Unit – 6: Interfacing Data Converters

Topics Covered

1. Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Converters

2. Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converters
The microprocessor is a logic device, which processes digital signals that are binary and not continuous.

However, the real-world physical quantities, such as, temperature and pressure, are continuous.

These are represented by equivalent electrical quantities called analog signals.

Even though an analog signal represents a real physical parameter accurately, it is difficult to process or
store the analog signal for later use.

Therefore, it is necessary to translate an analog signal into a digital signal.

The electronic circuit that translates an analog signal into a digital signal is called an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC).

Similarly, a digital signal needs to be translated into an analog signal to represent a physical quantity.

This translator is called a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter (DAC).

Both A/D and D/A are known as data converters and are now available as integrated circuits.
 1. Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Converters

Digital-to-Analog converters can be broadly classified in three categories:

1. Current The current output DAC provides current as the output signal.
output
2. Voltage The voltage output DAC internally converts the current signal into the
output voltage signal.

The voltage output DAC is slower than the current output DAC because
of the delay in converting the current signal into the voltage signal.

However, in many applications, it is necessary to convert current into

voltage by using an external operational amplifier.
3. Multiplying The multiplying DAC is similar to the other two types except its output
type represents the product of the input signal and the reference source,
and the product is linear over a broad range.
D/A converters are available as integrated circuits.

Some are specially designed to be compatible with the microprocessor.

Typical applications include digital voltmeters, peak detectors, panel meters. programmable gain and
attenuation, and stepping motor drive.
Basic Concepts

The following figure shows a block diagram of a 3-bit D/A converter.

It has three digital input lines (D2, D1, D0) and one output line for analog signal.

The 3 input lines can assume 8 input combinations from 000 to 111.

If the input ranges from 0 to 1 V, it can be divided into eight equal parts (1/8 V), each
successive input is 1/8 V higher than the previous combination.
The following points can be summarized from the graph.

1. The 3-bit D/A converter has 8 possible combinations. If a converter has n input lines it
can have 2n input combinations.

2. If the full-scale analog voltage is 1 V, the smallest unit or the LSB is equivalent to 1/2n
of 1 V. This is defined as resolution. In this example, the LSB = 1/8 V.

3. The MSB represents half of the full-scale value. In this example, the MSB (100) = ½ V.

4. For the maximum input signal (111), the output signal is equal to the value of the full-
scale input signal minus the value of the 1 LSB input signal. In this example, the
maximum input signal (111) represents 7/8 V.
D/A Converter Circuits

Input signals representing appropriate binary values can

be simulated by an operational amplifier with a summing
network, as shown below.

The input resistors R1, R2, and R3 are selected in binary

weighted proportion, each has double the value of the
previous resistor.

If all the three inputs are 1 V, the total output current is

the voltage output current is

D/A Converter Circuits (contd …)

The following points can be inferred for D/A converter

1. A D/A converter circuit requires three elements: resistor network with appropriate weights,
switches, and a reference source.
2. The output can be a current signal or converted into a voltage signal using an operational
amplifier.
3. The time required for conversion, called settling time, is dependent on the response time of
the switches and the output amplifier.
Microprocessor-Compatible D/A Converters

In response to the growing need for interfacing data converters with the microprocessor, specially
designed microprocessor-compatible D/A converters are available now.

These D/A converters include a latch on the chip.

The following figure shows the block diagram
of analog devices AD558., which includes a
latch and an output internal to the chip.

It can be operated with one power supply

voltage between +4.5 V to +16.5 V.

To interface the AD558 with the

microprocessor, two signals are required: Chip
Select (CS) and Chip Enable (CE).

The address line A7 through an inverter is

used for the Chip Select (CS), which assigns
the port address 80H. To the DAC port.

The control signal 10W is used for the Chip

Enable (CE).
 2. Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converters
The Analog-to-Digital (A/D) conversion is a quantization process whereby an analog signal is
represented by equivalent binary states.

A/D converters can be classified into two groups.

1. Flash-type converters This technique involves comparing an analog signal with the
internally generated equivalent signal.

This group includes successive-approximation, counter and

flash-type converters.

These are faster but less accurate, expensive and difficult to

design for high accuracy.
2. Voltage-to-frequency converters This involves changing an analog signal into time or frequency
and comparing these new parameters to known values.

This group includes integrator converters, and voltage-to-

frequency converters.
Basic Concepts

The following Figure-(a) shows a block diagram of a 3-bit A/D converter.

It has one input line for an analog signal and three output lines for digital signals.

The Figure-(b) shows the graph of the analog input voltage (0 to 1 V) and the
corresponding digital output signal.

The graph shows 8 (=23) output states from 000 to 111, each step being 1/8 V apart.

The LSB, MSB, and the full-scale output are calculated the same way as in D/A
converters.
Successive-Approximation A/D Converter

The figure-(a) shows the block diagram of a successive approximation A/D converter.

This includes three major elements:

1. The D/A converter

2. The successive approximation register (SAR)
3. The comparator

This conversion technique involves comparing the output VO of the D/A converter with the
analog input signal Vin.

The digital input to the D/A converter is generated using the successive approximation method.

When the D/A converter output matches the analog signal, the input to the DAC is equivalent
digital signal.
The successive approximation method of generating input to the D/A converter is similar to
weighing an unknown material (e.g. less than 1 gram) on a chemical balance with a set of such
fractional weights such as 1/2 g, 1/4 g, 1/8 g etc.

The weighing procedure begins with the heaviest weight (1/2 g), and subsequent weights in
decreasing order are added until the balance is tipped.

The weight that tips the balance is removed, and the process is continued until the smallest weight
is used.

In the present case of a 4-bit A/D converter, bit D3 is turned on first and the output of D/A converter
is compared with an analog signal.

If the comparator changes the state, indicating that the output generated by D3 is larger than the
analog signal, bit D3 is turned off in the SAR and bit D2 is turned on.

The process continues until the input reaches bit D0.

The figure below shows a 4-bit conversion process.

When bit D3 is turned on, the output exceeds the analog signal, and therefore, bit D3 is turned of.

When the next three successive bits are turned on, output becomes approximately equal to the
analog signal.
The successive approximation conversion process can be accomplished through either the software
of hardware approach.

In the software approach, an A/D converter is designed using a D/A converter, and the
microprocessor plays the role of the counter and the SAR.

For the hardware approach, a complete A/D converter, including a tri-state buffer, is available as an
integrated circuit chip.
Interfacing 8-Bit A/D Converters

As an integrated circuit, the A/D converter includes all the elements – SAR, DAC, comparator
– on a chip as shown bellow.

In addition, it has a tri-state output buffer.

The A/D circuit has two control lines, START (or CONVERT) and DATA READY (or BUSY).
A pulse to the START pin begins the conversion process and disables the tri-state output buffer.

At the end of the conversion period, DATA READY becomes active and the digital output is made
available at the output buffer.

To interface an A/D converter with the microprocessor, the microprocessor should

1. send pulse to the START pin. This can be derived from a control signal such as Write.
2. wait until the end of the conversion. The end of the conversion period can be verified either
by status checking (polling) or by using interrupt.
3. read the digital signal at the input port.