GE 137 – Fundamentals of Remote Sensing

and Geographic Information System

for Engineers

Topic 6: GIS Data Models and

Sources
Lecturer:

Engr. Monalaine M. Bermoy

Department of Geodetic Engineering
College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University
Authors/Contributors*
• This material was prepared/contributed by the following faculty
members:
Name Type of Contribution Date of Contribution/Revision
Kendel P. Bolanio Established (first version) 10/31/2021

*If this material was edited, revised or updated, kindly fill-up the table
with required details accordingly.
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Presentation Outline
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Levels of Abstraction
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
Expected Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, the students would be able to:
• Understand the data representation and its elements in GIS
• Determine the different levels of abstraction in GIS modelling
• Identify the two (2) common spatial data models
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of raster and vector data
models
Part 1
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
GIS Component: Data
• The core (heart) of GIS
• A way of representing features
• may be geographic or
tabular/attribute data
• attribute data are additional
information that describe the
characteristics of spatial data

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nedhal_Al-
Saiyd/publication/281525427/figure/fig1/AS:284447426531337@1444828959740/Figure-4-GIS-data-layers-or-themes-
26.png
GIS Data
• Conventional Data: Paper Map
➢ Static representation
➢ Represents a general-purpose
snapshot of the real world at a given
time only
• Digital Geographic Data
➢ Dynamic representation
➢ Allows a range of functions for
storing, processing, analyzing, and
visualizing spatial data
➢ Has tools that allow users to interact
with the data to meet their objectives
GIS Data
Digital Geographic Data
• Numerical representations that describe real-world features and phenomena
• Must be encoded in digital form and organized as a geographic database to be
useful to GIS
GIS Data
• Data Representation

Real World GIS Approximation

GIS Data
• We approximate entities with
objects in GIS.
➢ Subject to our familiarity or
knowledge about the entity
• Entities - "things" in the real
world we represent (Rivers,
buildings, soil types, wetlands)
• Objects - our representation in a
data model
Spatial Elements
• Geometric and Attribute Data

Source: Bernhardsen, Tor. (1999). 2nd Ed. Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction. p. 40.
Spatial Elements
• Modeling: Entity Relations

Source: Bernhardsen, Tor. (1999). 2nd Ed. Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction. p. 40.
Spatial Elements
• Data Model → Entities as Objects
➢ Real-world entities correspond to database objects
▪ carrier of information = entity → object(s)
Spatial Elements
Objects are characterized by:
• Type (unique ID, type code/object class)
• Attributes (qualitative/quantitative data)
• Relations (calculable vs. attributable)
• Geometry (point, line, area/polygon)
• Quality (accuracy, resolution, coverage extent, representation, etc.)
 Spatial Elements
Object (Spatial) Attributes

Object: Spatial and Attribute

Component

Reality

Source: Bernhardsen, Tor. (1999). 2nd Ed. Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction. p. 43.
Spatial Elements
Object: Spatial Component
• Points:
➢ Dimensionless, location in space
➢ Symbol determines display data
➢ Simplest graphical representation
➢ x‚ y coordinate pair (e.g. well location,
tree, lamp post, city, village)
➢ Scale determines whether object is
defined as point or an area
Spatial Elements
Object: Spatial Component
• Lines:
➢ One dimension
➢ Connect at least two points & used to
represent objects that may be defined in
one dimension
➢ series of x‚ y pairs with links (e.g. streets,
canals, drainage system, electricity lines)
Spatial Elements
Object: Spatial Component
• Areas/Polygons:
➢ Two dimensions
➢ Used to group locations that are the same
type
➢ x‚ y pairs with links where first and last
pairs are identical (e.g. Country, districts,
field, water body)
➢ Areas are delineated by at least three
connecting lines, each of which comprise
points
Spatial Elements
Object: Attribute Component
• Attribute values: same as entity attributes of real-world model.
• Describe an objects features-- qualitative (type of object) or quantitative data (ordinal, interval,
ratio).
• In practice object attributes are stored in tables, with objects on lines and attributes in columns.
Part 2
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
Spatial Data Models

Satellite view of the Philippines Philippine Administrative Boundary Map

Spatial Data Models
What is a data model?
• A way of representing data
• A set of constructs (schematic idea) for describing and representing selected
aspects of the real world into a computer.
Spatial Data Models

• Layers, coverages or themes (synonymous concepts)

• Integrated using explicit location on the earth’s surface
Spatial Data Models
roads • Layers are comprised of two data
longitude
types:
➢ Spatial data which describes
location (where)
➢ Attribute data specifying what,
hydrology how much, when
longitude • All geographic data has 4
properties: projection, scale,
accuracy and resolution
topography

longitude
Spatial Data Modela
REAL WORLD

Field-based Model Object-based Model

Raster Data Model Vector Data Model

Object-Based Model
• Discrete objects • Fuzzy objects
➢ the world is made up of well-defined ➢ entities with diffused boundaries (e.g.,
entities (e.g., buildings, roads) forests, beaches, hills)
Object-Based Model
• Discrete objects
• Well-defined boundaries in empty
space
• “Desktop littered w/ objects”
• World littered w/ cars, houses, etc.
• Counts
• 49 houses in a subdivision
Object-Based Model
• The discrete object view leads to a powerful way of representing geographic
information about objects
FID Lot ID Owner Area Assessed value
0 1 Meriam M. Santillan 500 1,000,000.00

1 2 Michelle V. Japitana 750 1,500,000.00

2 3 Jojene R. Santillan 500 1,000,000.00

3 4 Lorie Cris S. Asube 450 850,000.00

Fields and Objects
• Objects are intuitive, part of everyday life
• Fields are more associated with science and measurement
• Both objects and fields can be represented either in raster or in vector
form
• Both may need to coexist in a GIS
Two Types of GIS Data Models Real World

Raster Representation Vector Representation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 R T
1 R T point
2 H R
3 R line
4 R R
5 R
6 R T T H
polygon
7 R T T
8 R
9 R
Two Types of GIS Data Models
Two Common GIS Data Models
Part 4
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
Raster Data Model
• Treats geographic space as populated by one or more spatial
phenomena, which vary continuously over space and having no
obvious boundaries
• Best used to represent geographic features that are continuous over a
large area (e.g. soil type, vegetation, etc.)
• Uses an array of rectangular cells/pixels/grids to represent real-world
objects.
• Each cell is defined by a coordinate location and an attribute that
identifies the feature.
• Cell’s linear dimensions defines the spatial resolution
Raster Data Model

X resolution

Y resolution
Raster Data Model
Multi-Band Rasters
• Rasters can be stacked to work with multiple rasters as if they are one
• Each band is a single raster
• Often used to represent data from different sensors captured at the same time
Raster Data Model
Mixed Pixels (“Mixels”)
• Pixels can only have one “attribute”
value.
• Mixed pixels may have a variety of
features with attribute values within its
cell.
• Determining what value is assigned to
the mixed pixel can result in some data
loss.
• In remote sensing, a mixed pixel is a
pixel whose value represents the
average of several different features
(grass, trees, buildings) on the
ground.
Raster File Formats
• BMP (bitmaps) – used by graphics in Microsoft Windows applications; no compression
• DIB (Device Independent Bitmaps)
• GIF (Graphical Interchange Format) – widely used for images to be used on the World
Wide Web
• TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) – non-proprietary, system-independent
• JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) – primarily for storage of photographic images
and for the World Wide Web
• GeoTIFF – extension of the TIFF format that contains georeferencing information
• PNG (Portable Network Graphics) – patent-free; intended to replace the GIF format
• PCX – supported by many image scanners
• MrSID (Multi-resolution Seamless Image Database)
• GRID – proprietary format used by ESRI in ArcInfo and ArcView GIS
Part 5
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
Vector Data Model
• Treats geographic space as populated by discrete objects, which have
identifiable boundaries or spatial extent
• Each object in the real-world is represented as either point, line, or
polygon features
• Characterized by the use of sequential points or vertices to define a
linear segment, each vertex consisting of an X coordinate and a Y
coordinate
• Useful for representing discrete objects such as roads, buildings,
rivers, boundaries, etc.
Vector Data Model
Vector Data Model
• Treats geographic space as populated by discrete objects
(ex. roads, buildings, rivers, etc.), which have identifiable
boundaries or spatial extent

• In 2D models the primitive entities are points, lines and

areas.

• The basic premise of the vector based structuring is to define

a 2-dimensional space where coordinates on the two-axes
represent features.
Vector Data Model
Vector Data Model

• Information for these features can be divided in

three parts:
o Information about the geographical objects – X, Y
and Z co-ordinates
o Additional information – Accuracy, Scale, Producer,
Production year, etc
o Attribute data
Vector Data Model
Geometric Primitives Categorized as Point, Line and Area
Vector Data Model
• Point entities can be considered to embrace all geographical and
graphical entities that are positioned by a single XY co-ordinate
pair.
• Besides the XY coordinates, other data must be stored to indicate
what kind of 'point' it is, and the other information associated with
it.

• Line entities can be defined as all linear features built up of straight

line segments made up of two or more co-ordinates.
• An 'arc’, a 'chain' or a 'string' is a set of n XY co-ordinates pairs
describing a continuous complex line.
Vector Data Model
• Area entities. There are several ways of vector structures
possible for structuring polygons.
• The simplest way to represent a polygon is the spaghetti
representation, which is nothing, but an extension of the
simple chain,
• i.e. to represent each polygon as a set of XY co-ordinates on the
boundary
• i.e. the polygons are discretized to the concept of line
representation and are characterized by a set of xy coordinate
pairs, but have the same vector as the beginning and ending vector
that is representing a self-closing line as a polygon.
Vector File Formats
• GDF/DIME (Geographic Base File/Dual Independent Map Encoding) – originally used for storing street
maps
• TIGER (Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing System) – improvement for
GDF/DIME
• DLG (Digital Line Graphs) – USGS topographic maps
• AutoCAD DXF (Data Exchange Format) – widely used as an export format in many GIS
• IGDS (Intergraph Design System) – widely used in mapping
• ArcInfo Coverage – stores vector graphical data using topological structure explicitly defining spatial
relationships
• ArcInfo E00 – export format of ArcInfo
• Shapefiles – format of ArcView GIS; defines geometry and attribute of geographically referenced objects
using the main file, index file and database table
• CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile) – ISO standard for vector data format; widely used in PC-based
computer graphics applications
• Page Description Languages (PDL’s)
Part 6
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
Raster vs Vector
Raster vs Vector

• Vector: useful for storing data

that has discrete boundaries,
such as country borders, land
parcels, and streets
• Raster: Best used to represent
geographic features that are
continuous over a large areas
(e.g., soil type, vegetation, etc.)
Raster vs Vector
Raster to Vector Data Model
Vector to Raster Data Model
Part 7
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Levels of Abstraction
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
GIS Data
• Data are needed for mapping,
analysis, and modeling in GIS.
• Where do we get the data we
need?
• Practical solution is to acquire
data from different sources.
• If the data needed are not
available, consider to generate
new data layers based on project
needs.
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data • The data collected by land surveyors are used on a
daily basis for building, construction, and maps.
• It is advisable to conduct a land survey of the property
Census and Survey Data as it a legal document that establishes land ownership
and helps avoid any lawsuits that may arise in the
future over the subject of land ownership.
GPS Data

Aerial Photographs

Satellite Images

Maps
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data • May be spatial in character if each item has a spatial
reference, allowing its location on the Earth to be
identified
Census and Survey Data • Examples: population census, employment data,
agricultural census data, marketing data and etc.
GPS Data

Aerial Photographs

Satellite Images

Maps
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data • It provides location and time information in all weather
conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there
is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
Census and Survey Data satellites
• It provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and
commercial users around the world
GPS Data

Aerial Photographs

Satellite Images

Maps
A portable GPS receiver. (Courtesy of Trimble.)
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data • First method of remote sensing
• A ‘snapshot’ of the Earth at a particular
Census and Survey Data instant in time
• May be used as a background or base map
GPS Data for other data in a GIS
➢ Provides spatial context and aids in interpretation

Aerial Photographs • Versatile, relatively inexpensive and detailed

source of data for GIS
• Disadvantage: not spatially referenced; it
Satellite Images
should be referenced using GCPs

Maps
Sources of Data for GIS
Left pic: Cameras being outfitted on
Ground/Land Survey Data unmanned aerial vehicles.

Census and Survey Data

GPS Data

Aerial Photographs

Satellite Images
Right pic: This is an example of aerial
photo retrieved from an airplane that
Maps had an aerial photo
camera fixed at a birds eye view.
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data • Collected by sensors on board a satellite,
which are then relayed to ground stations and
then computer-processed to produce images
Census and Survey Data
• Can be used to detect features not readily
apparent to the naked eye (ex. Sedimentation,
GPS Data moisture content, ground temperature
variations)
• Processing is needed for data reduction,
Aerial Photographs georeferencing, enhancing, and data
integration
Satellite Images • Examples: Landsat, SPOT, Ikonos, Quickbird,
AVHRR
Maps
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data

Census and Survey Data

GPS Data

Aerial Photographs

Satellite Images

Maps
Source: Geology.com
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data • Maps are made from series of layers
representing logical collections (themes) of
Census and Survey Data
information.
• People use maps for many activities:
• To convey and to communicate large amounts of
GPS Data information
• To find patterns
Aerial Photographs • To view information over time
• To derive new information using analysis
• To communicate ideas, concepts, designs
Satellite Images • To compile Geographic Information

Maps
Sources of Data for GIS
Ground/Land Survey Data

Census and Survey Data

GPS Data

Aerial Photographs

Satellite Images

Maps
Part 8
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Levels of Abstraction
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
Categories of Geographic Data Capture

Primary Data Capture Secondary Data Capture

• Collected through first-hand • Data collected by another

observation individual or organization; most
• In-house creation of data (any are published data
survey, photogrammetry, image • From maps, reports, previous
analysis) projects
• Typically the most expensive • DEMS from topographic map
part (~80% of project cost) contours, scanned paper maps
Primary Data Capture
Raster Data Capture
• Most of the raster datasets acquired
first hand are through Remote
Sensing techniques and instruments.
• The data can be obtained through
satellite sensors, aerial and ground
platforms.
• Advantages are
➢ Consistency of the data
➢ Availability of systematic global
coverage
➢ Regular repeat cycles
• Disadvantages are
➢ Resolution is often too coarse
➢ Many sensors are restricted by cloud
cover

Source: Santillan, J. and Santillan, M. 2018. Analysis of in-situ spectral reflectance of sago and other palms: implications for their detection in
optical satellite images.
Primary Data Capture
Vector Data Capture
• Two main branches of gathering
the data are through land
surveying and using GPS.
• Land surveying is based on the
principle that the 3-D location of
any point can be determined by
measuring angles and distances
from other known points.
Introducing CARTO Traffico: A Crowdsourced GPS Data Traffic
• GPS data is based on radio Management Solution
waves/signals from GPS satellites
which are used to pinpoint https://carto.com/blog/carto-traffico-traffic-management-solution/

location.
Secondary Data Capture
• Large amount of data is now available
• Always check for existing data before creating it
• Several groups of data exist
➢ Free data from the government
➢ Government data available for a fee
➢ Internet map servers
➢ Commercial data
➢ Data from other GIS users
 Secondary Data Capture
GIS Data Downloadable at Global Scale
Product Description Website
Natural Earth Cultural, physical, and raster data at 1:10 m, 1:50 m, and 1:110 http://www.naturalearthdata.com/
m scales
OpenStreetMap Buildings, roads, railroads, waterways, and land use http://www.openstreetmap.org
DIVA-GIS Boundaries, roads, railroads, altitude, land cover, population http://www.diva-gis.org
density, climate, species
occurrence, and crop collection
UNEP Temperature, particle emissions, net production, nuclear power http://geodata.grid.unep.ch/#
Environmental Data reactors, protected areas, and many other topics
Explorer
FAO GeoNetwork Boundaries, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, hydrology, land cover http://www.fao.org/geonetwork/srv/en/mai
and land use, soils, and topography n.home#
ISCGM Global Map Boundaries, transportation, drainage, population http://www.iscgm.org/gm/
centers, elevation, vegetation, and land cover and land use
SoilGrids Soil data http://www.isric.org/content/soilgrids
Secondary Data Capture: Geoportals in PH
• Philippine Geoportal Project
Secondary Data Capture: Geoportals in PH
• PhilGIS
Secondary Data Capture: Geoportals in PH
• DOST-Project NOAH
Part 9
• GIS Data and Spatial Elements
• Spatial Data Model
• Levels of Abstraction
• Raster Data Model
• Vector Data Model
• Raster vs Vector
• Sources of Data for GIS
• Categories of Geographic Data Capture
• Metadata
Metadata
• Meta: referring to itself

• Metadata : data about data

• Very common in creative

software like photo-editing
applications

Example: Photo metadata, as displayed in Google’s Picasa Photo

Browser
Metadata
• Examples of Non-Spatial Metedata
Metadata
• Metadata is the third component
of geographic data.
• Geospatial data tells you where it
is and attribute data tells you
what it is.
• Metadata describes both
geospatial and attribute data.
Metadata
• Describe data sources and collection
instruments:
➢ Model of GPS
➢ Date and Time collected
• Identifies people:
➢ Involved in data collection
➢ Connected to data
➢ Include contact information
• Defines fields in the data
➢ Types
➢ Potential values
➢ What do the values mean

Anything required to effectively interpret or use

the data
Metadata
Federal Graphic Data Committee
There are many different metadata styles:
• Item Description (ArcGIS default)
• ISO 19139 Metadata Implementation
Specification
• INSPIRE Metadata Directive
• ISO 19115 2003 (North American Profile)

FGDC CSDGM Format is recommended

• Very robust and explicit
• Ensures complete metadata
Metadata
• Documenting Data and
Workflows with Metadata is
important.

• It’s impossible to remember

everything about your data – use
Metadata.
References
• Bernhardsen, T. 1999. Geographic Information Systems: An Introduction, 2nd Ed. p. 43.
• Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., Rhind, D. W., 2005. Geographic
Information System and Science, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., England.
• Santos, N. Data Representation in GIS. University of California-Davis: Coursera. Course 1-
Week 1: Fundamentals of GIS.
• Macatulad, E. G. Conceptual Models of Reality – GIS Data and Spatial Models. Lecture 3 –
GIM 175
• Aronoff S., 1989. Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. WDL
Publ., Ottawa, Canada
• Chang, K. 2019. Introduction to Geographic Information Systems. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Santos, N. Using Metadata to Document Data Products. University of California-Davis:
Coursera. Course 1-Week 1: Fundamentals of GIS.
 Questions?

Department of Geodetic Engineering

College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University, Ampayon, Butuan City