Producing a LaTeX Input File

The first line of the input file should normally consist of an appropriate \documentclass
command. If an article (or similar document) is to be produced on A4 paper, and if the
main body of the text is to be set with a font whose natural size is `12 point', then the
appropriate \documentclass command is

\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{article}

If 12pt is omitted from the \documentclass command (with the preceding comma),
then the document will be set in a `10 point' size. One may also replace 12pt with 11pt.

After the \documentclass command and these other optional commands, we place the
command

\begin{document}

This command is then followed by the main body of the text, in the format prescribed by
the rules of LaTeX.

Finally, we end the input file with a line containing the command

\end{document}

*A space following a control sequence may be obtained by preceding the space with
a backslash \. For example, the sentence *

is obtained by typing
\LaTeX\ is a very powerful computer typesetting program.

Single quotation marks are produced in LaTeX using ` and '. Double quotation marks
are produced by typing `` and ''. (The `undirected double quote character "
produces double right quotation marks: it should never be used where left quotation
marks are required.)

LaTeX allows you to produce dashes of various lengths, known as `hyphens', `en-dashes'
and `em-dashes'. Hyphens are obtained in LaTeX by typing -, en-dashes by typing --
and em-dashes by typing ---.
Sometimes you need single quotes immediately following double quotes, or vica versa, as
in

The way to typeset this correctly in LaTeX is to use the control sequence \, between
the quotation marks, so as to obtain the necessary amount of separation. The above
example is thus produced with the input
``I regard computer typesetting as being reasonably
`straightforward'\,'' he said.

Section Headings in LaTeX

Section headings of various sizes are produced (in the article document style) using the
commands \section,\subsection and \subsubsection commands. LaTeX will
number the sections and subsections automatically. The title of the section should be
surrounded by braces and placed immediately after the relevant command. Thus if we
type

\section{Section Headings}

We explain in this section how to obtain headings

for the various sections and subsections of our
document.

\subsection{Headings in the `article' Document Style}

In the `article' style, the document may be divided up

into sections, subsections and subsubsections, and each
can be given a title, printed in a boldface font,
simply by issuing the appropriate command.
then the title of the section and that of the subsection will be printed in a large boldface
font, and will be numbered accordingly.

*Sometimes one wishes to suppress the automatic numbering provided by LaTeX.

This can be done by placing an asterisk before the title of the section or subsection.*
Thus, for example,

\section*{Section Headings}
Changing Fonts in Text Mode

LaTeX has numerous commands for changing the typestyle. The most useful of these is
\emph{text} which emphasizes some piece of text, setting it usually in an italic font
(unless the surrounding text is already italicized)

Another useful font-changing command is \textbf{text}, which typesets

the specified portion of text in boldface.

A font family or typeface in LaTeX consists of a collection of related fonts characterized

by size, shape and series. The font families available in LaTeX include roman, sans serif
and typewriter:

The sizes of fonts used in LaTeX can be determined and changed by means of the
control sequences \tiny, \scriptsize, \footnotesize, \small, \normalsize, \
large, \Large, \LARGE, \huge and \HUGE:

The shape of a font can be upright, italic, slanted or small caps:

The series of a font can be medium (the default) or boldface:

If the necessary fonts are available, one can combine changes to the
size, shape and series of a font, for example producing boldface
slanted text by typing \textbf{\textsl{boldface slanted
text}}.

There are in LaTeX font declarations corresponding to the font-changing commands

described above. When included in the LaTeX input such declarations determine the
type-style of the subsequent text (till the next font declaration or the end of the current
`group' delimited by braces or by appropriate \begin and \end commands). Here is a list
of font-changing commands and declarations in text mode:

Command Declaration

\textrm \rmfamily Roman family

\textsf \sffamily Sans serif family
\texttt \ttfamily Typewriter family

\textup \upshape Upright shape

\textit \itshape Italic shape
\textsl \slshape Slanted shape
\textsc \scshape Small caps shape

\textmd \mdseries Medium series

\textbf \bfseries Boldface series

The accents provided by LaTeX include the following:

The control sequences \i and \j produce dotless i and j. These are required when
placing an accent on the letter. Thus í is produced by typing \'{\i}.
Active Characters and Special Symbols in Text

The `active characters'

# $ % & \ ^ _ { } ~
have special purposes within LaTeX. Thus they cannot be produced in the final document
simply by typing them directly. On the rare occasions when one needs to use the special
characters
#$%&_{}
in the final document, they can be produced by typing the control sequences
\# \$ \% \& \_ \{ \} respectively.
*However the characters \, ^ and ~ cannot be produced simply by preceding them with
a backslash. They can however be produced using \char92 (in the \texttt font only),
\char94 and \char126 respectively. (The decimal numbers 92, 94 and 126 are the
ASCII codes of these characters.) *

Other special symbols can be introduced into text using the appropriate control
sequences:
Producing White Space in LaTeX

To produce (horizontal) blank space within a paragraph, use \hspace, followed by the
length of the blank space enclosed within braces. The length of the skip should be
expressed in a unit recognized by LaTeX. These recognized units are given in the
following table:

pt point (1 in = 72.27 pt)

pc pica (1 pc = 12 pt)
in inch (1 in = 25.4 mm)
bp big point (1 in = 72 bp)
cm centimeter (1 cm = 10 mm)
mm millimeter

e.g. \hspace{1 in = 72.27 pt or 72 bp, or 6pc }

\hspace{1 in = 25.4mm or 2.4 cm}

To produce (vertical) blank space between paragraphs, use \vspace, followed by the
length of the blank space enclosed within braces. Thus to obtain

Note:1) To ensure that white space is produced even at points in the

document where line breaking takes place, one should replace \hspace by
\hspace*
2) Never put a blank space after a left parenthesis or before a right parenthesis. If you
were to put a blank space in these places, then you run the risk that LaTeX might start a
new line immediately after the left parenthesis or before the right parenthesis, leaving the
parenthesis marooned at the beginning or end of a line.

3) The rule adopted by LaTeX is to regard a period (full stop) as the end of a sentence if
it is preceded by a lowercase letter. If the period is preceded by an uppercase letter then
LaTeX assumes that it is not a full stop but follows the initials of somebody's name.

This works very well in most cases. However LaTeX occasionally gets things wrong.
This happens with a number of common abbreviations (as in `Mr.\ Smith' or in `etc.'),
and, in particular, in the names of journals given in abbreviated form (e.g., `Proc.\ Amer.\
Math.\ Soc.'). The way to overcome this problem is to put a backslash before the blank
space in question. Thus we should type

Mr.\ Smith
etc.\ and
Proc.\ Amer.\ Math.\ Soc.

4) The special character ~ represents a blank space at which LaTeX is not allowed to
break between lines. It is often desirable to use ~ in names where the forenames are
represented by initials. Thus to obtain `W. R. Hamilton' it is best to type
W.~R.~Hamilton. It is also desirable in phrases like `Example 7' and `the length l of the
rod', obtained by typing
Example~7
and
the length~$l$ of the rod.

5) One can prevent LaTeX from indenting a paragraph though by beginning the
paragraph with the control sequence \noindent.

Lists:

1)Numbered lists are produced using \begin{enumerate} ... \end{enumerate}.

The items included in the list should be sandwiched between \begin{enumerate} and \
end{enumerate} and should each be preceded by the control sequence \item (which
will automatically generate the number labelling the item).

2)Un-numbered lists are produced using

\begin{itemize} ... \end{itemize}

LaTeX generates an itemized list in which each item is preceded by a `bullet'.

3) Description lists (for glossaries etc.) are produced using

\begin{description} ... \end{description}
and should each be preceded by \item[label], where label is the label to
be assigned to each item. For example, \item[open ball], \item[closed
set].

Displayed Quotations

Displayed quotations can be embedded in text using the quote and quotation
environments
\begin{quote} ... \end{quote}
and
\begin{quotation} ... \end{quotation}.
The quote environment is recommended for short quotations: the whole quotation is
indented in the quote environment, but the first lines of individual paragraphs are not
further indented.
Pre-Formatted Text

A sequence of lines of text can be incorporated unaltered into a LaTeX document (in a
fixed-width `typewriter' font) using the verbatim environment. The lines should be
enclosed between \begin{verbatim} and \end{verbatim}. This provides a useful way
of listing all or part of a computer program.

The control sequence \verb can be used to incorporate a string of characters unaltered
into a paragraph of text (in a `typewriter' font). The string of characters should be
enclosed between two instances of some character that is not included in the string. The
whole should then be preceded by the control sequence \verb. For example, \verb/\
alpha/ produces \alpha.

Tables

Tables can be produced in LaTeX using the tabular environment. For example, the text

is coded in LaTeX as follows:

The first five International Congresses of Mathematicians
were held in the following cities:
\begin{quote}
\begin{tabular}{lll}
Chicago&U.S.A.&1893\\
Z\"{u}rich&Switzerland&1897\\
Paris&France&1900\\
Heidelberg&Germany&1904\\
Rome&Italy&1908
\end{tabular}
\end{quote}
The \begin{tabular} command must be followed by a string of characters enclosed
within braces which specifies the format of the table. In the above example, the string
{lll} is a format specification for a table with three columns of left-justified text. Within
the body of the table the ampersand character & is used to separate columns of text within
each row, and the double backslash \\ is used to separate the rows of the table.
The next example shows how to obtain a table with vertical and horizontal lines. The
table

is coded in LaTeX as follows:

\begin{tabular}{|r|r|}
\hline
$n$&$n!$\\
\hline
1&1\\
2&2\\
3&6\\
4&24\\
5&120\\
6&720\\
7&5040\\
8&40320\\
9&362880\\
10&3628800\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
In this example the format specification {|r|r|} after \begin{tabular} specifies that
the table should consist of two columns of right-justified text, with vertical lines to the
left and to the right of the table, and between columns.

Within the body of the table, the command \hline produces a horizontal line; this
command can only be placed between the format specification and the body of the table
(to produce a line along the top of the table) or immediately after a row separator (to
produce a horizontal line between rows or at the bottom of the table).

In a tabular environment, the format specification after \begin{tabular} should

consist of one or more of the following, enclosed within braces { and }:

l specifies a column of left-justified text

c specifies a column of centered text
r specifies a column of right-justified text
p{width} specifies a left-justified column of the given width
| inserts a vertical line between columns
@{text} inserts the given text between columns

A string str of characters in the format specification can be repeated num times using the
construction *{num}{str}. For example, a table with 15 columns of right-justified text
enclosed within vertical lines can be produced using the format specification {|*{15}
{r|}}.

If additional vertical space is required between rows of the table, then this can be
produced by specifying the amount of space within square brackets after \\. For
example, one would use \\[6pt] to separate two rows of the table by 6 points of blank
space.

A horizontal line in a table from column i to column j inclusive can be produced using \
cline{i-j}. For example \cline{3-5} produces a horizontal line spanning columns 3, 4
and 5 of some table.

A command of the form \multicolumn{num}{fmt}{text} can be used within the body of

a table to produce an entry spanning several columns. Here num specifies the number of
columns to be spanned, fmt specifies the format for the entry (e.g., l if the entry is to be
left-justified entry, or c if the entry is to be centered), and text is the text of the entry.

Many of these features are used in typesetting the table

which is coded in LaTeX as follows:

\begin{tabular}{|l||l|l||l|l|}
\hline
&\multicolumn{2}{l|}{Singular}&\multicolumn{2}{l|}{Plural}\\
\cline{2-5}
&English&\textbf{Gaeilge}&English&\textbf{Gaeilge}\\
\hline\hline
1st Person&at me&\textbf{agam}&at us&\textbf{againn}\\
2nd Person&at you&\textbf{agat}&at you&\textbf{agaibh}\\
3rd Person&at him&\textbf{aige}&at them&\textbf{acu}\\
&at her&\textbf{aici}& & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
The Preamble of the LaTeX Input file

We describe the options available in LaTeX for specifying the overall style of a
document.

A LaTeX document should begin with a \documentclass command and any text to be
printed must be included between \begin{document} and \end{document} commands.
The \begin{document} command is often preceded by commands that set the page-style
and set up user-defined control sequences.

The syntax of the \documentclass command is as follows. The command begins with \
documentclass and ends with the names of one of the available styles, enclosed in
braces. The available styles are article, report, book and letter. Between the ``\
documentclass'' and the name of the document style, one may place a list of options.
These options are separated by commas and the list of options is enclosed in square
brackets (as in the above example). The options available include the following:

11pt
Specifies a size of type known as eleven-point, which is ten percent larger than
the ten-point type normally used.
12pt
Specifies a twelve-point type size, which is twenty percent larger than ten-point.
twocolumn
Produces two-column output.
a4paper
This ensures that the page is appropriately positioned on A4 size paper.

Pages will be automatically numbered at the bottom of the page, unless you specify
otherwise. This can be done using the \pagestyle command. This command should
come after the \documentclass command and before the \begin{document} command.
This command has the syntax \pagestyle{option}, where the option is one of the
following:

plain
The page number is at the foot of the page. This is the default page style for the
article and report document styles.
empty
No page number is printed.
headings
The page number (and any other information determined by the document style)
is put at the top of the page.
myheadings
Similar to the headings pagestyle, except that the material to go at the top of the
page is determined by \markboth and \markright commands (see the LaTeX
manual).
Mathematics Mode

In order to obtain a mathematical formula using LaTeX, one must enter mathematics
mode before the formula and leave it afterwards. Mathematical formulae can occur either
embedded in text or else displayed between lines of text. When a formula occurs within
the text of a paragraph one should place a $ sign before and after the formula, in order to
enter and leave mathematics mode. Thus to obtain a sentence like

LaTeX also allows you to use \( and \) to mark the beginning and the end respectively
of a mathematical formula embedded in text. However this use of \( ... \) is only
permitted in LaTeX: other dialects of TeX such as Plain TeX and AmSTeX use $ ... $.

In order to obtain an mathematical formula or equation which is displayed on a line by

itself, one places \[ before and \] after the formula.

LaTeX provides facilities for the automatic numbering of displayed equations. If you
want an numbered equation then you use \begin{equation} and \end{equation}
instead of using \[ and \] .

Characters in Mathematics Mode

All the characters on the keyboard have their standard meaning in mathematics mode,
with the exception of the characters

# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } '
Letters are set in italic type. In mathematics mode the character ' has a special meaning:
typing $u' + v''$ produces . Spaces and single carriage returns in the input file
between letters and other symbols do not have any effect on the typesetting of
mathematical formulae, since LaTeX determines spacing within formulae by its own
internal rules. Thus $u v + w = x$ and $uv+w=x$ both produce .

The characters

# $ % & _ { }
are obtained in mathematics mode by typing
\# \$ \% \& \_ \{ \} .

A backslash \ can be obtained in mathematics mode by typing \backslash.

Superscripts and Subscripts

Subscripts and superscripts are obtained using the special characters _ and ^ respectively.

Where more than one character occurs in a superscript or subscript, the characters
involved should be enclosed in braces. For example, the polynomial is obtained
by typing $x^{17} - 1$.

One may not type expressions such as $s^n^j$ since this is ambiguous and could be
interpreted either as or as . The first of these alternatives is obtained by typing
$s^{n j}$, the second by typing $s^{n^j}$. A similar remark applies to subscripts.
Note that one can obtain in this way double superscripts (where a superscript is placed on
a superscript) and double subscripts.

It is sometimes necessary to obtain expressions in which the horizontal ordering of the

subscripts is significant. One can use an `empty group' {} to separate superscripts and
subscripts that must follow one another. For example, the identity

can be obtained by typing

\[ R_i{}^j{}_{kl} = g^{jm} R_{imkl}
= - g^{jm} R_{mikl} = - R^j{}_{ikl} \]

Greek Letters:

Here are the control sequences for the standard forms of the lowercase Greek letters:-

There is no special command for omicron: just use o.

Some Greek letters occur in variant forms. The variant forms are obtained by preceding
the name of the Greek letter by `var'. The following table lists the usual form of these
letters and the variant forms:-

Upper case Greek letters are obtained by making the first character of the name upper
case. Here are the control sequence for the uppercase letters:---

``Large'' Operators:

Binary Operations:

Relations:
Negated Relations:

Arrows:

Openings:
Closings:

Alternative Names:

Mathematics Mode:

Mathematical formulae can occur either embedded in text or else displayed between lines
of text. When a formula occurs within the text of a paragraph one should place a $ sign
before and after the formula, in order to enter and leave mathematics mode. Thus to
obtain a sentence like

one should type

Let $f$ be the function defined by $f(x) = 3x + 7$, and
let $a$ be a positive real number.
In particular, note that even mathematical expressions consisting of a single character,
like f and a in the example above, are placed within $ signs. This is to ensure that they are
set in italic type, as is customary in mathematical typesetting.
In order to obtain an mathematical formula or equation which is displayed on a line by
itself, one places \[ before and \] after the formula. Thus to obtain

one would type

If $f(x) = 3x + 7$ and $g(x) = x + 4$ then
\[ f(x) + g(x) = 4x + 11 \]
and
\[ f(x)g(x) = 3x^2 + 19x +28. \]

LaTeX provides facilities for the automatic numbering of displayed equations. If you
want an numbered equation then you use \begin{equation} and \end{equation}
instead of using \[ and \] . Thus

If $f(x) = 3x + 7$ and $g(x) = x + 4$ then

\begin{equation}
f(x) + g(x) = 4x + 11
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
f(x)g(x) = 3x^2 + 19x +28.
\end{equation}
produces

Characters in Mathematics Mode

All the characters on the keyboard have their standard meaning in mathematics mode,
with the exception of the characters

# $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { } '
Letters are set in italic type. In mathematics mode the character ' has a special meaning:
typing $u' + v''$ produces . Spaces and single carriage returns in the input file
between letters and other symbols do not have any effect on the typesetting of
mathematical formulae, since LaTeX determines spacing within formulae by its own
internal rules. Thus $u v + w = x$ and $uv+w=x$ both produce .
The characters

# $ % & _ { }
are obtained in mathematics mode by typing
\# \$ \% \& \_ \{ \} .
A backslash \ can be obtained in mathematics mode by typing \backslash.

Superscripts and Subscripts

Subscripts and superscripts are obtained using the special characters _ and ^ respectively.
Thus the identity

is obtained by typing
\[ ds^2 = dx_1^2 + dx_2^2 + dx_3^2 - c^2 dt^2 \]
It can also be obtained by typing
\[ ds^2 = dx^2_1 + dx^2_2 + dx^2_3 - c^2 dt^2 \]
since, when a superscript is to appear above a subscript, it is immaterial whether the
superscript or subscript is the first to be specified.

Where more than one character occurs in a superscript or subscript, the characters
involved should be enclosed in braces. For example, the polynomial is obtained
by typing $x^{17} - 1$.

One may not type expressions such as $s^n^j$ since this is ambiguous and could be
interpreted either as or as . The first of these alternatives is obtained by typing
$s^{n j}$, the second by typing $s^{n^j}$. A similar remark applies to subscripts.
Note that one can obtain in this way double superscripts (where a superscript is
placed on a superscript) and double subscripts. ?

It is sometimes necessary to obtain expressions in which the horizontal ordering of the

subscripts is significant. One can use an `empty group' {} to separate superscripts and
subscripts that must follow one another. For example, the identity

can be obtained by typing

\[ R_i{}^j{}_{kl} = g^{jm} R_{imkl}
= - g^{jm} R_{mikl} = - R^j{}_{ikl} \]
Changing Fonts in Mathematics Mode

(The following applies to LaTeX2e, a recent version of LaTeX. It does not apply to older
versions of LaTeX.)

The `math italic' font is automatically used in mathematics mode unless you explicitly
change the font. The rules for changing the font in mathematics mode are rather different
to those applying when typesetting ordinary text. In mathematics mode any change only
applies to the single character or symbol that follows (or to any text enclosed within
braces immediately following the control sequence). Also, to change a character to the
roman or boldface font, the control sequences \mathrm and \mathbf must be used (rather
than \textrm and \textbf).

There is also a `calligraphic' font available in mathematics mode. This is obtained using
the control sequence \mathcal. This font can only be used for uppercase letters. These
calligraphic letters have the form

Standard Functions (sin, cos etc.)

The names of certain standard functions and abbreviations are obtained by typing a
backlash \ before the name. For example, one obtains

by typing
\[ \cos(\theta + \phi) = \cos \theta \cos \phi
- \sin \theta \sin \phi \]
The following standard functions are represented by control sequences defined in LaTeX:

Names of functions and other abbreviations not in this list can be obtained by converting
to the roman font. Thus one obtains by typing $\mathrm{cosec} A$. Note that if
one were to type simply $cosec A$ one would obtain because LaTeX has treated
cosec A as the product of six quantities c, o, s, e, c and A and typeset the formula
accordingly.

Text Embedded in Displayed Equations

Text can be embedded in displayed equations (in LaTeX) by using \mbox{embedded

text}. For example, one obtains
by typing
\[ M^\bot = \{ f \in V' : f(m) = 0 \mbox{ for all } m \in M \}.\]
Note the blank spaces before and after the words `for all' in the above example. Had we
typed
\[ M^\bot = \{ f \in V' : f(m) = 0 \mbox{for all} m \in M \}.\]
we would have obtained

Fractions and Roots

Fractions of the form

are obtained in LaTeX using the construction

\frac{numerator}{denominator}.

To obtain square roots one uses the control sequence

\sqrt{expression}.

In LaTeX, an nth root is produced using

\sqrt[n]{expression}.

Ellipsis (i.e., `three dots')

Ellipsis (three dots) is produced in mathematics mode using the control sequences \
ldots (for dots aligned with the baseline of text), and \cdots (for dots aligned with the
centreline of mathematical formulae).
Accents in Mathematics Mode

There are various control sequences for producing underlining, overlining and various
accents in mathematics mode. The following table lists these control sequences, applying
them to the letter a:

It should be borne in mind that when a character is underlined in a mathematical

manuscript then it is normally typeset in bold face without any underlining. Underlining
is used very rarely in print.

The control sequences such as \' and \", used to produce accents in ordinary text, may
not be used in mathematics mode

Brackets and Norms

The frequently used left delimiters include (, [ and {, which are obtained by typing (,
[ and \{ respectively. The corresponding right delimiters are of course obtained by
typing ), ] and \}. In addition | and || are used as both left and right delimiters, and are
obtained by typing | and \| respectively.

Larger delimiters are sometimes required which have the appropriate height to match the
size of the sub formula which they enclose. The way to type the large parentheses is to
type \left( for the left parenthesis and \right) for the right parenthesis, and let LaTeX
do the rest of the work for you.

If you type a delimiter which is preceded by \left then LaTeX will search for a
corresponding delimiter preceded by \right and calculate the size of the delimiters
required to enclose the intervening sub formula. One is allowed to balance a \left( with
a \right] (say) if one desires: there is no reason why the enclosing delimiters have to
have the same shape. One may also nest pairs of delimiters within one another: by typing
\[ \left| 4 x^3 + \left( x + \frac{42}{1+x^4} \right) \right|.\]
we obtain

By typing \left. and \right. one obtains null delimiters which are completely
invisible. Consider, for example, the problem of typesetting

We wish to make the vertical bar big enough to match the derivative preceding it. To do
this, we suppose that the derivative is enclosed by delimiters, where the left delimiter is
invisible and the right delimiter is the vertical line. The invisible delimiter is produced
using \left. and thus the whole formula is produced by typing
\[ \left. \frac{du}{dx} \right|_{x=0}.\]

Multiline Formulae in LaTeX

Consider the problem of typesetting the formula

It is necessary to ensure that the = signs are aligned with one another. In LaTeX, such a
formula is typeset using the eqnarray* environment. The above example was obtained
by typing the lines
\begin{eqnarray*}
\cos 2\theta & = & \cos^2 \theta - \sin^2 \theta \\
& = & 2 \cos^2 \theta - 1.
\end{eqnarray*}
Note the use of the special character & as an alignment tab. When the formula is typeset,
the part of the second line of the formula beginning with an occurrence of & will be
placed immediately beneath that part of the first line of the formula which begins with the
corresponding occurrence of &. Also \\ is used to separate the lines of the formula.

Although we have placed corresponding occurrences of & beneath one another in the
above example, it is not necessary to do this in the input file. It was done in the above
example merely to improve the appearance (and readability) of the input file.
The more complicated example

was obtained by typing

If $h \leq \frac{1}{2} |\zeta - z|$ then
\[ |\zeta - z - h| \geq \frac{1}{2} |\zeta - z|\]
and hence
\begin{eqnarray*}
\left| \frac{1}{\zeta - z - h} - \frac{1}{\zeta - z} \right|
& = & \left|
\frac{(\zeta - z) - (\zeta - z - h)}{(\zeta - z - h)(\zeta - z)}
\right| \\ & = &
\left| \frac{h}{(\zeta - z - h)(\zeta - z)} \right| \\
& \leq & \frac{2 |h|}{|\zeta - z|^2}.
\end{eqnarray*}

The asterisk in eqnarray* is put there to suppress the automatic equation

numbering produced by LaTeX. If you wish for an automatically numbered
multiline formula, you should use \begin{eqnarray} and \
end{eqnarray}.
Matrices and other arrays in LaTeX

Matrices and other arrays are produced in LaTeX using the \textbf{array} environment.
For example, suppose that we wish to typeset the following passage:

This passage is produced by the following input:

The \emph{characteristic polynomial} $\chi(\lambda)$ of the
$3 \times 3$~matrix
\[ \left( \begin{array}{ccc}
a & b & c \\
d & e & f \\
g & h & i \end{array} \right)\]
is given by the formula
\[ \chi(\lambda) = \left| \begin{array}{ccc}
\lambda - a & -b & -c \\
-d & \lambda - e & -f \\
-g & -h & \lambda - i \end{array} \right|.\]
First of all, note the use of \left and \right to produce the large delimiters around the
arrays. As we have already seen, if we use
\left) ... \right)
then the size of the parentheses is chosen to match the sub formula that they enclose.
Next note the use of the alignment tab character & to separate the entries of the matrix and
the use of \\ to separate the rows of the matrix, exactly as in the construction of multiline
formulae described above. We begin the array with \begin{array} and end it with \
end{array}. The only thing left to explain, therefore, is the mysterious {ccc} which
occurs immediately after \begin{array}. Now each of the c's in {ccc} represents a
column of the matrix and indicates that the entries of the column should be centred. If the
c were replaced by l then the corresponding column would be typeset with all the entries
left-justified, and r would produce a column with all entries right-justified. Thus

\[ \begin{array}{lcr}
\mbox{First number} & x & 8 \\
\mbox{Second number} & y & 15 \\
\mbox{Sum} & x + y & 23 \\
\mbox{Difference} & x - y & -7 \\
\mbox{Product} & xy & 120 \end{array}\]
produces

We can use the array environment to produce formulae such as

Note that both columns of this array are set flush left. Thus we use {ll} immediately
after \begin{array}. The large brace is produced using \left\{. However this requires
a corresponding \right delimiter to match it. We therefore use the \emph{null delimiter}
\right. discussed earlier. This delimiter is invisible. We can therefore obtain the above
formula by typing
\[ |x| = \left\{ \begin{array}{ll}
x & \mbox{if $x \geq 0$};\\
-x & \mbox{if $x < 0$}.\end{array} \right. \]

Derivatives, Limits, Sums and Integrals

The expressions

are obtained in LaTeX by typing \frac{du}{dt} and \frac{d^2 u}{dx^2}

respectively. The mathematical symbol is produced using \partial. Thus the Heat
Equation

is obtained in LaTeX by typing

\[ \frac{\partial u}{\partial t}
= h^2 \left( \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2}
+ \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial y^2}
+ \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial z^2} \right) \]
To obtain mathematical expressions such as

in displayed equations we type \lim_{x \to +\infty}, \inf_{x > s} and \sup_K
respectively.

To obtain a summation sign such as

we type \sum_{i=1}^{2n}. Thus

is obtained by typing
\[ \sum_{k=1}^n k^2 = \frac{1}{2} n (n+1).\]

We now discuss how to obtain integrals in mathematical documents. A typical integral is

the following:

This is typeset using

\[ \int_a^b f(x)\,dx.\]
The integral sign is typeset using the control sequence \int, and the limits of
integration (in this case a and b are treated as a subscript and a superscript on the integral
sign.

Most integrals occurring in mathematical documents begin with an integral sign and
contain one or more instances of d followed by another (Latin or Greek) letter, as in dx,
dy and dt. To obtain the correct appearance one should put extra space before the d, using
\,. Thus

and

are obtained by typing

\[ \int_0^{+\infty} x^n e^{-x} \,dx = n!.\]
\[ \int \cos \theta \,d\theta = \sin \theta.\]
\[ \int_{x^2 + y^2 \leq R^2} f(x,y)\,dx\,dy
= \int_{\theta=0}^{2\pi} \int_{r=0}^R
f(r\cos\theta,r\sin\theta) r\,dr\,d\theta.\]
and
\[ \int_0^R \frac{2x\,dx}{1+x^2} = \log(1+R^2).\] respectively.

In some multiple integrals (i.e., integrals containing more than one integral sign) one
finds that LaTeX puts too much space between the integral signs. The way to improve the
appearance of the integral is to use the control sequence \! to remove a thin strip of
unwanted space. Thus, for example, the multiple integral

is obtained by typing
\[ \int_0^1 \! \int_0^1 x^2 y^2\,dx\,dy.\]
Had we typed
\[ \int_0^1 \int_0^1 x^2 y^2\,dx\,dy.\]
we would have obtained

A particularly noteworthy example comes when we are typesetting a multiple integral

such as

Here we use \! three times to obtain suitable spacing between the integral signs. We
typeset this integral using
\[ \int \!\!\! \int_D f(x,y)\,dx\,dy.\]
Had we typed
\[ \int \int_D f(x,y)\,dx\,dy.\]
we would have obtained
The following (reasonably complicated) passage exhibits a number of the features which
we have been discussing:

One would typeset this in LaTeX by typing

In non-relativistic wave mechanics, the wave function
$\psi(\mathbf{r},t)$ of a particle satisfies the
\emph{Schr\"{o}dinger Wave Equation}
\[ i\hbar\frac{\partial \psi}{\partial t}
= \frac{-\hbar^2}{2m} \left(
\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2}
+ \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2}
+ \frac{\partial^2}{\partial z^2}
\right) \psi + V \psi.\]
It is customary to normalize the wave equation by
demanding that
\[ \int \!\!\! \int \!\!\! \int_{\textbf{R}^3}
\left| \psi(\mathbf{r},0) \right|^2\,dx\,dy\,dz = 1.\]
A simple calculation using the Schr\"{o}dinger wave
equation shows that
\[ \frac{d}{dt} \int \!\!\! \int \!\!\! \int_{\textbf{R}^3}
\left| \psi(\mathbf{r},t) \right|^2\,dx\,dy\,dz = 0,\]
and hence
\[ \int \!\!\! \int \!\!\! \int_{\textbf{R}^3}
\left| \psi(\mathbf{r},t) \right|^2\,dx\,dy\,dz = 1\]
for all times~$t$. If we normalize the wave function in this
way then, for any (measurable) subset~$V$ of $\textbf{R}^3$
and time~$t$,
\[ \int \!\!\! \int \!\!\! \int_V
\left| \psi(\mathbf{r},t) \right|^2\,dx\,dy\,dz\]
represents the probability that the particle is to be found

within the region~$V$ at time~$t$.