Manish Dnyandeo Salunke

Posted on Jul 27, 2023

15

101 JavaScript Concepts You Need

to Know
#javascript #programming #webdev #productivity

Introduction
JavaScript is one of the most popular programming languages used in web
development today. It is the backbone of modern web applications and is
used in a variety of contexts from front-end to back-end, and even in mobile
application development. However, JavaScript also has a reputation for
being a quirky and sometimes difficult language to understand due to its
unique blend of functional and object-oriented programming characteristics.
In this blog post, we will cover over 100 JavaScript concepts that every
developer should know.

1. Variables
In JavaScript, variables are used to store data that can be manipulated and
referenced throughout your code. JavaScript supports several ways of
declaring variables, including the var , let , and const keywords.
Understanding the differences between these declarations is crucial for
writing predictable and bug-free code.
2. Data Types
JavaScript has a few basic data types including Number, String, Boolean,
Object, Null, and Undefined. Each of these types has its own set of behaviors
and characteristics. For instance, objects in JavaScript are mutable and can
be changed after they are created, while numbers, strings, and booleans are
immutable.

3. Control Flow
Control flow in JavaScript refers to the order in which the computer
executes statements in a script. Statements like if , else , switch , for ,
while , and do while are used to control the flow of execution in a program,
allowing the program to branch in different directions based on conditions
and loop over code blocks.

4. Functions
Functions are reusable pieces of code that can be defined once and used
throughout your code. They can take parameters and return values. In
JavaScript, functions are objects, which means they have properties and can
even be assigned to variables and passed around.

5. Scope
In JavaScript, scope refers to the accessibility or visibility of variables,
functions, and objects in some particular part of your code during runtime.
JavaScript has both local scope and global scope. Understanding how
scope works is critical to writing effective code and avoiding potential bugs.

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6. Closures
A closure is a JavaScript function that has access to its own scope, the
scope of the outer function, and global variables. Closures are created every
time a function is created, at function creation time. They're a powerful
feature in JavaScript that can be used for a variety of tasks, including data
privacy, factory functions, and more.

7. Hoisting
Hoisting is a JavaScript mechanism where variables and function
declarations are moved to the top of their containing scope during the
compile phase. Understanding hoisting will help you avoid common
mistakes related to the order of your code.
8. Event Loop
JavaScript has a concurrency model based on an event loop, which is
responsible for executing the code, collecting and processing events, and
executing queued sub-tasks. This model allows JavaScript to be very
efficient in handling asynchronous operations, making it ideal for tasks like
handling user input or fetching data from a server.

9. Promises and Async/Await

Promises are objects that represent the eventual completion or failure of an
asynchronous operation. They are a powerful tool for organizing and
managing asynchronous code. Async/await is syntactic sugar on top of
promises, providing a more convenient and readable way to handle
asynchronous code.

10. Prototypes and Inheritance

JavaScript is a prototype-based language and uses prototypal inheritance
rather than classical inheritance. Every object in JavaScript has a prototype
property that points to the object it should inherit properties and methods
from. Understanding prototypal inheritance is fundamental to understanding
how objects work in JavaScript.

11. this keyword

The this keyword in JavaScript is a complex concept that behaves
differently depending on the context in which it is used. It can refer to an
object that owns the code of the current scope, the object that a method is
associated with, the global object in non-strict mode, or other contexts
depending on the way a function is called.

12. DOM Manipulation

The Document Object Model (DOM) is a programming interface for web
documents. It represents the structure of a web page and allows JavaScript
to manipulate the content, structure, and styles of a webpage.
Understanding the DOM is crucial for making interactive web pages.

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13. Event Handling

JavaScript allows you to make web pages interactive by responding to user
actions or events like clicks, mouse movements, key presses, and more.
This is done using event listeners and event handlers. Understanding events
is key to creating dynamic and interactive user experiences.

14. AJAX and Fetch API

AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) and the Fetch API are techniques
used to communicate with a server and retrieve data asynchronously
without refreshing the page. They are essential for creating dynamic and
responsive web applications.

15. Error Handling

Error handling in JavaScript is done using the try , catch , finally blocks. It
helps to catch programming errors and exceptions and handle them
gracefully. This is crucial for building robust and resilient applications.

16. Regular Expressions

Regular Expressions, or RegEx, are patterns used to match character
combinations in strings. In JavaScript, regular expressions are also objects
and can be used with methods like test() and exec() . They are incredibly
useful for tasks like form validation, searching, and text manipulation.

17. JSON
JSON, or JavaScript Object Notation, is a lightweight data-interchange
format that is easy for humans to read and write and easy for machines to
parse and generate. In JavaScript, JSON is a native data type, and methods
like JSON.parse() and JSON.stringify() allow for easy conversion between
JSON and JavaScript objects.

18. Template Literals

Template literals are string literals that allow embedded expressions. You
can use multi-line strings and string interpolation features with them. They
were introduced in ES6 and provide a more powerful and flexible way to
work with strings.

19. Destructuring Assignment

The destructuring assignment syntax is a JavaScript expression that makes
it possible to unpack values from arrays, or properties from objects, into
distinct variables. This feature was also introduced in ES6 and provides a
concise way to work with complex data structures.

20. Modules
Modules in JavaScript are reusable pieces of code that can be exported
from one program and imported for use in another program. Modules are
particularly useful for maintaining a clean and organized codebase and are a
critical aspect of building scalable applications.

21. Callbacks
A callback function is a function passed into another function as an
argument, which is then invoked inside the outer function. Callbacks are a
fundamental aspect of JavaScript and are central to many asynchronous
operations.

22. Array Methods

JavaScript provides a wide array of methods to work with arrays. These
include methods to iterate over arrays (like forEach , map , filter , reduce ),
methods to check the contents of an array ( every , some , includes ), and
methods to manipulate arrays ( push , pop , shift , unshift , splice ).

23. Spread and Rest Operators

The spread operator ( ... ) allows an iterable to be expanded in places
where zero or more arguments or elements are expected. The rest
parameter syntax ( ... ) is used to represent an indefinite number of
arguments as an array. Both concepts were introduced in ES6 and provide a
more concise and flexible way to work with arrays and function arguments.

24. Arrow Functions

Arrow functions provide a compact syntax to write functions in JavaScript.
They are especially handy when dealing with functions that are to be passed
as callbacks or when maintaining the context of this .

25. Equality: == vs ===

JavaScript provides two comparison operators == and === . The ==
operator will compare for equality after doing any necessary type
conversions. The === operator will not do the conversion, so if two values
are not the same type === will simply return false . Both are incredibly
important to understand as they behave differently and can lead to bugs if
misunderstood.

26. Type Coercion

Type coercion in JavaScript refers to the automatic or implicit conversion of
values from one data type to another. It can occur in various situations, like
in comparisons, in arithmetic operations, or implicitly when you try to
manipulate values of different types.

27. null vs undefined

null and undefined in JavaScript both represent the absence of value.
However, they are used differently. undefined typically means a variable has
been declared but not defined yet. null is an assignment value that
represents no value or no object.

28. Truthy and Falsy Values

In JavaScript, a truthy value is a value that is considered true when
encountered in a Boolean context. JavaScript uses type coercion to
translate truthy or falsy values when we use them in a Boolean context. All
values are truthy unless they are defined as falsy (i.e., except for false , 0 ,
-0 , 0n , "" , null , undefined , and NaN ).

29. JavaScript Engine and Runtime

JavaScript engines are used to execute JavaScript code. Different browsers
use different engines like V8 (Chrome, Edge), SpiderMonkey (Firefox), and
JavaScriptCore (Safari). A JavaScript runtime is where the code is executed
and interacts with the engine and the environment (like a browser or a
Node.js server).

30. Web Storage: localStorage, sessionStorage

Web storage objects localStorage and sessionStorage allow to save
key/value pairs in the browser. localStorage stores data with no expiration
date, and the data is not sent back to the server. sessionStorage does the
same thing but persists only for as long as the window or tab is open.

31. Function Expressions vs Function

Declarations
In JavaScript, functions can be defined using function declarations or
function expressions. Function declarations are hoisted to the top of their
scope and can be invoked before their declaration. Function expressions are
not hoisted, and they can be anonymous or named.

32. IIFE (Immediately Invoked Function

Expression)
An Immediately Invoked Function Expression (IIFE) is a JavaScript function
that runs as soon as it is defined. It is a design pattern which is also known
as a Self-Executing Anonymous Function and contains two major parts - the
function enclosed within () , and the group () that causes the function to
be executed.

33. Higher Order Functions

A Higher Order Function is a function that receives another function as an
argument or returns a new function. Higher order functions are a big part of
functional programming in JavaScript and they include functions like map ,
filter , reduce , and sort .

34. Pure Functions

A Pure function is a function where the return value is only determined by its
input values, without observable side effects. This is how functions in math
work: Math.cos(x) will, for the same value of x, always return the same
result.

35. Bitwise Operators

JavaScript supports bitwise operators as part of the language syntax.
Bitwise operators perform operations at the bit level. These operators are
not commonly used and are usually only seen in optimized code.

36. Recursion
Recursion in JavaScript is a process in which a function calls itself as a
subroutine. This allows the function to be used repeatedly to solve a
subproblem that is part of a larger problem. Recursive functions can be very
effective for tasks such as traversing tree-like data structures.

37. Map, Set, WeakMap, WeakSet

JavaScript ES6 introduced new data structures like Map, Set, WeakMap, and
WeakSet. Map is a collection of keyed data items, just like an Object , but
allows keys of any type. Set is a collection of unique values. WeakMap is just
like Map , but it doesn't prevent JavaScript from removing its items, while
WeakSet is a variant of Set that only holds objects, and where the objects
may be removed by garbage collection.

38. Generators
Generators are a special kind of function that can be paused and resumed,
allowing other code to run in the meantime. A generator looks like a function
but behaves like an iterator. They are defined using the function* syntax.

39. Symbols
Symbols are a new primitive type introduced in ES6. They are completely
unique identifiers. Just like their primitive counterparts (Number, String,
Boolean), they can be created using the factory function Symbol() which
returns a Symbol.

40. Iterables and Iterators

Iterable is a concept from JavaScript's Symbol.iterator. An object is iterable
if it defines its iteration behavior, such as what values are looped over in a
for...of construct. Some built-in types, such as Array or Map, have a
default iteration behavior, while other types (like Object) do not.

41. Proxy and Reflect

The Proxy object is used to define custom behavior for fundamental
operations (e.g. property lookup, assignment, enumeration, function
invocation, etc). The Reflect object is similar to Proxy but it allows you to
easily forward default operations to the original object.

42. Transpiling and Babel

Transpiling is the process of converting source code from one language or
language version to another. Babel is a popular JavaScript transpiler that
can transform ES6 (and beyond) code into ES5 code, which is compatible
with more environments.

43. Polyfill
A polyfill is a piece of code (usually JavaScript on the Web) used to provide
modern functionality on older browsers that do not natively support it. They
are a bridge that allow you to leverage APIs from newer browsers in older
browsers.

44. Web Workers

Web Workers is a simple means for web content to run scripts in
background threads. The worker thread can perform tasks without
interfering with the user interface. Workers utilize thread-like message
passing to achieve parallelism.

45. Service Workers

Service Workers essentially act as proxy servers that sit between web
applications, the browser, and the network (when available). They are
intended, among other things, to enable the creation of effective offline
experiences, intercept network requests and take appropriate action based
on whether the network is available.

46. WebSockets
WebSockets is a communication protocol which provides full-duplex
communication channels over a single TCP connection. It allows real-time
data transfer from and to the server. This protocol is used for creating real-
time web applications.

47. CORS (Cross-Origin Resource Sharing)

CORS is a mechanism that allows many resources (e.g., fonts, JavaScript,
etc.) on a web page to be requested from another domain outside the
domain from which the resource originated. It's a mechanism supported in
HTML5 that manages XMLHttpRequest access to a domain different.

48. requestAnimationFrame
requestAnimationFrame is a method that tells the browser that you wish to
perform an animation and requests that the browser call a specified
function to update an animation before the next repaint.

49. The Event Loop

The event loop is what allows JavaScript to be asynchronous and have non-
blocking I/O, despite the fact that JavaScript is not multi-threaded. It's a loop
that waits for events and dispatches them when they happen.

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50. Tail Call Optimization

Tail call optimization (TCO) is a feature in JavaScript (strict mode only)
where, if the last statement in a function is a call to a function, the
JavaScript engine can optimize the stack memory by clearing the current
stack frame and reusing it for the next function call.

51. Typed Arrays and ArrayBuffers

Typed Arrays are array-like objects and provide a mechanism for accessing
raw binary data. ArrayBuffer objects are used to represent a generic, fixed-
length raw binary data buffer. You can't directly manipulate the contents of
an ArrayBuffer; instead, you create one of the typed array objects or a
DataView object which represents the buffer in a specific format.

52. Binary Data: Blob & File APIs

JavaScript has built-in support for binary data. The Blob object represents a
blob, which is a file-like object of immutable, raw data; they can be read as
text or binary data. The File API, which includes the FileReader object, allows
web applications to read and manipulate File objects.

53. URL and Base64 Encoding

JavaScript provides the encodeURI() , encodeURIComponent() , and btoa()
methods for URL and Base64 encoding. These methods are useful when
dealing with strings that need to be included in URLs or used in a context
that requires Base64-encoded data.

54. JavaScript Design Patterns

JavaScript design patterns are reusable solutions applied to commonly
occurring problems in writing JavaScript web applications. Some of the
popular JavaScript design patterns are Module, Prototype, Observer, and
Singleton.

55. Testing: Unit Tests, Integration Tests, and E2E

Tests
Testing is a fundamental part of the JavaScript development process.
JavaScript developers typically use testing frameworks like Jest or Mocha
to write unit tests (tests for individual functions or components), integration
tests (tests for code modules or services), and end-to-end (E2E) tests (tests
for user journeys across the entire application).

56. Strict Mode

Strict mode is a way to opt into a restricted variant of JavaScript. Adding
"use strict"; at the beginning of a file, script, or function, will trigger the
JavaScript engine to interpret the code in strict mode. Strict mode can help
catch some common coding errors before they are run.

57. Meta-programming: new.target, Reflect, Proxy

Meta-programming in JavaScript involves using programs to manipulate
their own structures. new.target , Reflect , and Proxy are all part of
JavaScript's meta-programming capabilities. new.target lets you detect if a
function or constructor was called using the new operator, Reflect is an
object that provides methods for interceptable JavaScript operations, and
Proxy is used to define custom behavior for fundamental operations.

58. Web Assembly (WASM)

WebAssembly (often abbreviated as WASM) is a binary instruction format
for a stack-based virtual machine. It is designed as a portable target for the
compilation of high-level languages like C, C++, and Rust, enabling
deployment on the web for client and server applications.

59. Memory Management and Garbage Collection

JavaScript abstracts most of the memory management details from the
developer by providing automatic garbage collection. That means that as a
developer you can allocate memory (i.e., create objects) and you don't have
to worry about freeing up the memory when it's no longer needed; the
JavaScript garbage collector will handle that.

60. Event Bubbling and Capturing

Event bubbling and capturing are two ways of event propagation in the
HTML DOM API. Bubbling is the event starts from the target element to
upwards (from the deepest target element to document object), and
capturing is the event starts from top to target element (from the document
object to the deepest target element).

61. Execution Context and Stack

In JavaScript, the execution context is an abstract concept that holds code
that is currently running. It consists of the creation and execution phases
where the JavaScript engine first creates variables, functions, and
arguments and then executes the code. JavaScript uses a data structure
called the Execution Stack to keep track of its execution contexts.

62. Block Binding and Block Scope

JavaScript ES6 introduced Block Scope which can be created with let and
const . These variables actually exist only within the block in which they are
defined. This is a different behavior compared to var , which defines a
variable globally or locally to an entire function regardless of block scope.

63. Function Chaining

Function chaining is a technique used for simplifying code where multiple
methods are called on the same object. JavaScript allows for function
chaining by ensuring that all functions that are part of the chain return the
object itself, so the next function can be called on it.

64. Mixins
A mixin is a class whose methods can be used by other classes without the
need for inheritance. In JavaScript, mixins are a tool which allows
developers to include behavior from multiple sources in a class's prototype.

65. Debouncing and Throttling Techniques

Debouncing and throttling are techniques to control how many times a
function can be executed. Debouncing ensures that a function is not
executed again until a certain amount of time has passed without it being
called. Throttling ensures a function is not called more than once in a
specified time period.

66. Functional Programming

Functional Programming (FP) in JavaScript is a coding style that focuses on
building the software by composing pure functions, avoiding shared state,
mutable data, and side-effects. JavaScript is not a functional language, but
it has some features of it like first-class functions and closures.

67. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

JavaScript supports Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) with prototypal
inheritance, which is a bit different from classical OOP languages like Java
or C++. However, with the introduction of classes in ES6, JavaScript now has
a much closer resemblance to classical OOP languages.

68. Currying
Currying is a transformation of functions that translates a function from
callable as f(a, b, c) into callable as f(a)(b)(c) . Currying doesn't call a
function. It just transforms it. In JavaScript, this can be easily done with
binding.

69. Data Immutability

Immutability is a core principle in functional programming, and it also plays
a major part in working with React and Redux. In JavaScript, we commonly
use the const keyword to prevent reassigning, and methods like .map() ,
.filter() , .reduce() , etc. to prevent mutating arrays.

70. Isomorphic JavaScript

Isomorphic JavaScript, also known as Universal JavaScript, is code that can
run both in the server and the client. This has led to the ability to build apps
that render full pages on the server with response to navigation but then
after page load, turn into Single-Page-Applications (SPAs).

71. Single-Threaded Model with Event Loop

JavaScript follows a single-threaded model with event loop model. This
model allows JavaScript to be very efficient in handling asynchronous
operations and offers much greater control over how and when different
parts of your program are executed.

72. JavaScript Timers: setTimeout , setInterval ,

requestAnimationFrame
JavaScript has several methods for scheduling and controlling the execution
of code: setTimeout for running code after a specified delay, setInterval
for running code at fixed intervals, and requestAnimationFrame for running
code just before the next repaint for smoother animations.

73. Real-Time Communication with WebRTC

WebRTC (Web Real-Time Communication) is a technology which enables
Web applications and sites to capture and optionally stream audio and/or
video media, as well as to exchange arbitrary data between browsers
without requiring an intermediary.

74. JavaScript modules: import / export

JavaScript has a built-in module system for importing and exporting code
between different files. The import statement is used to import functions,
objects, or values from another file, while the export statement is used to
export functions, objects, or values from the file they reside in.

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75. JavaScript Symbols

Symbols are a new primitive type in JavaScript. They are unique and can be
used as identifiers for object properties. They can also be used to
implement private properties and methods in an object.

76. JavaScript Decorators

Decorators provide a way to add both annotations and a meta-programming
syntax for class declarations and members. Decorators use the form
@expression , where expression must evaluate to a function that will be
called at runtime with information about the decorated declaration.

77. Error Handling: throw , try , catch , finally

Error handling in JavaScript is facilitated through the use of throw , try ,
catch , and finally constructs. throw is used to create a custom error. The
try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested for errors
while it's being executed. The catch statement allows you to define a block
of code to be executed if an error occurs in the try block. The finally
statement lets you execute code after try and catch , regardless of the
result.

78. Memoization
Memoization is a technique of caching the results of expensive function
calls and reusing the cached result when the same inputs occur again. It is a
powerful optimization technique that can drastically improve the
performance of your JavaScript application.

79. JavaScript Engines: V8, SpiderMonkey,

JavaScriptCore
JavaScript engines are programs that execute JavaScript code. The most
popular JavaScript engines are V8 (Chrome and Node.js), SpiderMonkey
(Firefox), and JavaScriptCore (Safari).

80. JavaScript Runtime Environment: Node.js and

Browsers
A JavaScript runtime environment is a platform that interprets JavaScript
code. Examples of JavaScript runtime environments include web browsers
like Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge, and server-side environments like
Node.js.

81. Web APIs: DOM, Event, Fetch

Web APIs are not part of the JavaScript language per se, but they are part of
the larger web platform. The DOM API allows JavaScript to interact with the
HTML and CSS of a webpage. The Event API enables JavaScript to listen
and respond to browser events. The Fetch API provides an interface for
fetching resources across the network.

82. JavaScript Package Managers: npm, yarn

Package managers are tools that allow you to manage dependencies in your
project. npm (Node Package Manager) and Yarn are two popular JavaScript
package managers. They allow you to install, update, and manage external
packages from the npm registry.

83. Task Runners: grunt, gulp

Task runners in JavaScript are used to automate repetitive tasks like
minification, compilation, unit testing, and linting. Grunt and Gulp are two
popular JavaScript task runners.

84. Module Bundlers: webpack, rollup, parcel

Module bundlers are tools that take pieces of JavaScript and their
dependencies and bundle them into a single file, typically for use in the
browser. Webpack, Rollup, and Parcel are popular JavaScript module
bundlers.

85. Transpilers: Babel, TypeScript

Transpilers take source code written in one language and produce the
equivalent code in another. Babel is a JavaScript compiler that can convert
ECMAScript 2015+ code into a backward compatible version of JavaScript
that can be run by older JavaScript engines. TypeScript is a typed superset
of JavaScript that compiles to plain JavaScript.

86. JavaScript Testing Frameworks: Jest, Mocha,

Jasmine
JavaScript testing frameworks provide an automated way to ensure that
your JavaScript code is working as expected. Jest, Mocha, and Jasmine are
some of the most popular JavaScript testing frameworks. They provide
features for structuring tests, assertions, mocking, and more.

87. JavaScript Linting: ESLint, JSLint, Prettier

Linting tools analyze code for potential errors and enforce a certain coding
style. ESLint, JSLint, and Prettier are popular linting tools in the JavaScript
ecosystem. They help to maintain code consistency and prevent bugs.

88. Front-End Libraries and Frameworks: React,

Angular, Vue.js
Front-end libraries and frameworks like React, Angular, and Vue.js are
powerful tools for building complex user interfaces in JavaScript. They
provide abstractions for DOM manipulation and state management, making
it easier to create dynamic web applications.

89. Server-Side JavaScript: Node.js, Express.js

Server-side JavaScript allows the use of JavaScript on the server. Node.js is
a runtime that allows JavaScript to be run outside of the browser, and
Express.js is a minimal web application framework for Node.js.

90. Mobile Application Development: React

Native, Ionic
React Native and Ionic are popular frameworks for building mobile
applications using JavaScript. React Native allows you to build native mobile
apps using JavaScript and React, while Ionic allows you to build hybrid
mobile apps with web technologies.

91. Desktop Application Development: Electron,

NW.js
Electron and NW.js are popular frameworks for building desktop
applications using JavaScript, HTML, and CSS. Electron is maintained by
GitHub and used in popular apps like Atom and Visual Studio Code, while
NW.js was previously known as Node-WebKit and allows you to call Node.js
modules directly from DOM.

92. Static Site Generators: Gatsby, Next.js

Static site generators like Gatsby and Next.js allow you to create static
HTML websites with JavaScript and modern front-end tools. These sites can
be easily deployed and hosted, and they provide better performance and
security than traditional dynamic sites.

93. Headless CMS: Strapi, Ghost, Contentful

A headless CMS is a back-end content management system built as a
content repository that makes content accessible via a RESTful API for
display on any device. Strapi, Ghost, and Contentful are popular headless
CMS that can be used with JavaScript.

94. GraphQL: Apollo, Relay

GraphQL is a query language for APIs and a runtime for executing those
queries with your existing data. Apollo and Relay are popular JavaScript
libraries for working with GraphQL.
95. State Management: Redux, MobX
Redux and MobX are libraries used for state management in JavaScript
applications. They help you manage global state - state that is used across
many components or modules.

96. Asynchronous JavaScript: Callbacks,

Promises, Async/Await
Asynchronous JavaScript refers to the use of asynchronous operations in
JavaScript. These operations allow JavaScript to perform other tasks while
waiting for asynchronous operations to complete. Callbacks, Promises, and
Async/Await are different ways to handle asynchronous operations in
JavaScript.

97. JavaScript Data Structures: Arrays, Stack,

Queue
JavaScript provides built-in data structures like Arrays, and you can easily
implement other data structures like Stacks and Queues using JavaScript.
Understanding these data structures is crucial for solving complex
problems.

98. JavaScript Algorithms: Sorting, Searching

Sorting and searching are fundamental algorithms in computer science, and
JavaScript is no exception. JavaScript provides built-in methods for sorting
arrays, and searching can be performed using a variety of techniques.

99. Web Performance: Minification, Lazy Loading,

Caching
Improving web performance is a crucial part of web development.
Techniques like minification (to reduce the size of code), lazy loading (to
delay loading resources until they are needed), and caching (to save and
reuse frequently used data) can be used to enhance the performance of a
web page.

100. Accessibility: ARIA, Semantic HTML

Accessibility in web development means making web pages accessible to
all users, including those with disabilities. ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet
Applications) and Semantic HTML are tools that developers can use to
improve accessibility in web pages.
 101. Internationalization and Localization
Internationalization is the process of designing and preparing your app to be
usable in different languages. Localization means the adaptation of a
product, application or document content to meet the language, cultural and
other requirements of a specific target market (a locale).

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