Control

3. Feed-Forward Control:
This control scheme is implemented to reduce the effect of input disturbance on process. A sensor in
this system detects the disturbances or any load changes in the process, and then controller calculates
the necessary signal to the actuator. This allows the controller to take corrective action before the
disturbance effect the process. But this control scheme is more expensive and complicated and requires
a better understanding of the process to implement control logic.
Feed Forward Control
4. Closed-Loop Control:
Closed-loop control scheme is widely implemented in many of the industrial control applications. It
uses the output measurement as feedback signal; and, it is compared with desired or set-point value.
The difference between these actual and desired output is called error. Thus, the controller gives the
control input to the actuator till the error gets minimized so that the output is maintained at the desired
value as shown in the figure. Most of the closed loop control systems are implemented with PID
controller for accurate and reliable control.

Closed Loop Control

Types of Industrial Control systems

Depending on the functionality and complexity of the control action, industrial control systems are
differentiated into several types, but most commonly and widely used control systems are of three
types:
1. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
2. Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
3. Supervisory control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

As an industrial computer, Programmable Logic controller (PLC) is capable of being programmed to
perform various industrial control applications. PLC is built with modules like CPU, power supply, I/O
modules (both digital and analog) and communication modules. These PLCs can be modular or
integrated types. A modular type PLC is fixed and compact one with limited I/O functionalities whereas
an integrated PLC is capable to extend I/O modules based on the required I/O functionalities.
The sensors are connected to the input module and output devices or actuators to the output module of
the PLC. The CPU of the PLC continuously reads the inputs from the sensors and according to the
program, it produces the outputs to operate the actuators.
Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Distributed Control System is a specially designed industrial control system which is used to control
complex and geographically distributed applications. As the name implies, these controllers are
distributed in the entire plant area. The discrete field devices such as actuators and sensors are
connected to these controllers and also maintains the continuous communications with operating PCs
through a high speed communication network or bus.
Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
The basic elements in the DCS control systems is an engineering PC controls all the distributed
controllers, which controls the all the field devices connected to it. The HMI operating station used to
monitor the field parameters graphically and to log the data and communication media to establish data
transfer between the controllers and operating stations. DCS facilitates the human machine interface
(HMI), trend display and face plates for the effective monitoring of industrial processes.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
A SCADA system is a type of industrial process automation system that collects data from various
instruments which are located in plant area or even at remote sites. This data is further processed at a
central location for monitoring and controlling purpose. Based on the information from various remote
stations, automated supervisory commands are sent back to these remote stations to control the field
devices. Thus the remote control operation of equipments is possible with this SCADA.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA gathers data using both hardware and software systems. It consists of Remote Terminal Unit
(RTU) and Communication Terminal Unit (CTU) or Master Terminal Unit as hardware devices. The
RTU is nothing but a programmable logic controller which collects the data from various field
instruments and sends it to the CTU to transfer to remote location as shown in the figure. At receiving
side, CTU with SCADA HMI software displays all these parameters statuses and allows the user to
send control signals to plant area. Apart from the industrial applications, SCADA is also popularly used
in power transmission systems.
Hence the industrial control system is a multi-discipline system, which deals with disciplines like
control systems, communication, instrumentation, electronics and electrical systems. Apart from the
discussed control strategies some more advanced-control strategies are also used like cascade and ratio-
control schemes. For any further discussions on this topic, you can leave a comment in the comment
section.

PID Controllers Explained

PID controllers are named after the Proportional, Integral and Derivative control modes they have.
They are used in most automatic process control applications in industry. PID controllers can be used to
regulate flow, temperature, pressure, level, and many other industrial process variables. This blog
reviews the design of PID controllers and explains the P, I and D control modes used in them.
Manual Control
Without automatic controllers, all regulation tasks will have to be done manually. For example: To keep
constant the temperature of water discharged from an industrial gas-fired heater, an operator will have
to watch a temperature gauge and adjust a fuel gas valve accordingly (Figure 1). If the water
temperature becomes too high for some reason, the operator has to close the gas valve a bit – just
enough to bring the temperature back to the desired value. If the water becomes too cold, he has to
open the gas valve.

Figure 1. An operator doing manual control.

Feedback Control
The control task done by the operator is called feedback control, because the operator changes the
firing rate based on feedback that he gets from the process via the temperature gauge. Feedback control
can be done manually as described here, but it is commonly done automatically, as will be explained in
the next section.

Control Loop
The operator, valve, process, and temperature gauge forms a control loop. Any change the operator
makes to the gas valve affects the temperature which is fed back to the operator, thereby closing the
loop.

Automatic Control
To relieve our operator from the tedious task of manual control, we should automate the control loop.
This is done as follows:
• Install an electronic temperature measurement device.
• Automate the gas valve by adding an actuator (and perhaps a positioner) to it so that it can be
driven electronically.
 • Install a controller (in this case a PID controller), and connect it to the electronic temperature
measurement and the automated control valve.
A PID controller has a Set Point (SP) that the operator can set to the desired temperature. The
Controller’s Output (CO) sets the position of the control valve. And the temperature measurement,
called the Process Variable (PV) gives the controller its much-needed feedback. The process variable
and controller output are commonly transmitted via 4 – 20mA signals, or via digital commands on a
Fieldbus.
When everything is up and running, the PID controller compares the process variable to its set point
and calculates the difference between the two signals, also called the Error (E).
Then, based on the Error and the PID controller’s tuning constants, the controller calculates an
appropriate controller output that opens the control valve to the right position for keeping the
temperature at the set point. If the temperature should rise above its set point, the controller will reduce
the valve position and vice versa.

Figure 2. A PID controller doing automatic control.

PID Control
PID controllers have three control modes:
• Proportional Control
• Integral Control
• Derivative Control

Each of the three modes reacts differently to the error. The amount of response produced by each
control mode is adjustable by changing the controller’s tuning settings.
Proportional Control Mode
The proportional control mode is in most cases the main driving force in a controller. It changes the
controller output in proportion to the error (Figure 3). If the error gets bigger, the control action gets
bigger. This makes a lot of sense, since more control action is needed to correct large errors.
The adjustable setting for proportional control is called the Controller Gain (Kc). A higher controller
gain will increase the amount of proportional control action for a given error. If the controller gain is
set too high the control loop will begin oscillating and become unstable. If the controller gain is set too
low, it will not respond adequately to disturbances or set point changes.

Figure 3. Proportional control action.

Adjusting the controller gain setting actually influences the integral and derivative control modes too.
That is why this parameter is called controller gain and not proportional gain.

Proportional Band
While most controllers use controller gain (Kc) as the proportional setting, some controllers use
Proportional Band (PB), which is expressed in percent. Table 1 shows the relationship between Kc and
PB.

Controller Gain Proportional Band (PB) %

(Kc)

0.1 1000
0.2 500
0.5 200
1 100
2 50
5 20
10 10
Table 1. Relationship between Kc and PB

Proportional-only Controller
Proportional controllers are simple to understand and easy to tune. The controller output is simply the
output of the proportional control mode, plus a bias. The bias is needed so that the controller can
maintain an output (say at 50%) while there is no error (set point = process variable).

Figure 4. A proportional-only controller algorithm.

The use of proportional control alone has a large drawback – offset. Offset is a sustained error that
cannot be eliminated by proportional control alone. For example, let’s consider controlling the water
level in the tank in Figure 5 with a proportional-only controller. As long as the flow out of the tank
remains constant, the level will remain at its set point.
Figure 5. Level control, with operator causing a disturbance.
But, if the operator should increase the flow out of the tank, the tank level will begin to decrease due to
the imbalance between inflow and outflow. While the tank level decreases, the error increases and our
proportional controller increases the controller output proportional to this error. Consequently, the valve
controlling the flow into the tank opens wider and more water flows into the tank.
As the level continues to decrease, the valve continues to open until it gets to a point where the inflow
again matches the outflow. At this point the tank level (and error) will remain constant. Because the
error remains constant our P-controller will keep its output constant and the control valve will hold its
position. The system now remains at balance, but the tank level remains below its set point. This
residual sustained error is called Offset.
Figure 6 shows the effect of a sudden decrease in fuel gas pressure to the process heater described
earlier, and the response of a p-only controller. The decrease in fuel-gas pressure reduces the firing rate
and the heater outlet temperature decreases. This creates and error to which the controller responds.
However, a new balance-point between control action and error is found and the temperature offset is
not eliminated by the proportional controller.

Figure 6. A proportional controller’s response to a disturbance.

Under proportional-only control, the offset will remain until the operator manually changes the bias on
the controller’s output to remove the offset. This is typically done by putting the controller in manual
mode, changing its output manually until the error is zero, and then putting it back in automatic
control. It is said that the operator manually “Resets” the controller.

Integral Control Mode

The need for manual reset as described above led to the development of automatic reset or the Integral
Control Mode, as we know it today. As long as there is an error present (process variable not at set
point), the integral control mode will continuously increment or decrement the controller’s output to
reduce the error. Given enough time, integral action will drive the controller output far enough to
reduce the error to zero.
If the error is large, the integral mode will increment/decrement the controller output fast, if the error is
small, the changes will be slower. For a given error, the speed of the integral action is set by the
controller’s integral time setting (TI). A large value of TI (long integral time) results in a slow integral
action, and a small value of TI (short integral time) results in a fast integral action (Figure 7). If the
integral time is set too long, the controller will be sluggish, if it is set too short, the control loop will
oscillate and become unstable. In the figure, TS is the control algorithm’s execution interval, sometimes
called sampling time or scan time.
Figure 7. Integral control action and an integral-only controller’s equation.
Most controllers use integral time in minutes as the unit of measure for integral control, but some
others use integral time in seconds, integral gain in repeats per minute or repeats per second. Table 2
compares the different integral units of measure.

Integral Time Integral Gain

Minutes Seconds Rep / Min Rep / Sec

0.05 3 20 0.333
0.1 6 10 0.167
0.2 12 5 0.0833
0.5 30 2 0.0333
1 60 1 0.0167
2 120 0.5 0.00833
5 300 0.2 0.00333
10 600 0.1 0.00167
20 1200 0.05 0.00083
Table 2. Units of the integral control mode.

Proportional + Integral Controller

Commonly called the PI controller, its controller output is made up of the sum of the proportional and
integral control actions (Figure 8).

Figure 8. The PI controller algorithm.

Figure 9 shows how the integral mode continues to increment the controller’s output to bring the heater
outlet temperature back to its set point. Compared to Figure 6, it is clear how Integral control
eliminates offset.

Figure 9. A PI controller’s response to a disturbance.

Derivative Control Mode

The third control mode in a PID controller is derivative. Derivative control is rarely used in controlling
processes, but it is used often in motion control. For process control, it is not absolutely required, is
very sensitive to measurement noise and it makes trial-and-error tuning more difficult. See
http://blog.opticontrols.com/archives/153 for more detail. Nevertheless, using the derivative control
mode of a controller can make a control loop respond a little faster than with PI control alone.
The derivative control mode produces an output based on the rate of change of the error (Figure 10).
Derivative mode is sometimes called Rate. The derivative mode produces more control action if the
error changes at a faster rate. If there is no change in the error, the derivative action is zero. The
derivative mode has an adjustable setting called Derivative Time (TD). The larger the derivative time
setting, the more derivative action is produced. A derivative time setting of zero effectively turns off
this mode. If the derivative time is set too long, oscillations will occur and the control loop will run
unstable. Again TS is the controller’s execution interval.
Figure 10. Derivative control action.
Two units of measure are used for the derivative setting of a controller: minutes and seconds.

Proportional + Integral + Derivative Controller

Commonly called the PID controller, its controller output is made up of the sum of the proportional,
integral, and derivative control actions (Figure 11). There are other configurations too. See
http://blog.opticontrols.com/archives/124 for a description.

Figure 11. The Standard (Noninteractive) PID controller algorithm.

PID control provides more control action sooner than what is possible with P or PI control. This
reduces the effect of a disturbance, and shortens the time it takes for the level to return to its set point.
Figure 12. A PID controller’s response to a disturbance.
Figure 13 compares the recovery under P, PI, and PID control of the process heater outlet temperature
(PV) after a sudden change in fuel gas pressure as described above.

Figure 13. The result of a P, PI, and PID controllers’ response to a disturbance.
Term P is proportional to the current value of the SP-PV error e(t). For example, if the error is large
and positive, the control output will be proportionately large and positive, taking into account the gain
factor "K". Using proportional control alone in a process with compensation such as temperature
control, will result in an error between the setpoint and the actual process value, because it requires an
error to generate the proportional response. If there is no error, there is no corrective response.[1]
• Term I accounts for past values of the SP-PV error and integrates them over time to produce the
I term. For example, if there is a residual SP-PV error after the application of proportional
control, the integral term seeks to eliminate the residual error by adding a control effect due to
the historic cumulative value of the error. When the error is eliminated, the integral term will
cease to grow. This will result in the proportional effect diminishing as the error decreases, but
this is compensated for by the growing integral effect.
• Term D is a best estimate of the future trend of the SP-PV error, based on its current rate of
change. It is sometimes called "anticipatory control" as it is effectively seeking to reduce the
effect of the SP-PV error by exerting a control influence generated by the rate of error change.
The more rapid the change, the greater the controlling or dampening effect.[2].