Multiple access protocols:

Multiple Access Protocols are methods used in computer networks to control how
data is transmitted when multiple devices are trying to communicate over the same
network. These protocols ensure that data packets are sent and received efficiently,
without collisions or interference. They help manage the network traffic so that all
devices can share the communication channel smoothly and effectively.

Who is Responsible for the Transmission of Data?

The Data Link Layer is responsible for the transmission of data between two nodes.
Its main functions are:
 Data Link Control
 Multiple Access Control

Data Link Control

The data link control is responsible for the reliable transmission of messages over
transmission channels by using techniques like framing, error control and flow control.

Multiple Access Control

If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then data link control
layer is sufficient, however if there is no dedicated link present then multiple stations
can access the channel simultaneously. Hence multiple access protocols are required
to decrease collision and avoid crosstalk. For example, in a classroom full of
students, when a teacher asks a question and all the students (or stations) start
answering simultaneously (send data at same time) then a lot of chaos is created(
data overlap or data lost) then it is the job of the teacher (multiple access protocols)
to manage the students and make them answer one at a time.
Thus, protocols are required for sharing data on non dedicated channels. Multiple
access protocols can be subdivided further as
 Fig :Multiple Acess protocol

1. Random Access Protocol:

In this, all stations have same superiority that is no station has more priority than
another station. Any station can send data depending on medium’s state( idle or
busy). It has two features:
 There is no fixed time for sending data
 There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
The Random access protocols are further subdivided as:

A)ALOHA:
ALOHA was developed at University of Hawaii in early 1970s by Norman Abramson. It
was used for ground based radio broadcasting. In this method, stations share a
common channel. When two stations transmit simultaneously, collision occurs and
frames are lost. There are two different versions of ALOHA:

Types of Aloha
i)Pure ALOHA :
In pure ALOHA, stations transmit frames whenever they have data to send. When two
stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and frames are lost. In pure ALOHA,
whenever any station transmits a frame, it expects an acknowledgement from the
receiver. If acknowledgement is not received within specified time, the station assumes
that the frame has been lost. If the frame is lost, station waits for a random amount of
time and sends it again. This waiting time must be random; otherwise, same frames will
collide again and again. Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same
time, there will be collision and both the frames will be lost. If first bit of a new frame
overlaps with the last bit of a frame almost finished, both frames will be lost and both will
have to be retransmitted

Fig:Pure ALOHA
ii)Slotted ALOHA:

Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA. In slotted
ALOHA, time of the channel is divided into intervals called slots. The station can send a
frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame is sent in each slot. If any
station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the beginning of the slot, it has
to wait until the next time slot. There is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to
send at the beginning of the same time slot

Fig:Sloted ALOHA
B)CSMA(Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access. Carrier Sense means, stations has an
additional property with them, that they can sense the channel (carrier) and tell if the
channel is in use or not. What we want, that at the start of the slot, stations should
sense the channel first, and then act accordingly. CSMA was developed to overcome
the problems of ALOHA i.e. to minimize the chances of collision. The chances of
collision reduces to a great extent if a station checks the channel before trying to use it.

CSMA

CSMA Access Modes

CSMA Access Modes

 1-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it
continuously keeps on checking the medium for being idle and transmits
unconditionally(with 1 probability) as soon as the channel gets idle.
 Non-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise
it checks the medium after a random amount of time (not continuously) and
transmits when found idle.
 P-Persistent: The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the data with p
probability. If the data is not transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it waits for some
time and checks the medium again, now if it is found idle then it send with p
probability. This repeat continues until the frame is sent. It is used in Wifi and
packet radio systems.
 O-Persistent: Superiority of nodes is decided beforehand and transmission occurs
in that order. If the medium is idle, node waits for its time slot to send data.

C)CSMA/CD:

CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) In this protocol, the station senses the
channel before transmitting the frame. If the channel is busy, the station waits.
Additional feature in CSMA/CD is that the stations can detect collisions. The stations
abort their transmission as soon as they detect collision. This feature is not present in
CSMA. The stations continue to transmit even though they find that collision has
occurred. In CSMA/CD, the station that sends its data on the channel, continues to
sense the channel even after data transmission. If collision is detected, the station
aborts its transmission and waits for a random amount of time & sends its data again.
As soon as a collision is detected, the transmitting stations release a jam signal. Jam
signal alerts other stations. Stations are not supposed to transmit immediately after the
collision has occurred

Fig:Frame format for CSMA/CD

D)CSMA/CA:

CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) This protocol is used in wireless networks
because they cannot detect the collision. So, the only solution is collision avoidance. It avoids the
collision by using three basic techniques:
1)Interframe Space
2)Contention Window
3)Acknowledgements
 Interframe Space:
Whenever the channel is found idle, the station does not transmit immediately. It waits
for a period of time called Interframe Space (IFS). When channel is sensed idle, it may
be possible that some distant station may have already started transmitting. Therefore,
the purpose of IFS time is to allow this transmitted signal to reach its destination. If after
this IFS time, channel is still idle, the station can send the frames.

Contention Window:
Contention window is the amount of time divided into slots. Station that is ready to send
chooses a random number of slots as its waiting time. The number of slots in the
window changes with time. It means that it is set of one slot for the first time, and then
doubles each time the station cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time. In
contention window, the station needs to sense the channel after each time slot.

Acknowledgment:
Despite all the precautions, collisions may occur and destroy the data. Positive
acknowledgement and the time-out timer help guarantee that the receiver has received
the frame

ETHERNET :
Ethernet, developed in 1976, is the most widely-installed LAN technology, and typically
uses coaxial or UTP cable. Ethernet technology uses broadcast topology with baseband
signaling and a control method called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) to transmit data. The IEEE 802.3 standard defines Ethernet protocols for
(Open Systems Interconnect) OSI’s Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and physical
layer network characteristics. The IEEE 802.2 standard defines protocols for the Logical
Link Control (LLC) sublayer.
The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASE-T, which provides
transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps. 'Fast Ethernet' or 100BASE-T provides
transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second and is typically used for servers,
LAN backbone systems and in workstations with high-bandwidth needs. Gigabit
Ethernet provides an even faster level of backbone support at 1000 megabits per
second (1 gigabit or 1 billion bits per second). Ethernet is a passive, contention-based
broadcast technology that uses baseband signaling. Baseband signaling uses the entire
bandwidth of a cable for a single transmission. Only one signal can be transmitted at a
time and every device on the shared network hears broadcast transmissions. Passive
technology means that there is no one device controlling the network. Contention-based
means that every device must compete with every other device for access to the shared
network. In other words, devices take turns. They can transmit only when no other
device is transmitting.

Ethernet working:
When a node wants to communicate to another node, it transmits its frame. The frame
travels to every node on the segment. Each node inspects the frame to see if it is
addressed to him. If the frame is not addressed to the node, the node ignores it. If the
frame is addressed to the node, the node opens the frame and reads its contents. The
exception is a broadcast address, which is a special message intended to be read by
every node (like a message on the P.A. as opposed to a comment from one person to
another).Token Ring, the main alternative to Ethernet, uses a different strategy to avoid
computers talking at the same time. Ethernet popularity is a result of several factors.
Ethernet technology is:
1)Inexpensive
2)Easy to install, maintain, troubleshoot and expand
3)A widely accepted industry standard, which means compatibility
4)equipment access are less of an issue
5)Structured to allow compatibility with network operating systems
6)(NOS)
7) Very reliable.

Manchester Encoding:

Manchester encoding is a synchronous clock encoding technique used by the physical

layer of the Open System Interconnection to encode the clock and data of a
synchronous bit stream. The idea of RZ and the idea of L are combined in
manchester encoding. Different encoding techniques are used in data communication
to ensure data security and transmission speed.
Manchester encoding is an example of digital encoding. Because each data bit length
is defined by default, it differs from other digital encoding schemes. The direction of
the transition determines the bit state. Different systems represent bit status in various
ways, although most systems use 0 bit for low-to-high transitions and 1 bit for high-to-
low transitions. In this article, we will learn about the Manchester encoding technique,
other approaches to encoding, and the advantages and disadvantages of Manchester
encoding.

What is Manchester Encoding?

Manchester encoding is a method of data transmission used in computer networks
and telecommunications. It works by combining the clock and data signals into one
stream, making it easier to synchronize the data. Each bit of data is represented by a
transition; a change from high to low or low to high in the signal. This helps ensure
that the data is correctly interpreted by the receiving device. It is widely used
in Ethernet technology and other digital communication systems due to its reliability
and simplicity.
In Manchester, the duration of a bit is divided into two halves. The voltage remains the
same at one level during the first half & moves to the other level. The transition in the
middle of the bit provides synchronization. Differential Manchester, on the other hand,
combines the idea of RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a transition in the middle of the
bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. if the next bit is zero
there is a transition if next bit is 1 there is none.

Note: Manchester encoding’s main advantage is signal synchronization

The binary data to be transmitted over the cable are not sent as NRZ [Non-return-to-
zero].

Example of Manchester Encoding:

In Manchester encoding, each bit of data is represented by a transition in the signal.
For example, let’s consider a simple binary data sequence: 1101.
 Binary Data: 1101
 Manchester Encoding
o 1: At First it becomes High to Low transition
o 1: At second it also becomes High to Low transition
o 0: It becomes Low to High transition
o 1: The final time it becomes High to Low transition
This sequence would look like this in Manchester encoded form:
 1: |¯|_
 1: |¯|_
 0: |_|¯
 1: |¯|_
In this representation:
 |¯|_ signifies a transition from high to low.
 |_|¯ signifies a transition from low to high.
 A binary “1" is represented by a high-to-low transition.
 A binary “0" is represented by a low-to-high transition.
 Thus, the binary sequence 1101 would be encoded in Manchester as a series of
transitions that ensure synchronization and reliable data transmission

Advantages of Manchester Encoding:

 Self-clocking: Manchester encoding is self-clocking, which means that the
receiver can synchronize its clock with the transmitter’s clock. This ensures that
the data is transmitted and received at the same rate, and there is no need for a
separate clock signal.
 Reduced DC component: Manchester encoding eliminates the DC component in
the transmitted signal, which reduces the risk of errors due to interference from
external sources.
 Error detection: Manchester encoding provides a mechanism for detecting errors
in the transmitted data. Any change in the voltage level within a time interval
indicates a bit error, which can be detected and corrected.
 Simplicity: Manchester encoding is a relatively simple encoding scheme that can
be implemented using simple digital circuits.

Disadvantages of Manchester Encoding:

 Lower data rate: Manchester encoding has a lower data rate than other encoding
schemes, such as non-return-to-zero (NRZ) encoding, which means that it takes
more time to transmit the same amount of data.
 Higher bandwidth requirement: Manchester encoding requires a higher
bandwidth than other encoding schemes, as each bit requires two voltage
transitions within each time interval.
 Clock synchronization: Although Manchester encoding is self-clocking, it still
requires the receiver to synchronize its clock with the transmitter’s clock, which can
be a challenge in some situations.
 Reduced transmission distance: Manchester encoding has a reduced
transmission distance compared to other encoding schemes, as the signal loses
strength over long distances due to the need for frequent voltage transitions.

The Ethernet Mac Sublayer Protocol:

Frame Format of Classic Ethernet

Classic Ethernet frames can be either of Ethernet (DIX) or of IEEE 802.3 standard. The
frames of the two standards are very similar except for one field. The main fields of a
frame of classic Ethernet are −

 Preamble − It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission.
In case of Ethernet (DIX) it is an 8 byte field and in case of IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field in an IEEE 802.3 frame that
contains an alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of destination
stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending
station.
 Type/Length − This is a 2 byte field. In case of Ethernet (DIX), the field is type that
instructs the receiver which process to give the frame to. In case of IEEE 802.3, the field
is length that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of
46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.

Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm :

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network

protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC)
layer. It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or not,
and defers transmissions until the channel is free.
When more than one stations send their frames simultaneously, collision occurs. Back-
off algorithm is a collision resolution mechanism which is commonly used to schedule
retransmissions after collisions in Ethernet. The waiting time that a station waits before
attempting retransmission of the frame is called as back off time.
Algorithm of CSMA/CD
Step 1) When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is
idle or busy.
Step 2) If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
Step 3) If the channel is idle, the station starts transmitting and continually monitors the
channel to detect collision.
Step 4) If a collision is detected, the station starts the binary exponential backoff
algorithm.
Step 5) The station resets the retransmission counters and completes frame
transmission.

Ethernet Performance:

1. Ethernet Speed and Data Rates

 Ethernet has evolved to support increasing speeds, ranging from 10 Mbps to

800 Gbps.
 Common standards: Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps),
10G Ethernet (10 Gbps), 100G Ethernet (100 Gbps).
 Higher speeds require better cabling (Cat5e, Cat6, fiber) and advanced
switching equipment.

2. Latency (Delay)

 The time taken for data to travel from source to destination.

 Measured in milliseconds (ms); lower latency improves real-time applications
like VoIP and gaming.
 Affected by:
o Network congestion
o Switching and routing delays
o Propagation delay (distance between devices)
 Wired Ethernet has lower latency than Wi-Fi.

3. Throughput (Effective Data Rate)

 The actual data transferred per second, usually lower than the theoretical speed.
 Reduced by:
o Collisions (in half-duplex mode)
o Protocol overhead (headers, retransmissions)
o Network congestion
 Full-duplex Ethernet and switched networks improve throughput.

4. Network Efficiency

 Efficiency depends on:

o Frame size: Larger frames (Jumbo Frames) reduce overhead.
 o Switching: Switched Ethernet eliminates collisions, improving efficiency.
o Flow control: IEEE 802.3x PAUSE frames prevent packet loss due to
congestion.

5. Collision and Error Rates

 Collisions (in half-duplex mode) reduce performance.

 Bit Error Rate (BER) measures transmission errors.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS) detects errors in Ethernet frames.
 Causes of errors:
o Electrical noise, cable damage, poor connections, excessive network load.
 Full-duplex Ethernet eliminates collisions, improving performance.

6. Factors Affecting Ethernet Performance

Factor Impact on Performance

Cable Quality Poor cables cause signal loss and errors.
Switching vs. Hubs Switches improve performance by eliminating collisions.
Network Load Heavy traffic increases latency and packet loss.
Frame Size Larger frames improve efficiency by reducing overhead.
Error Handling High error rates reduce effective throughput.

7. Enhancing Ethernet Performance

 Upgrade to higher-speed Ethernet (e.g., 1Gbps to 10Gbps).

 Use full-duplex mode to eliminate collisions.
 Use Cat6a or fiber cables for high-speed connections.
 Optimize network design with switches instead of hubs.
 Enable QoS (Quality of Service) for prioritizing critical traffic.
 Reduce network congestion using VLANs and load balancing.

Switched Ethernet
Switched Ethernet is an advanced form of Ethernet that uses network switches to
manage data traffic more efficiently compared to traditional hub-based Ethernet. It
provides improved performance, reduced collisions, and enhanced bandwidth
utilization.

Features of Switched Ethernet

 Uses network switches instead of hubs to connect devices.

 Provides dedicated bandwidth to each connected device, reducing network
congestion.
  Operates in full-duplex mode, allowing simultaneous sending and receiving of
data.
 Reduces collisions by using MAC address-based switching instead of
broadcasting to all devices.
 Supports VLAN (Virtual LAN) for better traffic management and security.

Advantages of Switched Ethernet

 Higher network efficiency due to reduced collisions.

 Better bandwidth utilization with dedicated data paths.
 Scalability, allowing more devices to be connected without significant
performance degradation.
 Improved security, as data is forwarded only to the intended recipient.

Disadvantages of Switched Ethernet

 More expensive compared to hub-based Ethernet networks.

 Slight increase in latency due to processing at switches.
 Requires proper network design and management to avoid bottlenecks.

Fast Ethernet

Fast Ethernet is an upgraded version of standard Ethernet that provides data transfer
rates of 100 Mbps (Megabits per second). It is defined by the IEEE 802.3u standard
and is commonly used in LAN (Local Area Network) environments.

Types of Fast Ethernet

1. 100BASE-TX – Uses twisted-pair cabling (Cat5 or higher). Most commonly used.

2. 100BASE-FX – Uses fiber optic cables for longer distances and better immunity
to interference.
3. 100BASE-T4 – Uses four pairs of twisted-pair cables, but is less common.

Features of Fast Ethernet

 Backward compatible with 10 Mbps Ethernet (10BASE-T).

 Operates in both half-duplex and full-duplex modes.
 Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) for
data transmission.
 Supports auto-negotiation to switch between 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps speeds.
 Works with both twisted-pair and fiber optic cables.

Advantages of Fast Ethernet

 Higher data transfer rate (100 Mbps) compared to traditional Ethernet (10
Mbps).
  Improved network performance for applications like video streaming and large
file transfers.
 Supports full-duplex communication, eliminating collisions.
 Cost-effective compared to Gigabit Ethernet for small to medium networks.

Disadvantages of Fast Ethernet

 Limited to 100 Mbps, which is slower than Gigabit and newer Ethernet
technologies.
 Requires upgraded cabling (Cat5 or higher) for optimal performance.
 Distance limitations in twisted-pair cabling (100m max for 100BASE-TX).

Wireless LAN and IEEE 802.11

Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves
instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can
move around within the area of network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon the
standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally
wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.

Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating
at physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of
operation:

 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc
manner.

3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.

 4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Advantages of WLANs:

 They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
 The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at a greater ease than wired LANs.
 The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.
 Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
 The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs

 Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
 Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors.
So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
 WLANs are slower than wired LANs.
 The 802.11 Physical Layer:

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs
can move around within the area of network coverage.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The physical layer architecture of IEEE 802.11 has the following components −

 Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types −
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally
wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smart phones etc.
 Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
 Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation −
o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an
ad hoc manner.
 Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
 Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
 The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol:
IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs
can move around within the area of network coverage.
The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the logical
link control sublayer and upper layers of the OSI network. It is responsible for
encapsulating frames and describing frame formats.
MAC Sublayer frame of IEEE 802.11
The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −
 Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains
control information of the frame.
 Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgement occupy the channel.
 Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source,
immediate destination and final endpoint respectively.
 Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 2312 bytes.
 Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.

Avoidance of Collisions by 802.11 MAC Sublayer

 In wireless systems, the method of collision detection does not work. It uses a protocol
called carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).

The method of CSMA/CA is −

 When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or
busy.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
 If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount of time and
then sends the frame.
 After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
 The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives the
acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful transmission.
 Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.

Co-ordination Functions in 802.11 MAC Sublayer

IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer uses two co-ordination functions for collision
avoidance before transmission −

 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) −

o It is a mandatory function used in CSMA/CA.
o It is used in distributed contention-based channel access.
o It is deployed in both Infrastructure BSS (basic service set) as well as
Independent BSS.
 Point Coordination Function (PCF) −
o It is an optional function used by 802.11 MAC Sublayer.
o It is used in centralized contention-free channel access.
o It is deployed in Infrastructure BSS only.

The 802.11 Frame Structure:

The IEEE 802.11 standard, lays down the architecture and specifications of wireless
local area networks (WLANs). WLAN or WiFi uses high frequency radio waves instead
of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move
around within the area of network coverage.
The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the logical
link control sublayer and upper layers of the OSI network. It is responsible for
encapsulating frames and describing frame formats.
 Frame Control −It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains
control information of the frame. The 11 subfields are −
 Protocol version − The first sub-field is a two – bit field set to 00. It has been included
to allow future versions of IEE 802.11 to operate simultaneously.
 Type − It is a two-bit subfield that specifies whether the frame is a data frame, control
frame or a management frame.
 Subtype − it is a four – bit subfield states whether the field is a Request to Send (RTS)
or a Clear to Send (CTS) control frame. For a regular data frame, the value is set to
0000.
 To DS − A single bit subfield indicating whether the frame is going to the access point
(AC), which coordinates the communications in centralised wireless systems.
 From DS − A single bit subfield indicating whether the frame is coming from the AC.
 More Fragments − A single bit subfield which when set to 1 indicates that more
fragments would follow.
 Retry − A single bit subfield which when set to 1 specifies a retransmission of a
previous frame.
 Power Management − A single bit subfield indicating that the sender is adopting
power-save mode.
 More Data − A single bit subfield showing that sender has further data frames for the
receiver.
 Protected Frame − A single bit subfield indicating that this is an encrypted frame.
 Order − The last subfield, of one – bit, informs the receiver that to the higher layers the
frames should be in an ordered sequence.
 Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgement occupy the channel.
 Address fields: There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source,
immediate destination and final endpoint respectively.
 Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers. It detects duplicate frames
and determines the order of frames for higher layers. Among the 16 bits, the first 4 bits
provides identification to the fragment and the rest 12 bits contain the sequence number
that increments with each transmission.
 Data − This is a variable sized field that carries the payload from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 2312 bytes.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS) − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection
information.