RRB ALP EXAM

Study Material For Basic Science & Engineering

 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
What is a Computer?
An electronic device that accepts data and processes it into useful information is called a Computer.
There are two main aspects of the computer:
● Input: The data we enter into the computer is called the input. Input, basically are raw facts
for which we want the system to process and give us an outcome.
● Output: The answer that the computer provides in return of the raw data entered, is called
output.

Generations of Computer
There are a total of five Generations of Computer, with each Generation something new was
discovered to improvise the functioning and the use of the computer systems.
First Generation (Vacuum Tubes) – 1940-1956:
This Generation computers relied on Machine Language (the Language of 0s and 1s) and used
Vacuum tubes as components of memory. They were huge in size and occupied almost a room-size
area to fit in.
Given below are a few characteristic features of the 1st Generation of computer:
● The price of managing these computers was very high.
● They were huge.
● They were not capable of multitasking, and only one task could be performed at a time.
● There was no use of monitors; the output was directly given in the form of print outs.
● The electricity consumption was very high.

Examples of computers developed in this generation are ENIAC – Electronic Numeric Integrated and
Computer, UNIVAC- Universal Automatic Computer, EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator and EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

Second Generation (Transistors) – 1956-1963:

The first-ever transistor was invented in 1947 but could never be used in the computer until the
1950s. Given below are a few characteristic features of the 2nd Generation computers:
● The speed of the transistor decided the speed of the computer.
● It was less expensive in comparison to the 1st Generation computers.
● The electricity consumption had also reduced with the use of transistors.
● There was no change in the output as it was still received through a printout.
● From machine language, there was a change to usage assembly language in computers.
Thus, now computers could understand words.
● High-level programming languages were used.
Two significant developments during this phase include the development of FORTRAN or Formula
Translation and COBOL or Common Business Oriented Language, which was developed for business
use.
Third Generation (Integrated Circuits) – 1964-1971:
The phase when the usage of keyboards and monitors ha started for the input and output. The
transistors had been reduced in size and were placed on silicon chips. This increased the speed of
the computer.
Given below are the features of the 3rd Generation of computers:
● The Integrated circuits were used where small circuits could work as efficiently as the larger
ones.
● Multitasking could be done in the computers developed during the 3rd phase.
● Functions of the computer were based on the memory of the monitor.
A few examples from this Generation of computer are PDP 8, IBM 360, ICL 2900, etc.
Fourth Generation (Microprocessors) – 1972-2010:
The maximum developments were done during this time phase as technology has advanced many
folds. By this time, millions of transistors could be placed on the silicon circuits.
The characteristic features of this Generation are given below:
● The first microprocessor, Intel 4004 chip was discovered by Ted Hoff and was made
commercially available in 1971. This led to the introduction of personal computers.
● This Generation saw revised versions of computers being introduced in the form of laptops
and tablets.
● GUI – Graphical User Interface was developed during this phase.
● Speed, memory and storage had also improved in the computers of this Generation
The computers which were introduced during this Generation include Apple II, the first IBM
computer, STAR 1000, and many more.
Fifth Generation (Artificial Intelligence) – 2010-till date:
The current generation of computers which have made our lives easier and more convenient is all a
part of the fifth generation of the computer.
Given below is some basic information about the 5th generation of computers:
● Artificial intelligence is being used in devices currently which has enabled millions on tasks
to be completed within seconds on a device.
● Advancement in the functioning of laptops, palmtops, etc.
● Other robotic devices have started being used to reduce human labour.
● The devices from this generation are cost-effective, faster, consume lesser electricity and are
easily portable and convenient to use

Classification of Computers
There are three major categories based on which computers can be classified. These are:

1. Based on Size
2. Based on Purpose
 3. Based on Types

The image given below gives a clear classification of the Types of Computers:

Types of Computer-Based on Types

The three types of computers along with their functions are given below:
● Analog Computer – An analog computer one that uses the continuously changeable aspects
of physical phenomena to model the problem being solved. These phenomena may be such
as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities and they are extremely complex to be used.
Such computers are mostly used for scientific and industrial applications. Examples of
Analog computers include Thermometer, Operational Amplifiers, Electric Integrators, etc.
● Digital Computer – Such computers are capable of solving problems in discrete format. It
only operates on data entered in binary language and can perform the dynamic function of
managing large amounts of data and regulating the operations of the machine, Examples of
Digital computers are Desktop, Laptop, Mobile Phones, etc.
● Hybrid Computer – Computers that exhibit features of both Analog and Digital computers
are called Hybrid Computers. The logical operations are solved by the digital aspects and the
differential equations are solved using the analog features. Few important examples of
Hybrid Computers include Space Flights, Food processing Plants, etc.

Types of Computers – Based on Size

Described below are the four types of Computers based on their sizes along with their functions:
● Micro Computers – A relatively inexpensive and small computer comprising a
microprocessor and a Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called a Microcomputer. Such
computers are made with minimal circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. Examples
include Desktop, Laptop, etc.
● Mini Computer – Developed in the mid-1960s, Mini computers are comparatively smaller
than mainframe computers. They were developed keeping in consideration human
 interaction, control instrumentation and were cost-effective. For example Smartphones,
iPads, etc.
● Mainframe Computer – Computers used by large Organisations to manage bulk data are
called Mainframe computers. Main functions of such type include managing customer
statistics, census and other heavy data in a single device. For example, the system used at
Trading companies.
● Super Computer – Computers used at Organisations dealing with Weather forecasting,
Quantum Mechanics, Climate research, etc., where high level of performance has to be
justified are called Super Computers.

Types of Computers – By Purpose

On the basis of purpose, there are just two variety of computers. Those two varieties have been
discussed in detail below:
● General Purpose – Based on General Purpose, there are these following functions which a
device is expected to perform:
o Basic Input/Output functions
o Calculations
o Data Saving on a smaller scale
o General performing activities

These may include basic calculators, laptops, desktop computers, mobile phones, etc., which can
help people with their basic necessary functions are included in the General Purpose computer
type.

● Special Purpose – When a computer is designed specifically to perform a certain function,

such type of computers is known as Special Purpose computer. These types may include:

o Thermometers to test temperature

o Generators to manage electricity
o Devices used for analysing Climate Change
o Large computers for IT Companies
o Machines used at Manufacturing Units and the list goes on and on

Important Terms Related to Computer Knowledge

Computer Virus: A computer virus is a malicious piece of code or software which affects the normal
functioning of a computer. Viruses may disrupt the system by hijacking system memory,
surreptitiously collect data or shut down the system altogether.
Antivirus software: Antivirus software is a program used to protect computers from computer
viruses such as malware, trojans and network viruses. Many prominent software companies
specialise in antivirus software. Some of the biggest software vendors who develop and market
antivirus software are McAfee, Norton, Eset and Kaspersky Labs.
Malware: Malware is a type of virus. It is defined as malicious software which corrupts computer
and mobile operations and provides unauthorized access to a private system or displays harmful
content. The information on a specific system gets copied without the user’s notice and disrupts the
normal operation. Usage of malware specific tools or antivirus helps to prevent malware. Malware
is spread through careless use of browser extensions, email attachments and storage media.
Computer worm: A computer worm is a standalone malware that spreads through computer
networks. It is a self-replicating software that infects computers connected to a network while
remaining active in the original system. It is one of the most common viruses.
Trojan horse: A trojan horse is a malicious program which infects a system by masquerading as an
innocuous program. It introduces the virus to a system. They do not replicate themselves but are
very destructive.
Authorization: Authorization is the function of specifying access rights related to information
security or computer security. In organisations, authorisation can only be controlled by a specified
user or group of users known as system administrators. An authorisation is an important aspect of
computer security and helps to maintain security and confidentiality of company data.
Authentication: When the credentials are compared to those of the database of the original file it is
termed as authentication. Authentication can be used to confirm the validity of an authorisation, or
the safety of a database etc. It helps the system to give access to legitimate users.
Hacker: A hacker is a person who has complete knowledge about a specific area of computer
security and uses it to gain access to the systems. Hackers can be classified as black hat and white
hat hackers. White hat hackers use their knowledge to expose flaws in computer security practices
and suggest more effective solutions to security issues. Black hat hackers use their knowledge to
harm users for monetary or other gains.
Phishing: The practice of sending fake emails or trying to get personal information like name,
password or money at times is known as phishing. Phishing is conducted by posing as a legitimate
user of a system and collecting data through electronic communication.
Spoofing attack: When a person or program impersonates the identity of another by falsifying
important data, thereby gaining an unfair and illegitimate advantage is called spoofing. There are
various spoofing attacks that the fraudulent party can use for their purpose.

Computer Input and Output Devices

Input Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which helps us enter data into a computer
is called an input device. For example, keyboard, mouse, etc.
Output Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out the result of the entered
input, once it is processed (i.e., converts data from machine language to a human-understandable
language), is called an output device. For example, printer, monitor, etc.

List of Input Devices

1. Keyboard

● A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or
number commands which can be given to a computer for various actions to be performed
 ● It has a modified version of typewriter keys
● The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both use keyboards to
give commands to the computer

2. Mouse

● It is also known as a pointing device

● Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the system and open up
various files and programs
● A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in
selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively
● In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which helps in the
movement of the mouse pointer

3. Joy Stick

● It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it can
be moved and controlled
● Mostly used to control the movement in video games
● Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane,
wheelchairs, cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well

4. Light Pen

● It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s screen
● It is light-sensitive
● Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube

5. Microphone

● Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form

● It converts sound into an electrical signal
● To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected with
an amplifier

6. Scanner

● This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
● When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal and
displays it on the computer screen

7. Barcode Reader

● It is a kind of an optical scanner

● It can read bar codes
 ● A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details are displayed on
the screen

List of Output Devices

The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what their
function is and how they can be used.

1. Monitor

● The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor.
● When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on
the monitor.
● Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years.

2. Printer

● A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is called
a printer.
● For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and later gets a print out
of it, which is in the form of paper and is later published.
● Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve different
purposes.

3. Speakers

● A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a

computer to do is called a speaker.
● Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be
attached separately.
● With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are wireless and can
be connected using BlueTooth or other applications.

4. Projector

● An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is
called a projector.
● Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display
of the videos or lighting.
● If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is
the same as the one displayed on the computer screen.

5. Headphones

● They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of sound.
 ● Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using headphones, the sound
is only audible to the person using them.
● Also known as earphones or headset

Basic Components of Computer

By definition, components of a computer system are the primary elements which make the
functioning of an electronic device smooth and faster. There are five basic components which
include:

1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Memory Unit
4. Control Unit
5. Arithmetical and Logical Unit

Input Unit
● A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device. These commands can
be given using the input unit or the input devices.
 ● For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the computer
processes the entered data and then displays the output of the same of the screen.
● The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter the
information using an input device, the processing units convert it into computer
understandable languages and then the final output is received by a human-understandable
language.

Output Unit
● When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts back for the action performed
and gives us a result. This result is called output. There are various output devices connected
to the computer. The most basic of which is a monitor. Whatever we write using a keyboard
or click using a mouse, is all displayed on the monitor.
● Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done within the
mechanism of a device.
● For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, pin, amount to be
withdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the cash dispenser releases is our outcome.
In this case, the cash dispenser acts as an output unit.

Memory Unit
● When we enter the data into the computer using an input device, the entered information
immediately gets saved in the memory unit of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Because of
the presence of some existing programming, the Memory Unit transmits the data further to
the other parts of the CPU.
● Similarly, when the output of our command is processed by the computer, it is saved in the
memory unit before giving the output to the user.

Control Unit
● This is the core unit which manages the entire functioning of the computer device. It is one
of the most essential components of the computer system.
● The Control Unit collects the data entered using the input unit, leads it on for processing and
once that is done, receives the output and presents it to the user. It can be said to the centre
of all processing actions taking place inside a computer device.
● Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing signals to execute the
data and then finally retrieving the data is all done in the Control Unit.

Arithmetic & Logical Unit

● As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic operations are
performed in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.
● It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making actions. The ALU
comprises circuits using which addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and other
numerical based calculations can be performed.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The Central Processing Unit is the core of any computer devices. It comprises of three major
components of the computer which have been discussed above:
● Memory Unit
● Control Unit
● Arithmetic and Logical Unit

All these three units are elements of CPU and together help in the efficient working and processing
of data. It is also known as the “Brain of Computer” and no action can be conducted by a device
without the execution and permission of the Central Processing Unit.

The device is a close-knit circuit comparison microprocessor which helps in fetching the data and
proving suitable results to the user. Thus, CPU is the main processing unit of the computer.

Computer Hardware & Software

What is Computer Hardware?
Computer hardware is the physical components of a computer that we can touch and feel. These
are machinery or primary electronic devices that are used to build up the computer or data
processing system. Computer hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can
use to control a computer’s operation, input and output.
Computer hardware examples:
Few examples of computer hardware are –
● Motherboard – it is the circuit board that contains IC sockets and slots.
● Central Processing Unit (CPU) – it is the heart of the computer
● Peripheral of CPU such as Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, Speaker, UPS etc.
What is Computer Software?
Computer Software is a programming code executed on a computer processor. It is a set of
programs that can do particular work of the user. The software simply is a collection of
documentation, instructions, and procedures that are capable of performing different tasks on a
computer system.
The computer software is divided into two major parts:
● System Softwares – System software operates directly on hardware devices of the
computer. It provides a platform to run an application and helps to run the hardware of the
computer and the system itself. Operating systems, diagnostic tools, device drivers are some
included in system software. These are mostly pre-installed on computers. Examples are
Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
● Application Softwares – Designed for user-benefit to complete different tasks. These are
either pre-installed in the computers or can be installed as per the need. It includes word
 processing, Language processors, web browsing, translators, editors and almost any other
task for which we install the software. Examples are Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, etc.
Software is generally written or created in a high-level programming language. The language that is
readable by people. These instructions in high-level languages are then converted into “machine
language” instructions, represented in the form of binary code before the hardware can “run the
code”. When we install any software, it is generally already in this machine language or binary form.

Computer Virus and its Types

A computer virus is a program which can harm our device and files and infect them for no further
use. When a virus program is executed, it replicates itself by modifying other computer programs
and instead enters its own coding. This code infects a file or program and if it spreads massively, it
may ultimately result in crashing of the device.
Across the world, Computer viruses are a great issue of concern as they can cause billions of dollars’
worth harm to the economy each year.
Since the computer virus only hits the programming of the device, it is not visible. But there are
certain indications which can help you analyse that a device is virus-hit. Given below are such signs
which may help you identify computer viruses:

● Speed of the System – In case a virus is completely executed into your device, the time
taken to open applications may become longer and the entire system processing may start
working slowly
● Pop-up Windows – One may start getting too many pop up windows on their screen which
may be virus affected and harm the device even more
● Self Execution of Programs – Files or applications may start opening in the background of
the system by themselves and you may not even know about them
● Log out from Accounts – In case of a virus attack, the probability of accounts getting hacked
increase and password protected sites may also get hacked and you might get logged out
from all of them
● Crashing of the Device – In most cases, if the virus spreads in maximum files and programs,
there are chances that the entire device may crash and stop working

Types of Computer Virus

● Boot Sector Virus – It is a type of virus that infects the boot sector of floppy disks or the
Master Boot Record (MBR) of hard disks. The Boot sector comprises all the files which are
required to start the Operating system of the computer. The virus either overwrites the
existing program or copies itself to another part of the disk.
● Direct Action Virus – When a virus attaches itself directly to a .exe or .com file and enters
the device while its execution is called a Direct Action Virus. If it gets installed in the
memory, it keeps itself hidden. It is also known as Non-Resident Virus.
● Resident Virus – A virus which saves itself in the memory of the computer and then infects
other files and programs when its originating program is no longer working. This virus can
 easily infect other files because it is hidden in the memory and is hard to be removed from
the system.
● Multipartite Virus – A virus which can attack both, the boot sector and the executable files
of an already infected computer is called a multipartite virus. If a multipartite virus attacks
your system, you are at risk of cyber threat.
● Overwrite Virus – One of the most harmful viruses, the overwrite virus can completely
remove the existing program and replace it with the malicious code by overwriting it.
Gradually it can completely replace the host’s programming code with the harmful code.
● Polymorphic Virus – Spread through spam and infected websites, the polymorphic virus are
file infectors which are complex and are tough to detect. They create a modified or morphed
version of the existing program and infect the system and retain the original code.
● File Infector Virus – As the name suggests, it first infects a single file and then later spreads
itself to other executable files and programs. The main source of this virus are games and
word processors.
● Spacefiller Virus – It is a rare type of virus which fills in the empty spaces of a file with
viruses. It is known as cavity virus. It will neither affect the size of the file nor can be
detected easily.
● Macro Virus – A virus written in the same macro language as used in the software program
and infects the computer if a word processor file is opened. Mainly the source of such
viruses is via emails.

What is an Anti-Virus?
An anti-virus is a software which comprises programs or set of programs which can detect and
remove all the harmful and malicious software from your device. This anti-virus software is
designed in a manner that they can search through the files in a computer and determine the files
which are heavy or mildly infected by a virus.
Given below is a list of few of the major antivirus software which is most commonly used:

● Norton Antivirus
● F-Secure Antivirus
● Kaspersky Antivirus
● AVAST Antivirus
● Comodo Antivirus
● McAfee Antivirus

Internet - Description, History & Uses

History and Evolution of the Internet

The Internet completely revolutionised communication and technology across the Globe. Initially,
computerised devices were only used for large industries but later its usage increased massively.
It is also mandatory for people to know that it is not possible for a single person to develop
something as broad and wide as the Internet all by himself/herself. It was a combined effort of
multiple researchers and programmers that the Internet was discovered.
Given below are a few important points which played an extremely important role in the
development of the Internet and making it one of the most widely used resources across the world.

● The first development was the introduction of host-to-host network interactions. This was
first observed in ARPANET in 1969. It was developed by Advanced Research Projects Agency
(APRA) of the Department of Defence, U.S. It was one of the first general usage of computer
networks.
● Next step was commercialising the usage and making the transistors and transmitters fit in
smaller devices for convenient Internet usage for the general public. This was introduced in
the 1970s
● Moving forward, satellites and wireless communication was the main target. Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency (formerly ARPA), supported satellite-based radio
packets for mobile usage of networks
● The next was the development of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This enabled different
machines and networks across the world to assemble data packets. It was in the 1980s that
the TCP/IP approach was adapted by researchers and technologists, following the footsteps
of the U.S. Department of Defence
● With the introduction of personal computers, the demand for commercial Internet usage
increased. This was the time when Ethernet and other Local Area Networks cam in the
foreground
● In 1993, the web browser was introduced, which followed the point-and-click approach and
is now a widely used operation for Internet users
● The late 1990s was the time when thousands of Internet Service Providers has taken up the
market and most of them were from the U.S.
● And then the 21st century brought in an amalgamation of technology and wireless Internet
accessibility for its users. Wherein, wireless broadband services came in as a boon for
Internet users

Ways To Connect To Internet

The different ways in which one can connect to the Internet are discussed below in brief:

● Dial-Up – In such connections, users are required to link their phone line to a computer to
access the Internet. Under this connection, the user cannot make or receive phone calls
through tier home phone service.
● Broadband – Provided either through cable or phone companies, Broadband is a high-speed
internet connection which is widely used today.
● Wireless Connection – Wi-fi and Mobile service providers fall under this category. Internet
connectivity is made via radio waves and the Internet can be connected anywhere,
irrespective of the location. Given below are a few examples of wireless connection:
o Wi-fi – Wireless Fidelity or wi-fi allows high-speed internet connectivity without the
use of wires.
 o Mobile Phones – All smartphones are now equipped with an option for Internet
connectivity which can be availed using Internet vouchers and packs. No external
connection or wire is required for these.
o Satellite – Where broadband connections are unavailable, satellites are used for
wireless Internet connectivity.
o Integrated Services Digital Network – ISDN allows users to sent audio or video data
using telephone lines.

Internet Connection Protocols

Protocols are a set of rules that help in governing the way in which any particular body or
technology works. Internet Connection Protocols can be divided into three major types:

● TCP/IP Network Model – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are
the most widely used protocols for connecting networks. It divides any message into a series
of packets which are sent from source to destination
● File Transfer Protocol – Program files, multimedia files, text files, documents, etc. can be
transferred from one device to another, using FTP
● Hypertext Transfer Protocol – Used for transferring a hypertext from one device to two or
more devices. HTML tags are used for creating links and these links may be in the form of
text or images

Pros and Cons of Using the Internet

Intentionally or unintentionally, Internet usage is a part in the day to day lives of every individual.
The Internet has made lives easy and comfortable, but at the same time made human being
dependable for the smallest or biggest of information. Discussed below are the uses of the internet,
along with a few cons that it brings along.
Pros of Internet

● Easy Access to Information – Information on anything and everything are available online.
The Internet makes it convenient to learn about new things at any point in time and get
details on various subjects, irrespective of time and place
● Platform for Online Education – With the advanced technology, even students and adults
wish to learn new things and gaining knowledge at various online portals has become more
accessible
● Job Hunting – Employers can look for employees on the internet and the job seekers can
apply online for jobs using the Internet
● Platform to become an Entrepreneur – Today, thousands of people have started their own
websites and getting good business and users/customers by making their own websites and
selling products or services. This has become accessible due to Internet connectivity
● Visual and Graphical Representation of Things – Various researches have shown that a
person tends to get more engaged with a graphical representation of things. Internet has
made this facility also convenient for both user and creator
● Reduced the parameter of Distance – Social media has reduced the distance between
people as communication has become much easier because of Internet connection
With the Internet being an extremely essential part of daily life, it is important that a person is well
aware of the disadvantages of the Internet and its excess usage.
Cons of Internet

● Dependency – The dependency of people for looking things and information online has
increased massively since the introduction of Internet and its easy access
● Cyber Crime – People do not just use internet for learning purposes, cybercrime has also
been at a distinctive high because of effortless availability of resources
● Distraction – People can easily find online games, interesting information, etc. online which
may be a cause of distraction for may
● Bullying and Trolls – Online platforms are being used for unethical practises like bullying
people and trolling them

Computer Networks

What is a Computer Network?

A group of computers which are connected to each other and follow similar usage protocols for the
purpose of sharing information and having communications provided by the networking nodes is
called a Computer Network.
A network may be small where it may include just one system or maybe as large as what one may
want. The nodes may further be classified into various types. These include:
● Personal Computers
● Servers
● Networking Hardware
● General Hosts
Networking can be classified into three types:

1. Types of Computer Networks

2. Topology
3. Interpreters

Types of Computer Networks

There are five main types of Computer Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

● Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small office.

● It is inexpensive.
● It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology.
● Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or cables acting as nodes.
● Transfer of data is fast and is highly score.
2. PAN (Personal Area Network)
● The smallest computer network.
● Devices may be connected through Bluetooth or other infra-red enables devices.
● It has a connectivity range of upto 10 metres.
● It covers an area of upto 30 feet.
● Personal devices belonging to a single person can be connected to each other using PAN.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
● A network that can be connected within a city, for example, cable TV Connection.
● It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring and FDDI.
● It has a higher range.
● This type of network can be used to connect citizens with the various Organisations.
4. WAN (Wide Area Network)
● A network which covers over a country or a larger range of people.
● Telephonic lines are also connected through WAN.
● Internet is the biggest WAN in the world.
● Mostly used by Government Organisations to manage data and information.
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
● A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private network.
● There are a number of systems which enable you to create networks using the Internet as a
medium for transporting data.
● These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to ensure only authorised
users can access.

Network Topologies
Given below are the eight types of Network Topologies:

● Point to Point Topology – Point to Point topology is the simplest topology that connects two
nodes directly together with a common link.
● Bus Topology – A bus topology is such that there is a single line to which all nodes are
connected and the nodes connect only to the bus.
● Mesh Topology – This type of topology contains at least two nodes with two or more paths
between them.
● Ring Topology – In this topology every node has exactly two branches connected to it. The
ring is broken and cannot work if one of the nodes on the ring fails.
● Star Topology – In this network topology, the peripheral nodes are connected to a central
node, which rebroadcasts all the transmissions received from any peripheral node to all
peripheral nodes on the network, including the originating node.
● Tree Topology – In this type of topology nodes are connected in the form of a tree. The
function of the central node in this topology may be distributed.
● Line Topology – in this topology all the nodes are connected in a straight line.
● Hybrid Topology – When two more types of topologies combine together, they form a
Hybrid topology.
Network Devices
Discussed below are a few important network devices from the exam point of view:

● Network Repeater – Used to generate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals.

● Network Hub – It is a small network device. It joins multiple computers together to form a
single network segment. On this segment, all computers can interact with each other.
● Network Switch – It is a small hardware device which joins multiple computers together
with a single LAN.
● Network Router – This device interfaces in multiple networks whose task is to copy
packages from one network to another. It provides connectivity inside enterprises, between
Enterprises and the Internet and within an ISP.
● Network Bridge – It reads the outermost section of the data packet to tell where the
message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments.
● Modem – This device converts digital signals into analogue signals. It is always placed
between a telephone and a computer system.

Operating System
An Operating System is the interface between the computer hardware and the end-user. Processing
of data, running applications, file management and handling the memory is all managed by the
computer OS. Windows, Mac, Android etc. Are examples of Operating systems which are generally
used nowadays.
All modern computing devices including Laptops, Tablet, mobile phones, etc. comprise an Operating
System which helps in the smooth working of the device.

History of the Operating System

It took years to evolve the Operating Systems and make them as modernised and advanced as they
are today. Given below are the details about the evolution and history of Operating systems.

● Initially, the computers made did not have an Operating system and to run each program a
different code was used. This had made the processing of data more complex and time
taking
● In 1956, the first operating systems were developed by General Motors to run a single IBM
computer
● It was in the 1960s that IBM had started installing OS in the devices they launched
● The first version of the UNIX operating system was launched in the 1960s and was written in
the programming language C
● Later on, Microsoft came up with their OS on the request of IBM
● Today, all major computer devices have an operating system, each performing the same
functions but with slightly different features
Types of Operating System
1. Batch Operating System
● There is no direct communication between the computer and the OS.
● There is an intermediate, the Operator, which needs to distribute the work into batches and
sort similar jobs.
● Multiple users can use it.
● Can easily manager a large amount of work.

2. Real-Time Operating System

● It has a data processing system.

● The processing time is very small between the user’s command and the output.
● Used in fields where the response needs to be quick and rapid.

3. Time-Sharing Operating System

● Multiple people at various terminals can use a program at the same time.
● The main motive is to minimize the response time.

4. Distributed Operating System

● When two or more systems are connected to each other and one can open files which are
not present in their system but in other devices connected in the network.
● Its usage has now increased over the years.
● They use multiple central processors to serve real-time applications.
● Failure of one system does not affect the other systems connected in the network.

5. Embedded Operating System

● These special Operating systems are built into larger systems.

● They generally are limited to single specific functions like an ATM.

6. Network Operating System

● They have one main server which is connected to other client servers.
● All the management of files, processing of data, access to sharing files, etc. are performed
over this small network.
● It is also a secure operating system for working with multiple users.

7. Mobile Operating System

● With the advancement in the field of technology, smartphones now are released with an
Operating system.
● They are designed in a manner that they can help a small device work efficiently
Functions of Operating System

● It helps with memory management. It keeps a track of the files being saved in the Main
memory and the primary memory of the computer device
● Whenever a computer is turned on, the Operating system automatically starts to work. Thus,
the booting and rebooting process of a computer device is also an important function of the
OS
● It provides a user interface
● Managing of basic peripheral devices is done by the operating system
● Using the password protection option of an operating system, the data in the device can be
kept secure
● It coordinates with the software and the user
● Easy navigation and organisation of files and programs are managed by the OS
● Any kind of program which needs to be run through the system is done by the operating
system
● If any kind of error or bug is found during the program is detected using the operating
system

List of Common Operating Systems

Name of the OS Release Date
Android 2008
iOS 2007
Windows 1985
Mac OS 2001
MS-DOS 1981
Chrome OS 2011
Windows Phone 2010
Blackberry OS 1999
Firefox OS 2013
UNIX 1969

Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office is a software which was developed by Microsoft in 1988. This Office suite
comprises various applications which form the core of computer usage in today’s world.

MS Office Applications & its Functions

Currently, MS Office 2016 version is being used across the world and all its applications are widely
used for personal and professional purposes.
Discussed below are the applications of Microsoft Office along with each of their functions.
1. MS Word

● First released on October 25, 1983.

● Extension for Doc files is “.doc”
● It is useful in creating text documents.
● Templates can be created for Professional use with the help of MS Word.
● Work Art, colours, images, animations can be added along with the text in the same file
which is downloadable in the form of a document.
● Authors can use for writing/ editing their work.

2. MS Excel

● Majorly used for making spreadsheets.

● A spreadsheet consists of grids in the form of rows and columns which is easy to manage
and can be used as a replacement for paper.
● It is a data processing application.
● Large data can easily be managed and saved in tabular format using MS Excel.
● Calculations can be done based on the large amount of data entered into the cells of a
spreadsheet within seconds.
● File extension, when saved in the computer, is “.xls”

3. MS PowerPoint

● It was released on April 20, 1987.

● Used to create audiovisual presentations.
● Each presentation is made up of various slides displaying data/ information.
● Each slide may contain audio, video, graphics, text, bullet numbering, tables etc.
● The extension for PowerPoint presentations is “.ppt”
● Used majorly for professional usage.
● Using PowerPoint, presentations can be made more interactive.
4. MS Access

● It was released on November 13, 1992.

● It is Database Management Software (DBMS).
● Table, queries, forms and reports can be created on MS Access.
● Import and export of data into other formats can be done.
● The file extension is “.accdb”

5. MS Outlook
 ● It was released on January 16, 1997.
● It is a personal information management system.
● It can be used both as a single-user application or multi-user software.
● Its functions also include task managing, calendaring, contact managing, journal logging and
web browsing.
● It is the email client of the Office Suite.
● The file extension for an Outlook file is “.pst”

6. MS OneNote

● It was released on November 19, 2003.

● It is a note-taking application.
● When introduced, it was a part of the Office suite only. Later, the developers made it free,
standalone and easily available at play store for android devices.
● The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
● The extension for OneNote files is “.one”
● It can be used both online and offline and is a multi-user application.

Microsoft Office Versions

Version name Release Date/ Year
Microsoft Office for Windows October 1990
Microsoft Office 3.0 August 30, 1992
Microsoft Office 4.x 1994
Microsoft Office 1995 August 24, 1995
Microsoft Office 1997 1997
Microsoft Office 2000 June 7, 1997
Microsoft Office XP May 31, 2001
Microsoft Office 2003 October 21, 2003
Microsoft Office 2007 January 30, 2007
Microsoft Office 2010 June 15, 2010
Microsoft Office 2013 January 30, 2012
Microsoft Office 2016 September 22, 2015

Important Computer Abbreviations

Computer
S. No. Full Form
Abbreviation
1 AAC Advanced Audio Coding
2 ABR Average Bit Rate
3 ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
4 AGP Advanced Graphics Port
5 AI Artificial Intelligence
6 AIM AOL Instant Messenger
7 ALGOL Algorithmic Language
8 ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit
9 AOL America Online
10 AMD Advanced Micro Devices
11 API Application Program Interface
12 APT Automatically Programmed Tooling
13 ARP Address Resolution Protocol
14 ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
15 ARQ Automatic Repeat Request
16 AS Autonomous System
17 ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
18 ASP Active Server Pages
19 ASPI Advanced SCSI Programming Interface
20 ATA Advanced Technology Attachment
21 ATDT Attention Dial Tone
22 AUI Attachment Unit Interface
23 AUTOEXEC Autoexec Automatic Execution file
24 AVI Audio Video Interleave
25 BASIC Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
26 BCC Blind Carbon Copy
27 BCD Binary Coded Decimal
28 BCR Bar Code Reader
29 BDSL Broadband DSL
30 BEDO Burst Extended Data Out (RAM)
31 BGP Border Gateway Protocol
32 BHTML Broadcast Hyper Text Markup Language
33 BIOS Basic Input Output System
34 BIPS Billion Instruction Per Second
35 BIU Bus Interface Unit
36 BMP Bitmap
37 BRD Blu-Ray Disc
38 CC Carbon Copy
39 CD Compact Disk
40 CD-R Compact Disk – Recordable
41 CDROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory
42 CDRW Compact Disk Rewritable
43 CD-WO Compact Disk – Write Once
44 CD-XA Compact Disk – Extended Architecture
45 CGI-BIN Common Gateway Interface – Binary (programming for Web forms)
46 CIS CompuServe Information Service
47 CISC Complex Instructions Set Computers
48 CMD Command
49 CMYK Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black (color model)
50 CNM Circulatory Network Mode
51 COAX Coaxial Cable (for Ethernet and similar networks)
52 COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
Commonly Operated Machine Particularly Used for
53 COMPUTER
Trade/Technology, Education, and Research.
54 CPI Clock / Cycle Per Instruction
55 CPU Central Processing Unit
56 CROM Computerized Range of Motion
57 CRT Cathode Ray Tube (standard type computer monitor display
58 CSLIP Compressed Serial Line Interface Protocol (Internet)
59 CSS Cascading Style Sheets
60 CTRL Control (computer keyboard key)
61 CUI Character User Interface
62 DAC Data Acquisition and Control
63 DAT Digital Audio Tape
64 dB Decibel
65 DBMS Data Base Management System
66 DDL Data Definition Language
67 DHTML Dynamics Hyper Text Markup Language
68 DML Data Manipulation Language
69 DNS Domain Name System
70 DOC Data Optimizing Computer
71 Doc Document
72 DOS Disk Operating System
73 DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
74 DVD Digital Video/Versatile Disc
75 DVDR Digital Versatile Disk Recordable
76 DVDRW Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable
77 DCE Data Communications Equipment
78 DVI Digital Visual Interface
79 DVR Digital Video Recorder
80 E-Commerce Electronic Commerce
81 EDC Electronic Digital Computer
82 EDI Electronic Data Interchange
83 EDP Electronic Data Processing
84 EEPROM Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
85 EFS Encrypted File System
86 EIDE Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics
87 E-Mail Electronic Mail
88 EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
89 EROM Erasable Read Only Memory
90 FDD Floppy Disk Drive
91 GB Giga Byte
92 GDI Graphical Device Interface
93 GUI Graphical User Interface
94 HD Hard Disk
95 HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
96 HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
97 I/O Input/Output (serial and parallel ports)
98 IC Integrated Circuit
99 IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
100 INTEL Integrated Electronics
101 IOP Input Output Processor
102 IP Internet Protocol
103 ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
104 ISP Internet Service Provider
105 IVR Interactive Voice Response
106 KB KILOBYTE
107 Kbps Kilobits/Kilobytes Per Second
108 LAN Local Area Network
109 LED Light Emitting Diode
110 LLL Low Level Language
111 LPT Line Printer
112 MAC Media Access Control
113 MAN Metropolitan Area Network
114 MB Motherboard/ Megabyte
115 MBASIC Microsoft BASIC (Microsoft)
116 MBPS Megabytes Per Second
117 Mbps Megabits Per Second
118 MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
119 MMX Multimedia Extensions
120 MODEM Modulator Demodulator
121 MSCDEX Microsoft Compact Disc Extension
122 MS-DOS Microsoft – Disk Operating System
123 NAT Network Address Translation
124 NTP Network Time Protocol
125 OCR Optical Character Reader
126 OMR Optical Mark Reader
127 OOP Object Oriented Programming
128 OS Operating System
129 P2P Point to Point Protocol
130 PAN Personal Area Network
131 PC Personal Computer
132 PCB Printer Circuit Board
133 PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect
134 PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
135 PIXEL Picture Element
136 PNG Portable Network Graphics
137 PPP Point to Point Protocol
138 PRN Printer
139 PROM Programmable Read Only Memory
140 RAM Random Access Memory
141 RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
142 RDBMS Relational Data Base Management System
143 RIP Routing Information Protocol
144 RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer
145 ROM Read Only Memory
146 SAM Software Asset Management
147 SAN Storage Area Network
148 SCSI Small Computer System Interface
149 SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
150 SFTP Secure File Transfer Protocol
151 SGML Standard Generalized Markup Language
152 SGRAM Synchronous Graphics RAM
153 SIP Session Initiation Protocol
154 SIU Serial Interface Unit
 155 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
156 SNAP Sub Network Access Protocol
157 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
158 SRAM Static Random Access Memory
159 SYSOP System Operator
160 TCP Transmission Control Protocol
161 UI User Interface
162 URL Uniform Resource Locator
163 USB Universal Serial Bus
164 VCD Video Compact Disk
165 VDU Visual Display Unit
166 VIRUS Vital Information Resource Under Siege
167 VRAM Video Random Access Memory
169 VxD Virtual Extended Driver
170 WAN Wide Area Network
171 WAP Wireless Application Protocol
172 WBMP Wireless Bitmap Image
173 WIFI Wireless fidelity
174 WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
175 WML Wireless Markup Language
176 WWW World Wide Web
178 XGA Extended Graphics Array
179 XHTML Extensible Hyper Text Markup Language
180 XMF Extensible Music File
181 XML Extensible Markup Language
182 XMS Extended Memory Specification
183 FORTRAN Formula Translation

Important Computer Shortcut Keys

S.No. Shortcut Keys Function
1 Alt+F Displays the File menu options
2 Alt+E Opens the Edit options
3 Alt+Tab Switch between open programs
4 F1 Used by every Windows program for Help
5 F2 To Rename a selected file
6 F5 Refresh the page or current window
7 Ctrl+D To Bookmarks the current page (for most Browsers)
 Create a new or blank document or open a new tab in the Internet
8 Ctrl+N
Browser
9 Ctrl+O To Open a file
10 Ctrl+A Select the entire text at once
11 Ctrl+B Change the text to Bold
12 Ctrl+I Change the Text to Italics
13 Ctrl+U Underline the selected text
14 Ctrl+S Save the file or document you are working on
15 Ctrl+X Cut selected part of the text or image
16 Shift+Del Remove the selected items
17 Ctrl+C To copy the text or image
18 Ctrl+V To Paste
19 Ctrl+Y Redo last action
20 Ctrl+Z Undo last action
21 Ctrl+K Insert hyperlink for selected text.
22 Ctrl+P To print the document
23 Home Moves the beginning of the current line
24 Ctrl+Home Moves to the beginning of the document
25 End Moves to the end of the line
27 Ctrl+End Moves to the end of the document
28 Ctrl+Left arrow Moves one word to the left at a time.
29 Ctrl+Right arrow Moves one word to the right at a time.
30 Alt+F4 To close the program currently active
31 Alt+Enter Open the properties for the selected item
Ctrl + Shift + Create a non-breaking space
32
Spacebar
33 Ctrl + Shift+ < Decrease font size one value
34 Ctrl + Shift + > Increase the font size one value
35 Ctrl + [ Increase the font size by 1 point
36 Ctrl + ] Decrease the font size by 1 point
37 Ctrl + Spacebar Remove paragraph or character formatting
38 Ctrl + Alt + V Paste special
39 Ctrl + Shift + V Paste formatting only
40 Ctrl+F10 Maximise the document window
41 Ctrl + Shift + T Enter the current time
42 Ctrl + ; Enter the current date
43 Shift + F3 Open the Excel formula window
44 Shift + F5 Bring up search box.
45 Ctrl + F9 Minimise current workbook
46 Ctrl + F10 Maximise currently selected workbook
47 Ctrl + F6 Switch between open workbooks/window
48 Ctrl + Page Down Move between Excel worksheets in the same Excel document
49 Ctrl + Tab Move between two or more open Excel files
50 Ctrl + Page Up Move between Excel worksheet in the same Excel document
51 Alt + = Create a formula to sum all of the cells
52 Ctrl + ’ Insert the value of the above cell into cell currently selected.
53 Ctrl + Arrow key Move to next section to text
54 Ctrl + Space Select entire column
55 Shift + Space Select entire row
56 Ctrl+L To left-align the selected text
57 Ctrl+R To right-align the selected text
58 Ctrl+J To justify the selected text
59 Ctrl+E To centre align the text
60 Ctrl+Del To delete the word to the right
61 Shift+Del To permanently delete a file
RRB ALP
Study Material for General Awareness
 BASICS OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Ecology
● The term Ecology was coined by Haeckel.
● Ecology is the science section that describes the relationship between living things and other
elements in the surrounding environment.

Ecosystem
● It is a Structural and functional unit of nature where living organism interact among
themselves and also with the surrounding environment.
● All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living constituents of the
environment form an ecosystem.
● The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935.
● Two components of ecosystem are Abiotic and biotic.
o Biotic components (all living organisms)
o Abiotic components all (non - living components)

Types of Ecosystems

Ecosystem can be classified into two types:

● Terrestrial Ecosystem
● Aquatic Ecosystem

Components Of Ecosystem

Human Made ecosystem

● Aquarium
● Zoo
 ● Botanical gardens
● Agricultural fields
● Orchards

Natural ecosystems

1. Abiotic components (non-living components)

The abiotic component can be grouped into following categories:

● Inorganic substances - Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, water, rock,
soil and other minerals.
● Organic substances - Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and Humic substances
● Physical factors - Sun light, temperature, rainfall, humidity and pressure. They are influence
the growth and development of organisms of biological communities.
● Lithosphere - The lithosphere is the outer most part of the Earth. It is made up of rocks and
minerals. It is covered by a thin layer of soil.
● Hydrosphere - Hydrosphere is made up of all the water and watery layers of the Earth. All of
the oceans, lakes, seas and clouds are an example of the hydrosphere. The hydrosphere
covers 70 percent of the Earth's surface.
● Atmosphere
o Atmosphere is a mixture of gases, water vapour and dust particles in different
proportions. It is held near the surface of the planet by Earth's gravitational
attraction.
o Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) are permanent gases of the atmosphere. They
constitute 99% of the total composition and their percentages always remain the
same without any change. The remaining one percentage is occupied by Argon
(0.93%), Carbon-di-oxide, (0.03%), Neon (0.0018%), Helium (0.0005%), Ozone
(0.00006%) and Hydrogen (0.00005%).

2. Biotic components (Living organisms)

The biotic component can be grouped into following categories:

Producers
● Producers (Green plants) are organisms that make their own food through the
photosynthesis. They are also known as autotrophs.
● Green plants are called autotrophs, as they absorb water and nutrients from the soil, carbon
dioxide from the air, and capture solar energy for this process.
● Examples: Green plants, Trees

Consumers
● Consumers are called heterotrophs and they consume food synthesized by the autotrophs.
● It can be divided into three categories:
o Herbivores or Primary Consumer - A herbivore is gets its energy from eating plants.
Examples: Cow, Goat, Horses, Deer, Rhinoceros, Sheep, Rabbit.
o Carnivores or Secondary consumers - Secondary consumers are organisms that eat
primary consumers (Herbivores) for energy. Examples: Spider, Eagles, Owls, Cat,
Snake, lizard, Dog.
 o Omnivores - Omnivores defined as the animals that eat on plants and other animals
for nutrition. Examples: Chickens, Crows, Humans, Bear, Pigs.

Decomposers
● Decomposers are organisms that break down dead plants and animals
● Examples: Bacteria, Fungi.

Food Chain

It is the unidirectional transfer of food energy from the producers to higher trophic levels. It is the
movement of organic matter and energy from the producer level through various consumer levels.
The various steps in a food chain are called trophic levels and transfer of energy in term of food
from one trophic level to another is called energy flow.

Flow of energy in an ecosystem - Energy flow in an Ecosystem is always unidirectional

Sun light → Producers → Herbivores → Carnivores → Top Carnivores

Types of Food Chains

● Grazing Food Chain: This food chain starts with those consumers who obtain their food
from plants. This food chain begins from green plants at the base and the primary
consumer is herbivore. It is the most common food chain. It is also called predator food
chain as predation occurs at every step.
● Detritus Food Chain: It begins with detritus or dead organic matter. The food energy
present in detritus passes into detrivores and decomposers who feed over it. Detrivores
and decomposers are consumed by smaller carnivores which in turn become food for
larger carnivores and so on.

Food Web – It is an interlinked arrangement of food chain. Food chains in nature are generally
not so simple. There are multiple interlinkages. Such a network where the various food chains
are interconnected to each other is known as food web. A food web illustrates all possible
transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem, whereas a food chain
traces only one pathway of the food. Food webs are important for maintaining the stability of an
ecosystem.
Ecological Balance - It describes the equilibrium between living organisms such as human being,
plants, and animals as well as their environment.

Ecological Pyramid and Its Types

● An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different

organisms in an ecosystem.
● The relationship between the number of organism, biomass and the energy content of
producer and consumer at different levels can be represented diagrammatically using
ecological Pyramid.
● Three types of pyramids are:
o Pyramid of energy
o Pyramid of Biomass
o Pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of Energy
● A pyramid of energy is a graphical representation of the amount of energy at each trophic
level of a food chain.
● Pyramid of energy in ecosystem is always upright.
● The amount of energy at each trophic level decreases as it moves through an ecosystem.
Pyramid of Biomass
● This pyramid indicates the total mass of the organisms in each trophic level.
● In most of the terrestrial ecosystems the pyramid of biomass is upright. However, in case of
aquatic ecosystems the pyramid of biomass may be inverted.

Pyramid of Numbers
● A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation that shows the number of organisms at
each trophic level.
● This type of pyramid can have two different forms depending on the number of organisms:
upright and inverted.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

Bioaccumulation - It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain. It is the process of accumulation of
persistent and toxic substances or chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation is essentially a
precursor to biomagnification.
Biomagnification - Biomagnification is the phenomenon of gradual increase in the concentration of
chemicals and toxic substances successively at higher trophic levels of food chain. Pesticides like
DDT and other industrial pollutants like mercury etc. degrade very slowly in the ecosystem. Hence,
once they enter a food chain, their concentration keeps on increasing at higher trophic levels. In a
food chain, the number of individual decreases per trophic level successively so, the net amount of
these persistent substances per individual keeps on increasing successively with the higher trophic
levels of food chain. In this way, the maximum bioaccumulation of these persistent pollutants is
seen at the top most trophic level of the food chain.

Ecotone
● An ecotone refers to an area where two biomes meet. It is essentially a transition area
between two biomes. For example – a mangrove ecosystem.
● An ecotone’s condition is a mix of both of its adjacent biomes. This makes it a zone of
tension also.
● A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of
the adjoining communities.

Ecological Niche
● A Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or
ecosystem.
● The ecological niche of an organism consists of all the physical, chemical, and biological
conditions it needs in order to live in the habitat.
● The niche includes the organism's food habits ways of nesting and reproduction, etc.
● For example, in a forest different species thrive at different heights without competing
with one another.
● For a species the fundamental niche is the ideal set of conditions in which it can thrive
without competition or predators.
● The realized niche is that part of the fundamental niche that the organism is able to
enjoy.
Environmental Issues
Human population size has grown enormously. This means increase in demand for food, water,
home, electricity, roads, automobiles and numerous other commodities. These demands are
exerting tremendous pressure on our natural resources, and are also contributing to pollution of air,
water and soil.

Pollution
● Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air,
land, water or soil. Agents that bring about such an undesirable change are called as
pollutants. Example: Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxide, Lead, etc.
● In order to control environmental pollution, the Government of India has passed the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to protect and improve the quality of our environment
(air, water and soil).
● Types of pollution:
o Air pollution
o Water pollution
o Soil and land pollution
o Sound or noise pollution

Air Pollution
● Air is a mixture of gases.78% of this mixture is nitrogen and about 21% is oxygen. Carbon
dioxide, argon, methane, ozone and water vapour are also present in very small quantities.
● Air is contaminated by unwanted substances which have a harmful effect on both the living
and the non- living; it is referred to as air pollution. The substances which contaminate the
air are called air pollutants.
● In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came into force in 1981.
● Sources of Pollution can be divided into two types: Natural Sources and Man-made sources.

Natural Sources
● Some of the natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, fog, organic
compounds from plants, sea salt.

Man-made sources
● Air pollution is caused by the burning of combustion material in factories, vehicles and
power plants. Air pollution is caused by 50% of vehicle exhaust smoke.
● Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and smoke.
● Carbon monoxide is produced from incomplete burning of fuels such as petrol and diesel. It
is a poisonous gas. It reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
● Smog is made up of smoke and fog. Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen which combine
with other air pollutants and fog to form smog. The smog causes breathing difficulties such
as asthma, cough and wheezing in children.
● Petroleum refineries are a major source of gaseous pollutants like sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is produced by combustion of fuels like coal in power
plants. It can cause respiratory problems, including permanent lung damage.
● Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS) are used in refrigerator, CFCs damage the ozone layer of the
atmosphere.
● Acid rain corrodes the marble of the monument. The phenomenon is also called Marble
 cancer.
● The outer surface of the Taj mahal has been turning the yellowish due to atmospheric
pollution and also due to excessive presence of Sulphur Dioxide in the air due to the
Mathura refinery nearby.
● Ammonia gas released from synthetic fertilizer factories affect the human respiratory tract.
● Hydrocarbons are released when burning coal and petroleum product.

Acid Rain
● When the pH value of the rainwater drops below 5.6, it is called acid rain.
● Burning of fossil fuels like Coal, Oil, petrol produces harmful gases like SO2 and NO2.This
pollutes air in the atmosphere. It causes rain to be acidic.
● Acid Rain is caused by emissions of Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxide.
● Acid rain causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.
● Acid rain causes the corrosion of water pipes. Which further results in leaching of heavy
metals such as iron, lead and copper into drinking water.
● Acid rain damage buildings and other structures made of stone or metal. The Taj Mahal in
India has been affected by acid rain.
● Acid rain removes basic nutrients such as Calcium from the soil

Noise Pollution
● In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came into force in 1981, but was
amended in 1987 to include noise as an air pollutant.
● Noise pollution is emission of loud sound which can harmfully impact the humans as well as
animal activities for health.
● Unit of sound is Decibel (db.)
● The loudness of a sound that a person can withstand without discomfort is about 80 db.

Causes of Noise pollution

● Transport system the main source of noise pollution in urban areas.
● Aircraft noise.
● Noises from construction works.
● Noises from industries.
● Because of the use of loudspeakers.
● Firecrackers.

Effects of noise pollution

● Permanent hearing loss
● Insomnia
● Depression-related diseases

Water Pollution
● Human beings have been abusing the water-bodies around the world by disposing into them
all kinds of waste.
● Government of India has passed the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
to safeguard our water resources.
● Sources of water pollution:
o Industrial wastes
o The surface run off
 o Thermal and nuclear power stations
o Oil spills
o Domestic sewage

Domestic sewage
● Sewage from our homes as well as from hospitals are likely to contain many undesirable
pathogenic microorganisms, and its disposal into a water without proper treatment may
cause outbreak of serious diseases, such as, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera, etc.

Eutrophication
● Body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates and nitrates)
that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life usually resulting in the depletion of dissolved
oxygen.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

● Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic
biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample at
certain temperature over a specific time period.

Soil and Land Pollution

● Soil pollution is defined as the change in physical, chemical and biological conditions of the
soil through human activities, resulting in the degradation in quality and productivity.
● All waste that we generate can be categorized into three types – (a) bio-degradable, (b)
recyclable and(c) the non-biodegradable.
● Example of biodegradable waste: Human and animal waste, food waste, paper waste,
Remains from the death of living creatures, Organic wastages.
● Example of Non-biodegradable waste: Polyethylene bags, Glass, Metals like aluminium,
copper, zinc, iron, Electronic devices, computer parts, batteries, Medical waste, Plastic bags,
plastic bottles.

Causes of soil pollution

● Acid rain
● Deforestation
● Industrial activities
● Mining activities
● Accidental oil spills
● Modern agriculture practices
● Electronic wastages
● Disposal of coal Ash

Effect of soil pollution

● Reduce Soil fertility
● Reduce nitrogen fixation
● Public health problems
● Poisonous Chemicals entering groundwater

Control of land pollution

● Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are known as electronic wastes
 (e-wastes). Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-waste.
● Production and use of natural fertilizers.
● Afforestation.
● Follow 3R (Reduce Reuse Recycle).
● Dangerous chemical usage should be decreased.
● Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and other harmful chemicals,
and also pathogenic micro-organisms. Such wastes also require careful treatment and
disposal.
● We can do our bit by carrying cloth or other natural fibre carry-bags when we go shopping
and by refusing polythene bags.
● Solid waste management is important to prevent land pollution.

Social pollution
● The change in the social structure of the country means social pollution.
● Examples: Poverty, Increasing pollution.

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

● The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is responsible for heating of
Earth’s surface and atmosphere. In case without greenhouse effect the average temperature
at surface of Earth would have been a chilly –18°C rather than the present average of 15°C.
● The present average temperature of earth is 15 °C (59F)
● Important Greenhouse gases and effects are:
o Water vapor (30-70%)
o Carbon dioxide (9-26%)
o Methane
o Nitrous oxide (N2O)
o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
● Increase the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating of Earth leading to
global warming. During the past century, the temperature of Earth has increased by 0.6°C,
most of it during the last three decades.
● The largest contributing source of greenhouse gas is the burning of fossil fuels leading to the
emission of carbon dioxide from industries, automobiles and domestic.
● The amount of methane in the atmosphere has doubled since the after the 18th century.
● Scientists believe that this rise in temperature is leading to deleterious changes in the
environment and resulting in odd climatic changes (example- El Nino effect) , thus leading to
increased melting of polar ice caps as well as of other places like the Himalayan snow caps.
Over many years, this will result in a rise in sea level that can submerge many coastal areas.
● Global warming can be controlled through measures which include cutting down use of
fossil fuel, improving efficiency of energy usage, reducing deforestation, planting trees and
slowing down the growth of human population. International initiatives are also being taken
to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Ozone Layer Depletion

● Ozone (O3) is an allotropic form of oxygen. Unlike the normal diatomic molecule of oxygen,
ozone is poisonous.
● Three molecules of oxygen combine to form ozone which forms a layer in stratosphere. And
it acts as a shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
● Ozone gas is continuously formed by the action of UV rays on molecular oxygen, and also
 degraded into molecular oxygen in the stratosphere. There should be a balance between
production and degradation of ozone in the stratosphere.
● The balance has been disrupted due to enhancement of ozone degradation by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs find widely used as refrigerants. This has resulted in
formation of a large area of thinned ozone layer, commonly called as the ozone hole.
● The thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the ground to the top of the atmosphere
is measured in terms of Dobson units (DU).

Some of the Ozone depleting substances are

● Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
● Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
● Hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs)
● Halons
● Methyl bromide
● Carbon tetrachloride
● Methyl chloroform

Effects of Ozone layer Depletion

● It causes aging of skin, damage to skin cells and various types of skin cancers.
● Immune deficiency disorders.
● In human eye, cornea absorbs UV-B radiation, and a high dose of UV-B causes inflammation
of cornea, called snow-blindness, cataract, etc.
● UV rays also affect plant growth and reducing agricultural productivity.

Montreal Protocol
Recognizing the deleterious effects of ozone depletion, an international treaty, known as the
Montreal Protocol, was signed at Montreal (Canada) in 1987 (effective in 1989) to control the
emission of ozone depleting substances.

Kyoto Protocol
● The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement setting targets for industrialized countries
to cut their greenhouse gas emissions.
● Certain gases like Carbon dioxide, Methane, Hydrofluorocarbons, etc. are considered at least
partly responsible for global warming - the rise in global temperature which may have
catastrophic consequences for life on Earth.
● The protocol was agreed to in 1997 in Kyoto in Japan, based on principles set out in UNFCCC.
● The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on 11 December 1997 and entered into
force on 16 February 2005.

Environment Conventions & Protocols

Name Year of Establishment

Ramsar Convention 1971
Stockholm Convention 2001
CITES 1973
Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
 Bonn Convention 1979
Vienna Convention 1985
Montreal Protocol 1987
Kyoto Protocol 1997
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992
Rio Summit 1992
UNCCD 1994
Basel Convention 1989
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 2000
UN-REDD 2008
Nagoya Protocol 2010
COP24 2018
COP21 2016
Kigali Amendment 2016
Minamata Convention 2013
Rotterdam Convention 1998
COP25 2019

Brief about Environmental Conventions

1. Ramsar Convention
● It is called the Convention on Wetlands
● It was adopted in the city of Iran, Ramsar in 1971.
● It came into force in 1975

2. Stockholm Convention
● It is a convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
● It was adopted in 2001 in Geneva, Switzerland.
● It came into force in 2004.

3. CITES
● It is a convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
● It was adopted in 1963.
● It came into force in 1975.

4. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

● It is a convention for the conservation of biological diversity.
● It was adopted in 1992
● It came into force in 1993.

5. Bonn Convention
● It is a Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
 ● It was adopted in 1979.
● It came into force in 1983.

6. Vienna Convention
● It is a convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer.
● It was adopted in 1985.
● It came into force in 1988.

7. Montreal Protocol
● It is an international environment protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer.
● It was adopted in 1987.
● It came into force in 1989.

8. Kyoto Protocol
● It is an international protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
● It was adopted in 1997.
● It came into force in 2005.

9. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

● It is an international environmental treaty governing actions to combat climate change
through adaptation and mitigation efforts directed at control of emission of GreenHouse
Gases (GHGs) that cause global warming.
● It was adopted in 1992.
● It came into force in 1994.

10. Rio Summit

● It is a United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.
● It was held in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

11. UNCCD
● It is a United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
● It was adopted in 1994.
● It came into force in 1996.

12. Basel Convention

● It is a convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
their Disposal.
● It was adopted in 1989.
● It came into force in 1992.

13. Cartagena Protocol

● It is an international environmental protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
● It was adopted in 2000.
● It came into force in 2003.

14. UN-REDD
 ● It is a United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation.
● It was created in 2008.

15. Nagoya Protocol

● It is an international environment protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and
Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD).
● It was adopted in 2010.
● It came into force in 2014.

16. COP24
● It is the 24th meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change.
● It took place in 2018.

17. COP21
● It is the 21st meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change.
● It took place in 2018.

18. Kigali Agreement

● It is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol.
● It was adopted in 2016.
● It came into force in 2019.

19. Minamata Convention

● It is an international environmental treaty intended to protect health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury.
● It was adopted in 2013.
● It came into force in 2017.

20. Rotterdam Convention

● It is an international environmental convention on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure
for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
● It was adopted in 1998.
● It came into force in 2004.

21. COP25
● It is the 25th meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
● It took place in 2019.

Important One Liners

● World environment day is celebrated on June 5.

● World Wetland Day is celebrated on February 2.
● International Day for biodiversity is observed On May 22.
● Two components of ecosystem are Abiotic and biotic.
● The term Ecology was coined by Haeckel.
● The earth is surrounded by huge blanket of air is called atmosphere.
● Part of earth having water resources like ocean, river, pond and lakes are called
Hydrosphere.
● The part of the earth where all life is found is called the biosphere.
● Lichens used as air pollution indicator.
● Pollution of river water is measured by dissolved amount of Oxygen.
● E-wastes are generated from Discarded electronic equipment.
● Ecosystem consists of producers, consumers, Decomposers and Abiotic factors.
● Energy flows in an Ecosystem is always unidirectional.
● Largest share in global mangrove areas are found in Indonesia.
● The Montreal Protocol is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer.
● The ‘thickness’ of Ozone layer is measured in Dobson unit.
● The ozone layer is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs the Sun's ultraviolet
radiation.
● Ozone Layer is made up of three oxygen atoms.
● Food chain Start with producers.
● In food chain humans are Primary and secondary consumer.
● Bacteria and fungi are called Decomposers.
● Food web is Interlinked arrangement of food chain.
● The major pollutant from automobile exhaust is carbon monoxide.
● Acid rain is formed due to the contribution from oxides of Sulphur and nitrogen.
● Source of geothermal Energy is Earth.
● Problem of solid waste disposal can be reduced through Recycling.
● Sewage treatment is the process of treatment of wastewater.
● Gas that traps heat in the atmosphere is called Greenhouse gases. These greenhouse gases
include water vapor, CO2, methane, nitrous oxide (N2O), Chlorofluorocarbons.
● Greenhouse gas chlorofluorocarbon is produced from Refrigerator.
● Ozone layer depletion causes increased UV radiation levels at the Earth's surface. which is
damaging to human health. which includes skin cancers, eye cataracts and
immunodeficiency disorders.
● Deforestation causes Soil erosion, Loss of biodiversity and Disturbance in hydrological cycle.
● Consumers that eat animal flesh as well as plants and plant products are called omnivores/
● All Carnivorous animals are Predators.
● Thunderstorm and lightning convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates.
● Volcano is natural source of pollution.
● Noise pollution is created if noise is in excess to 80-99 dB.
● Fish aquarium is an example of artificial ecosystem.
● Natural gas, coal and petroleum are the example of fossil fuels.
● Constant flow of energy is from producer to consumer.
● Representation of biomass energy present in different levels of food chain is classified as
biological pyramid.
● More than 70 % of worlds freshwater are contained in polar ice and glaciers and about 30%
is found in ground water.
● BOD stands for Biochemical oxygen demand.
● A river with high BOD value is highly polluted.
● Lichen is the best indicator of SO2 pollution.
● Oceans are considered to be the most stable ecosystem in nature.
● The conservation of selected plants and animals in selected areas outside their natural
habitat is known as ex- situ conservation. It includes botanical gardens, zoological gardens
and germplasm bank.
● The conservation with in natural habitat is known as In-situ conservation. It includes
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biospheres reserve etc.
● The earthworm is referred as a farmer’s friend.
● A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source. Examples:
Hydrocarbons, Carbon monoxide, Sulfur oxides, Nitrogen oxides, lead.
● A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, it forms when other pollutants
(primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere Examples: ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur
trioxide.
● Trophic levels are formed by different organisms linked in a food chain.
● The Pyramid of energy in Terrestrial ecosystem is always upright.
● Salim Ali Was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist.
● Earth Day is an annual event celebrated around the world on April 22 to demonstrate
support for environmental protection.
● The lowest layer of the atmosphere is known as troposphere.
● Photosynthesis is a process used by the plants make food with the help of the Sun.
● The Green Gold revolution is related to the Promotion and trade of Bamboo.
● Savanna grasslands are found between tropical rainforest and desert. They are mostly
located near the equator. The largest savanna is located in Africa.
● Eutrophication means enrichment of plants nutrients in water bodies. The most common
nutrients causing eutrophication are nitrogen and phosphorus.
● Biotic components are the living things that shape an ecosystem. Examples of biotic
components include animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria etc.
● Abiotic components are non-living components that influence an ecosystem. Examples of
abiotic factors are temperature, air currents, and minerals.
● Percentage of Nitrogen in earth atmosphere is 78%.
● Largest reservoir of Nitrogen in Atmosphere.
● Roots of plant contains nitrogen fixing bacteria.
● Percentage of Oxygen in earth atmosphere is 21%.
● Percentage of carbon dioxide present in atmospheric is 0.0391%.
● Earth's body temperature is approximately equal to 16.4°C.
● Bhopal gas tragedy occurred due to the leakage of Methyl Isocyanate. Bhopal Gas Tragedy
happened in 2 December 1984.
● Estuary means the tidal mouth of a large river.
● As per BIS recommendation, the pH for drinking water should be of the range 6.5 to 8.5.
● Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is the best environmentally clean alternative fuel.
● Hydrogen is considered as energy source of future.
● Hydrogen is found on earth in combination with Oxygen. Most of the hydrogen on Earth is in
the form of water.
● Methane is the main component in natural gas. Percentage of methane content of biogas is
 50–75 %.
● Biodegradable pollutants are pollutants that are broken down naturally by micro-organisms
and are not harmful to the environment. Examples are sewage, paper products, vegetables,
juice, seeds and leaves.
● The non-biodegradable pollutants are the one that cannot be broken down into smaller,
harmless and simpler substances.
● The loudness of a sound that a person can withstand without discomfort is about 80 db.
● 3R of Energy conservation is reduce, reuse and recycle.
RRB ALP Exam
Study Material for Basic Science &
Engineering
 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

Safety is a discipline which requires identification and control of causal factors in engineering
in order to provide value to organizations. There are many goals of engineering safety and
some of these are as follows:
● Reduce accidents
● Control or eliminate hazards
● Develop new methods on safety efforts
● Maximize public confidence with respect to product safety

Important Definition:
● Safety: This is conservation of human life and its effectiveness and the prevention of
damage to items as per mission requirements.
● Unsafe condition: This is any condition under the right set of conditions that will
result in an accident.
● Accident: This is an unplanned and undesired event.
● Safety Management: This is the accomplishment of safety through the efforts of
others. Hazard: This is the source of energy and the physiological and behavioral
factors which when uncontrolled effectively, result in harmful occurrences.
● Safe: This is protected against any possible hazard.
● Safety Management work: This is accomplishing safety by using per suasive
approaches and information in a closed loop system.
● Safety assessment: This is qualitative/quantitative determination of safety.
● Safeguard: This is a barrier guard, device, or procedure developed to protect people.
Safety movement: This started during World War II when all of the various
practitioners of occupational health and safety realized the desperate need for
cooperative efforts.
● Unsafe act: This is an act that is not safe for and individual/employee.
● Accident report: This is a document that records the findings of an accident
investigation the accident cause/causes and the recommended measures.
● Unsafe behavior: This is the manner in which an individual conducts himself/herself
that is unsafe to himself/herself or others.
● Hazard control: This is a means of lowering the risk from exposure from a perceived
hazard.
● Injury: This is a wound or other specific/certain damage.
● Safety plan: This is a series of procedures followed to enable all safety related
requirements of an item to be identified ans satisfied.
● Software process: This is a series of procedures followed to enable all safety related
requirements of an item to be identified and satisfied.
● Software safety: This is the freedom from software related hazard.
● Software hazard: This is a software condition prerequisite to an accident.

Hazard and It’s type

A hazard is any practice, behavior or condition or combination of these that can cause injury
or illness to people or damage to property.
Material Handling Hazards
● Manual material handling can involve lifting, carrying, lowering, pushing, and pulling.
● All of these activities can lead to muscle strains, tears and pulls of the back,
shoulders, arms and abdomen. Handling of hazardous materials, such as corrosives,
flammables and reactive is another key area.

Machine Hazards
● Any machine can be a hazard, especially those with moving parts that can get
tangled in a worker’s clothes or come into contact with a worker’s body.

Energy Hazards
● Workers can be seriously injured by the sudden movement of machine components,
electrical shock or other releases of energy when they are adjusting or maintaining
equipment.

Work Practice Hazards

● Failure to have or to follow safe work practices is a significant cause of injuries.
● Performing work safely in accordance with established safe work procedures is a
fundamental element in the control of safety hazards.

Confined Space Hazards

● Confined spaces are workspaces where hazardous gases, vapours, dusts or fumes
may build up or where an oxygen-deficient atmosphere may be created.
● Examples include: storage tanks, vaults, pits, vats, silos, pipelines, ducts and tunnels.

Physical Hazards
● Physical hazards are forms of energy that can harm the body if exposed.

Chemical Hazards
● Chemical hazards can take the form of solids, liquids, vapors, gases, dusts, fumes or
mists.

Biological Hazards
● Biological hazards are living things or substances produced by living things that can
cause illness in humans.

Ergonomic or Work Design Hazards

● Ergonomic hazards arise from the design and organization of work. They can harm
the body by placing strain on the musculoskeletal system and overloading the
muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, nerves and blood vessels.

Stress or Psychosocial Hazards

● Workplace stressors can lead to excess stress or distress and have been identified as
important factors in many types of illness, including heart disease and high blood
pressure.

Accident Causation Theory

 ● The domino theory is operationalized in the statements known as the axioms of
safety and assumes that there are five specific factors in the sequence of events
leading up to an accident (i.e., ancestry/social environment, fault of person, unsafe
act/mechanical or physical hazard, accident, and injury).
● The human factor theory assumes the occurrence of accidents to a chain of events
ultimately caused by human error and in turn human error is caused by three broad
factors inappropriate response, overload, and inappropriate activities.
● The fundamental basis of the epidemiological theory is that the models used for
studying the relationships between environmental factors and disease can also be
utilized to determine causal relationships between accidents and environmental
factors.
● The accident/incident theory is basically an extension of the human factors theory
and it introduces new elements such as the decision to err, systems failure, and
ergonomic traps.
● The systems theory assumes any condition in which an accident might occur as a
system with three specific elements: environment, human or person (host), and
machine (agency).
● The combination theory tells that no one individual model theory can describe all
accidents as their actual causes may combine parts of various different models.

Safety Management

Safety policy includes the following:

● The Health and Safety at Work Act says we need to set our policy out in writing and
then bring it into effect.
● Most businesses set out their policy in three parts:
o The statement of intent section sets out our commitment to managing
health, safety and the environment effectively and what you want to achieve.
o The organization section states who is responsible for what.
o The arrangements sections are the detail of what we are going to do in
practice to achieve the aims set out in your statement of intent.

Safety Promotion
● Although safety can to some extent be engineered into equipment and processes, it
is still necessary to motivate employees to perform their’ work safely. An effective
safety program must be persuasive; it must provide a stimulus to which employees
will” respond positively.

Safety Committee
● A safety committee is most useful mechanism for facilitating the necessary
co-operative effort that is essential to success in accident prevention.
● It should consist of representatives from top management, supervision from the
workers. It should act as an advisory body and meet regularly.

Safety Functionaries

There are a number of specialized safety functionaries known by different designations such
as safety-officers, safety advisers, safety directors, who are mainly appointed to administer
the organization’s safety policies and programs.

Safety Officer
● Safety officer advise and assist the factory management in the fulfillment of its
obligations, stationary or otherwise, concerning prevention of personal injuries and
maintaining a safe working environment.
● The safety officer is to performer the duty of the psychologist. He can create a much
wider and quicker acceptance or industrial psychology as a practical aid in safe and
efficient production.

Safety Director
● Safety director is the head of safety functionaries. The director of safety performs a
number of significant tasks which are as follows:
o Formulation and administration of the safety program.
o Acquisition of the latest and best hazard control information.
o Advising on safety-related issues, to managers at all levels.
o Reporting to top management periodically, on a regular basis, on the
organization’s safety effort.

Safety Adviser
● The functions of the safety advisor is advisory, leaving executive decisions.
● The functions of the safety advisor is advisory, leaving executive decisions for line
managers. The role and function of the safety adviser will normally include:
o Monitoring the implementation of the organization’s health and safety policy.
o Advising line management to assist them in meeting some of their health and
safety responsibilities.

Safety Engineer
● Safety engineer in many industry and government operations generates an inherent
dichotomy since the responsibility of safety engineers may involve making decisions
that can slow production, delay testing, and otherwise impede the organization’s
overall assigned mission.
● This puts the safety engineer in the position of being an outsider to the production
organization on which his or her decisions may have the greatest impact.
● The safety engineer must be free of coercion in making decisions and, must not be
under the influence of the production group, which might tend to interpret safety
considerations by their effect on production levels or schedule.
● The responsibilities of safety engineers may include the preparation of safety
procedures and other safety related documents, safety training, issuance and control
of personal safety equipment, consultation and advice on safety aspects of new or
changed processes, and inspection of ongoing work to ensure that appropriate safety
requirements are being followed.
● Safety engineers generally work closely with reliability and quality assurance
personnel and, in some organizations, these two functions may be placed in the
same group.

Safety Department
 ● In every organization for effective safety and health management a well-organized
safety department is constituted to establish the norms and guidelines for the
provision of safety of sites, employees, materials, equipment and structures.
● To prepare checklists, manuals, and other documents for use by the line
management' in carrying out their functions.
● To supervise safety at site and within the organization.
● To give advice on all safety matters in accordance with the safety policy.
● To maintain all safety records, prepare reports and monitor the same to all
concerned.
● To conduct safety training in the organization.
● To carry out safety audit periodically.
● To discharge all statutory obligations of the organization regarding safety, and
maintain liaison with the government safety machinery and other industry
association.
● To organize competitions, posters, melas and such other activities that promote
safety consciousness amongst employees.

Safety Planning
● Planning is the process of deciding in advance the future course of action. Planning is
must for achieving industrial safety.
● Planning forms the backbone of any management activity including industrial safety
management.
● Planning for safety includes considerations like role of employees/management,
participation of workers, experience of workers, age and other factors of workers,
actual working procedures and conditions etc.

Safety Audit
● The objective of the audit is to determine the effectiveness of the organization’s
safety and loss prevention measures and this can be broadly stated as under:
o To carry out a systematic critical appraisal of all potential hazards involving
personnel, plant and machinery and the work methods.
o To ensure the standards set for occupational health and safety fully satisfy the
legal requirements as well as management’s laid down safety promotional
programmers.
● Safety audit examines and assesses in detail the standards of all facets of a particular
activity.

Occupational Safety and Health

● Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many
specialized fields. It encompasses the social, mental and physical well- being of
workers, that is the “whole person”.
● Occupational health comprises the identification, evaluation and control of processes
and substances that may harm people, cause their discomfort or damage their
environment.
● Safety is an organized and conscience effort to prevent accidents and minimize risks.
Common human tendency, one quite often neglects safety. One looks at it only when
an accident takes place.
 ● The purpose of the act is to assure working men and women safe and healthful
working conditions. The act is applicable to every employer engaged in business
affecting commerce.
● It is not for the self-employed or to workers to the extent they are covered by other
federal safety and health laws. It was first signed at U.S. in December 1970.

In India
● The principal health and safety laws are based on British factory Act 1948, and has
been amended in 1954, 1976, 1987.
● Following the Bhopal gas disaster, a special chapter on occupational and safety to
safeguard workers employed in hazardous industries was added.
● Other key legislation dealing with occupational safety and health (OSH) are:
o Mines act (1952), Dock workers act, 1986, Plantation labor act 1951,
Petroleum act 1934, Insecticide act 1968, Indian Boiler act 1923, Indian
atomic-energy act 1962, Radiological protection act 1971, Manufacture,
storage and import of hazardous chemicals rules 199, Electricity act 2002.
● The Constitution of India contains specific provisions on occupational safety and
health of workers. Article 24 states that no child below the age of 14 years shall be
employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous
employment.
● The Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labor Institutes (DGFASLI) and
the Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) the two field institutes of Labor
Ministry strive to achieve the principles enshrined in the Constitution of India in the
area of occupational safety and health in factories, mines, and ports.

Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labor Institutes (DGFASLI)

● The Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labor Institutes, Mumbai,
which is an attached office of the Ministry of Labor functions as a technical arm of
the Ministry in matters concerned with safety, health and welfare of workers in
factories and docks. It assists the Central Government in formulation and review of
policy

Directorate General of Mines Safety

● The Directorate General of Mines Safety is a ’subordinate office of the Ministry of
Labor. It has its headquarters at Dhanbad with its zonal, regional and sub regional
offices spread all over mining areas.
● It is entrusted with the responsibility, of enforcing the provisions of the Mines Act,
1952, and the Rules and Regulations framed thereunder in coal, metal/ ferrous and
oil mines.

National Safety Council

● The main objective of the Council which is an independent and self-supporting
national level institution, has been to generate, develop and maintain a movement of
safety awareness at the national level.
● To achieve this objective, the Council conducts a variety of educational, training and
promotional activities.

12th Five year Plan Schemes in Respect to Safety

During the 12th five year plan period (2012- 2017), DGFASLI process to operate the following
seven plan schemes:
● Strengthening of DGFASLI organization and OSH in factories.
● Strengthening of enforcement system in ports and docks.
● Development of regional labor institute, Faridabad as Centre of excellence in safety
systems in MSME & Chemical process units.
● Effective implementation of systems at work place in Manufacturing and port sector.
● Identification, Elimination and control of Silicosis in India.
● Identification, Elimination and control of Asbestosis in India.
● Strengthening of enforcement systems in factories-establishment of industrial safety,
occupational health and work environment Centre in the state factory directorate.
RRB ALP Exam
Study Material for Basic Science &
Engineering
 LEVERS AND SIMPLE MACHINES
Levers
● A lever is a type of simple machine that is used to lift the heavy loads. It consists of
three parts, effort arm, fulcrum, and load arm.

● Load (or) Weight - The force overcome by the effort is called load or weight (W).
● Effort (or) power - The force applied to lift the load is called effort or power (P).
● Fulcrum - It is a fixed point in the machine around which the machine rotates (F).

Mechanical Advantage
● In a simple machine when the effort (P) balances a load (W) the ratio of the load to
the effort is called the mechanical advantage of the machine. It is simply expressed in
a number.

Mechanical advantage (M.A)

MA = Load/Effort = W/P

Velocity Ratio
● It is the ratio between the distances moved by the effort to the distance moved by
the load. It is also expressed in a number.

Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by the effort (dp)/Distance moved by the load (dw)

Efficiency of Machine
● The ratio of output to the input of a machine is known as efficiency.
● In simple machines, the ratio of mechanical advantage to the velocity ratio is also
known as the efficiency of the machine.
● Efficiency is generally expressed in percentage.

Efficiency = Output/Input

% Efficiency = Output/Input x 100%

Relation between M.A., V.R., and η

Efficiency = Output/Input = Load x Distance moved by the load/Effort x Distance moved by
the effort

Efficiency = Load/Effort x Distance moved by the load/Distance moved by the effort

Efficiency = Mechanical Advantage x 1/Velocity Ratio

Efficiency (η) = Mechanical Advantage/Velocity Ratio = (MA/VR)%

Ideal Machine
● In an ideal machine, the mechanical advantage is equal to the velocity ratio. So,
efficiency is 100% or unity.
● Load Arm: The distance of the load from the fulcrum is called the load arm
● Effort Arm: The distance of the effort from the fulcrum is called the effort arm
● Principle of Lever: Load × Load arm = Effort × Effort Arm

Types of Lever

Levers are of three types depending upon the positions of fulcrum with respect to load and
effort.
1. First class lever
2. Second class lever
3. Third class lever
Class 1 Lever

● A Class 1 lever has the fulcrum placed between the effort and load.
● The movement of the load is in the opposite direction of the movement of the effort.
● Eg: A pair of scissors, See – saw, Crow bar, Beam balance, Hand pump etc.
● Mechanical advantage may be greater than, less than, or equal to 1
Class 2 Lever

● A Class 2 lever has the load between the effort and the fulcrum.
● In this type of lever, the movement of the load is in the same direction as that of the
effort.
● Eg: Nut crackers, wheel barrows, doors, Lime squeezer and bottle openers etc.
● Mechanical advantage is always greater than 1 (Effort Multiply)

(Effort Arm > Load Arm so MA > 1)

Class 3 Lever

● A Class 3 lever has the effort between the load and the fulcrum.
● Both the effort and load are in the same direction.
● Eg: Human forearm, forceps, broom, fire tongs, fishing rod, and shovels etc.
● Mechanical advantage is always less than 1
Trick to remember types of Lever

Simple Machines
● Simple machine is a device with few or no moving parts that are used to modify
motion and force in order to perform work.
● Simple machines have only one or two parts, they don’t have motors and they make
work easier for people by changing the direction or the size of a force applied to it.
● A hammer is a machine. Work is done on the handle, which in turn does work on the
head of the mail, which does work on a nail.
● There are a simple machine and complex machine. Lever, punching machine,
crowbar, bottle opener, etc. are examples of the simple machine while motorcycle,
truck, car, etc. are some examples of the complex machine.

Six Types of Simple Machines

1. Levers
2. Screw Jack
3. Wheel and axle
 4. Pulleys
5. Inclined Plane
6. Wedge

Lever
● Lever is a type of simple machine that is used to lift the heavy loads. It is a rigid bar
that moves about a fixed point, fulcrum.
● Example: Cutting plier, A pair of scissors, Crowbar, Beam balance, Hand pump.
● It consists of three parts: Effort, Fulcrum and Load.
● The distance of the load from the fulcrum is called the load arm. The distance of the
effort from the fulcrum is called the effort arm.

Wheel and Axle

● A wheel and axle is a wheel with a rod in it that is called an axle and it is used to lift,
move loads or rotate through the central power.
● Examples of a wheel & axle can be found on any bicycle tire as well as a simple rolling
pin.
Screw
● A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a nail. It consists of circular edges called
thread.
● The effort is applied to the head of the screw.
● Example: Screw, Jackscrew, etc.

Pulley
● A pulley is a simple machine used for lifting goods. It consists of small wheel made of
metal or wood with a groove cut on its circumference. A light rope passes over the
grooved rim.
● It can rotate about an axle passing through its center. The axle of the pulley is
supported on a frame known as the block.
● The load is attached to one end of the rope which passes over the pulley and the
effort is applied at the other end. The effort applied is equal to the load to be lifted.

Types of Pulley

1. Fixed pulley: If the block of a pulley if fixed, then it is called fixed pulley. The load is
attached to one end of the rope and effort is applied at the other end.

2. Movable pulley: If the block of a pulley is movable, then it is called movable pulley.
In a movable pulley, one end of the rope is attached to a fixed support and other
ends first pass through the movable pulley and then fixed pulley.
Inclined Plane
● It is a sloping surface or a wooden plank. It multiplies the applied effort. A sloping
surface is called an inclined plane, from the following figure.
● BC – Horizontal plane, BA – Inclined plane
● The angle between the inclined and horizontal plane is known as the angle of
inclination.

● By applying a suitable effort, a load can be raised up the slope or lowered down the
slope of the plane.
● E.g.: Ladder, an escalator, a staircase

The principle of Inclined Plane

● The inclined plane is a slope. It is a basic mechanical device to lift a body to a certain
height with less effort.
● To lift a body to a certain height, we have to apply a force on the body. Now in an
inclined plane only pushing force parallel to the inclined plane is used.

Wedge
● A wedge is a triangular shaped tool. Wedge consists of two or more sloping surfaces
with one end sharp or pointed edge while the other one is a blunt edge.
● Examples: Axe, knife, nail, sickle, etc.