3 GPS AND GNSS

1. What is GPS? Explain the various GPS components.

1. The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS is a satellite-
based radio navigation system owned by the United States government
Operated by the United States Space Force.
2. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides
geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near
the Earth
3. The first prototype spacecraft was launched in 1978 and the full
constellation of 24 satellites became operational in 1993. Originally limited
to use by the United States military, civilian use was allowed from the 1980
4. This satellite system is congestive of 31 satellites situated almost 20,000 km
above the earth’s surface. It is used on land, sea and air to determine
location, time and velocity irrespective of weather conditions.
Components of GPS and Their Functions
1. Space Component
2. Control Component
3. User Segment
1. Space Component This component comprises the satellites that orbit the earth
at an altitude of20,000 km above the earth surface with a period of 12 hours. Their
orbits are designed in a way such that 6 satellites are always within a line of sight
from any location on the earth so that at least 4 Satellites are available for
observations throughout the year at any time anywhere in the world.
2. Control Component The control component consists of three sub-components:
1. Master Control System 2. Monitor Station 3. Ground Antenna
All these sub-components together check the movement and proper functioning of
the satellites.
3. User Segment the User Segment comprises the GPS receiver. GPS receivers are
present in smartphones, tablets, pcs etc. which receives GPS signals and determine
their location from the satellite.

Remote Sensing and GIS 3. GPS AND GNSS

 2. What is GNSS? Explain various GNSS
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), a constellation of navigation
satellites, has made it feasible to establish the three-dimensional position of an
object on any part of the Earth or in space
Two important Points to understand GNSS are
1. Navigation: It is the defined as the process of monitoring and controlling the
movement of a craft or vehicle or a person from one place to another within
a particular framework.
2. Satellite-based positioning: Satellite-based positioning is the process of
determination of positions of observing sites on land or at sea, in the air and
in space by means of artificial satellites

Remote Sensing and GIS 3. GPS AND GNSS

 3. IRNSS (Architecture and Application)
1. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is an independent,
indigenously developed satellite navigation system fully planned, established
and controlled by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
2. It provides accurate position services to Indian users. It has primary service
area of about 1500 kilometres extending from its boundary
3. It basically provides two types of Services Standard Positioning Services
(SPS) and Restricted Services (RS) respectively.

Architecture of IRNSS
1. Space Segment
2. Ground Segment
3. User Segment

1. IRNSS SPACE SEGMENT: The IRNSS constellation is a hybrid of GSO

(Geosynchronous Orbit) and IGSO (Inclined geosynchronous orbit)
satellites, depending on multiple considerations.
2. IRNSS GROUND SEGMENT: The IRNSS constellation's maintenance
and operation are the responsibility of the Ground Segment. The Ground
segment is made up of the following elements:
• ISRO Navigation Centre
• IRNSS Spacecraft Control Facility
• IRNSS Range and Integrity Monitoring Stations
• IRNSS Network Timing Centre
• IRNSS CDMA Ranging Station
• Laser Ranging Stations
• Data Communication Network
3. USER SEGMENT: The user section comprises mostly of:
a) A single frequency IRNSS receiver capable of receiving SPS signals at
frequencies in the L5 or S bands.
b) An IRNSS dual-frequency receiver that can receive both L5 and S band
frequencies.
c) A receiver that can receive IRNSS and other GNSS signals.

Remote Sensing and GIS 3. GPS AND GNSS

 Applications of IRNSS
1. Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation
2. Disaster Management
3. Vehicle tracking and fleet management
4. Integration with mobile phones
5. Precise Timing
6. Mapping and Geodetic data capture
7. Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
8. Visual and voice navigation for drivers
4 Various Types of GPS Tracking System
a) Personal Tracking: Personal Tracking with GPS is the ability for any
person to locate another person, object or thing with the use of a device that
receives information from the GPS satellite network in space. It includes
some sort of transmitter which sends data from satellite to end user.
b) Asset Tracking: A GPS asset tracking system includes asset tracking
devices combined with an asset tracking platform, allowing user to gain
complete asset visibility and control and maximize asset utilization.
c) Vehicle Tracking: A cellular GPS tracker directly communicates with the
cell tower for sending the location and other vehicle performance data to the
server over the cellular wireless network. Users can view the information
using phone application or through software using computer or laptop.
• Cell based GPS Vehicle Tracking: This system uses a device to capture data
from the vehicle and then reports the data by using cell towers. As compared
to satellite tracking, cell-based vehicle tracking costs less and reports faster.
• Satellite based GPS Vehicle Tracking: Sometimes, cell-based vehicle
tracking will not work because cell towers are unavailable in the area.
Satellite tracking offers a solution to this problem. Through satellite
networks, businesses can get updates from even the most remote locations.
• Cellular based Tracking: Some businesses use cell phones as a GPS tracker.
The process is very trouble-free. User has to install application on phone and
the installed application uses Internet data to record and report its location.

Remote Sensing and GIS 3. GPS AND GNSS

 5 Application of GNSS
a) Application of GNSS in Surveying: Survey Grade GNSS receivers are
used to position survey markers, road construction as well as building
construction. These units use the signals from both the frequencies of
GNSS namely L1 and L2. The carrier wave of signal correction of some
ionospheric errors
b) Application of GNSS in Mapping: Mapping grade GNSS receivers use
carrier wave data from only one frequency i.e. L1. It has a precise crystal
oscillator which reduces errors related to receiver clock jitter. With a
DGPS signal received using separate radio receiver, it allows real time
positioning error of one meter or less.
c) Application of GNSS in Navigation: Automobiles are equipped with
GNSS receivers at the factory. Units of GNSS display moving maps with
information about location, speed, direction, nearby streets and point of
interests.

6 Differential GPS (DGPS)

Differential GPS (DGPS) was created to address the needs of location and distance-
measuring applications that demanded the highest levels of precision. The DGPS
principle states that any two receivers placed close together will have identical
atmospheric errors. The installation of a GPS receiver on a precisely known location
is a necessity for DGPS.
Source of Errors of DGPS
1. Ephemeris Error: These are errors in the ephemeris data. They range in size
from a few meters to decimetres.
2. ionospheric and Tropospheric Propagation Delay: The satellite signal is
slowed as it passes through the ionosphere and troposphere because the signal's
velocity is impacted These propagation delays have the potential to cause an error.
3. Satellite Clock Drift: Even though the satellite's clock are incredibly accurate (to
around 3 nanoseconds), a minor drift in this clock generates minor mistakes that
have a significant impact on the position's accuracy.
4. Multipath: When the reception antenna is placed near a big reflecting surface,
such as a lake or a building, multipath error arises.

Remote Sensing and GIS 3. GPS AND GNSS

 4. Image Processing and Analysis
Image Processing
It is one of the fastest growing technologies today, with its use in various business
sectors. Graphic Design forms the core of the research space within the engineering
and computer science industry as well.
Image processing is a way by which an individual can enhance the quality of an image
or gather alerting insights from an image and feed it to an algorithm to predict the
later things.
Need of Image Processing
1. Image processing is often regarded as improperly exploiting the image in
order to achieve a level of beauty or to support a popular reality. However,
image processing is most accurately described as a means of translation
between a human viewing system and digital imaging devices.
2. Significant differences between human and digital detectors will be
demonstrated, as well as specific processing steps to achieve translation.
Image editing should be approached in a scientific way so that others can
reproduce, and validate human results.
3. Currently, image processing is in the midst of rapid growth technology. It
forms the main research area within engineering and computer science
commands as well.
Steps in Image Processing
1. Image Acquisition: This is the first digital step in image processing. Digital
image detection to create specific images, such as a real or real situation
internal arrangement of an object.
2. Image Enhancement: Image enhancement is a process of switching digital
images to more results suitable for display or multiple image analysis.
3. Image Restoration: Image Restoration is a function of taking an
unethical/noisy image and measuring an unused, new image. Exploitation
can occur in many ways such as action blurring, sound and camera focus.
4. Colouring Image Processing: Colour Image processing it requires an
understanding of the physics of light as well colour vision phycology.
5. Wavelets processing and Multiple Solutions: When Decorated photo thru
atmosphere, clouds, trees, and flowers, you will use a different level brush
depending on the size of topographies. Wavelets are likened to those brushes.
Wavelets transform is an effective tool for image representation. The wavelet
transform allows for the investigation of multiple solutions of the image.

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 6. Image compression: Image compression is a type of data useful pressure
digital photography, reducing their costs last or spread.
7. Character recognition Optical character binding, commonly accessed by
OCR, machine operated or electronic replacement of scanned images or
kindly or typed text that is, computer-readable text. It is often used as a
presence to access records from the minute a new type of data source.

Digital Image
An image is a two-dimensional representation of objects in a real scene. Remote
sensing images are representations of parts of the earth surface as seen from space.
Aerial photographs are examples of analog images while satellite images acquired
using electronic sensors are examples of digital images.
A digital image is a two-dimensional array of pixels. Each pixel has an intensity value
(represented by a digital number) and a location address (referenced by its row and
column numbers)
Multilayer Image
Several types of measurement may be made from the ground area covered by a single
pixel. Each type of measurement forms an image which carries some specific
information about the area. By "stacking" these images from the same area together,
a multilayer image is formed. Each component image is a layer in the multilayer
image. Multilayer images can also be formed by combining images obtained from
different sensors, and other subsidiary data.
Multispectral Image
A multispectral image consists of a few image layers, each layer represents an
image acquired at a particular wavelength band. A multispectral IKONOS image
consists of four bands: Blue, Green, Red and Near Infrared, while a LANDSAT TM
multispectral image consists of seven bands: blue, green, red, near-IR bands, two
SWIR bands, and a thermal IR band.

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 Super spectral Image
The more recent satellite sensors are capable of acquiring images at many more wavelength
bands. The bands have narrower bandwidths, enabling the finer spectral characteristics of
the targets to be captured by the sensor. The term "super spectral" has been coined to
describe such sensors.

Hyper Spectral Image

A hyperspectral image consists of about a hundred or more adjacent spectral bands. The
characteristic spectrum of the target pixel is acquired in a hyperspectral image. The precise
spectral information contained in a hyperspectral image enables better characterisation and
identification of targets. Hyperspectral images have potential applications in such fields as
precision agriculture

Visual Image Interpretation and Digital interpretation (merits and Demerits)

4.Visual Image Interpretation

Visual image interpretation is a process of identifying features seen on the images by an
analyst/interpreter and communication of information obtained from these images to others
for evaluating their significance” Visual image interpretation is very useful in various fields such
as geography geology, agriculture, forestry, environment, ocean studies, wetlands,
conservation of natural resources, urban and regional planning, defence and many other
purposes

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 Basic Elements of Visual Interpretation
1. Tone-Tone refers to the colour or relative brightness of an object in colour image and the
relative and quantitative shades of grey in black and white image. The tonal variation is
due to the reflection, transmission or absorption characteristic of an object
2. Size- Objects can be misinterpreted if their sizes are not evaluated properly. Size of
objects in an image is a function of scale hence, the size of objects must be considered in
the context of the scale of a photograph/image.
3. Shape-Shape relates to the general form, configuration or outline of an individual object.
Shape is one of the most important single factors for recognizing objects from images
4. Texture-Texture is an expression of roughness or smoothness as exhibited by the images.
It is the rate of change of tonal values Texture signifies the frequency of change and
arrangement of tones in an image and is produced by an aggregate of unit features too
small to be clearly recognised individually on an image
5. Association- Association is occurrence of features in relation to its surroundings.
Sometimes a single feature by itself may not be distinctive enough to permit its
identification.
6. Shadow-The outline or shape of a shadow provides a profile view of objects, which aids
in image interpretation and objects within shadow reflect little light and are difficult to
distinguish on Visual Image Interpretation image, which hinders interpretation.
7. Site- Site refers to the topographic position, for example, sewage treatment facilities are
positioned at low topographic sites near stream or rivers to collect waste flowing through
the system from higher locations
8. Pattern-Pattern develops in an image due to spatial arrangement of objects. Hence,
pattern can be defined as the spatial arrangement of objects in an image. Certain objects
can be easily identified because of their pattern.
Interpretation keys
“An interpretation key is a set of guidelines used to assist interpreters in rapidly identifying
features”.
Determination of the type of key and the method of presentation to be employed will
depend upon,

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 a) The number of objects or conditions to be identified
b) The variability typically encountered within each class of features or objects within the
key
keys are more easily constructed and used for the identification of man-made objects and
features than for natural vegetation and landforms.
Depending upon the manner in which the diagnostic features are organized, two types of
keys are generally recognized.
1) Selective keys
2) Elimination keys.
Selective keys are arranged in such a way that an interpreter simply selects that example
that most closely corresponds to the object they are trying to identify, e.g., industries,
landforms etc.
Elimination Keys are arranged so that the interpreter follows a precise step-wise process
that leads to the elimination of all items except the one(s) that they are is trying to identify

Interpretation Keys for Forest Mapping

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 Spectral signatures curve
Spectral signature is the variation of reflectance or emittance of a material with respect to
wavelengths (i.e., reflectance/emittance as a function of wavelength). The spectral signature
of stars indicates the composition of the stellar atmosphere

Digital Image Processing

Digital image processing involves numerous procedures including formatting and correcting
of the data, digital enhancement to facilitate better visual interpretation, or even automated
classification of targets and features entirely by computer
Most of the Common Image Processing Function
1. Pre-processing Preprocessing functions involve operations that are normally
required prior to the main data analysis and extraction of information, and are
generally grouped as radiometric or geometric corrections.
2. Image enhancement the objective of image enhancement is to improve the
appearance of the imagery to assist in visual interpretation and analysis.
3. Image Transformation Image transformations usually involve combined processing
of data from multiple spectral bands. These operations include various methods of
spectral or band ratio, and a procedure called principal component analysis, which is
used to represent the information in multi-channel imagery
4. Image Classification and Analysis Image classification and analysis operations are
used to digitally identify and classify pixels in the data. There are a variety of
approaches taken to perform digital classification.

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 Preprocessing of Digital Image
Preprocessing operations, sometimes referred to as image restoration and rectification, are
intended to correct for sensor and platform-specific radiometric and geometric distortions of
data. Radiometric corrections may be necessary due to variations in scene illumination and
viewing geometry, atmospheric conditions, and sensor noise and response.
Each of these will vary depending on the specific sensor and platform used to acquire the
data and the conditions during data acquisition. Also, it may be desirable to convert and
calibrate the data to known radiation or reflectance units to facilitate comparison between
data
Post processing of Digital Image
Post processing is the process of editing the data captured by a camera while taking the
photo taken to enhance the image. The better the data captured from a camera to create the
photo the better the enhancement possibility is. There are more and more cameras which
have come into market which can capture RAW files. Raw files have much more data at a
pixel level which help in post processing and enhancing the image
Image Enhancement
1. Image enhancements are used to make it easier for visual interpretation and
understanding of imagery. The advantage of digital imagery is that it allows us to
manipulate the digital pixel values in an image
2. Remote sensing devices, particularly those operated from satellite platforms, must be
designed to cope with levels of target/background energy, which are typical to all
conditions likely to be encountered in routine use.
3. In raw imagery, the useful data often populates only a small portion of the available
range of digital values.
4. By manipulating the range of digital values in an image, graphically represented by its
histogram, it is possible to apply various enhancements to the data.

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 Image Transformation
1. Image transformations typically involve the manipulation of multiple bands of data,
whether from a single multispectral image, or from two or more images of the same
area acquired at different times
2. Typically, two images, which have been geometrically registered, are used with the
pixel (brightness) values in one image being subtracted from the pixel values in the
other.
3. Image division or spectral ratioing is one of the most common transforms applied to
image data. Image ratioing serves to highlight subtle variations in the spectral
responses of various surface covers.
Digital Image Classification
Digital image classification uses the spectral information represented by the digital numbers
in one or more spectral bands, and attempts to classify each individual pixel based on this
spectral information. This type of classification is termed spectral pattern recognition. In
either case, the objective is to assign all pixels in the image to particular classes or themes
(e.g., water, coniferous forest, deciduous forest, corn, wheat).
1. Supervised Classification In supervised classification, the analyst identifies in the
imagery homogeneous representative samples of the different surface cover types
(information classes) of interest. These samples are referred to as training areas
2. Unsupervised Classification Unsupervised classification in essence reverses the
supervised classification process. Spectral classes are grouped first, based solely on
the numerical information in the data, and are then matched by the analyst to
information classes (if possible). Programs, called clustering algorithms, are used to
determine the natural (statistical) groupings or structures in the data\
3. Object based image classification Supervised and unsupervised classification is pixel-
based. In other words, it creates square pixels and each pixel has a class. But object-
based image classification groups pixels into representative vector shapes with size
and geometry
Image Registration
Image registration is a method to accomplish mapping between two different images of
same scene taken at different times on regular time interval, from different viewpoints of
same scene, and/or by different sensors to integrate the information. It's a method to

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 superimpose the pixels from reference image to the target image by aligning the images into
common coordinate system
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital model or three-dimensional (3D) representation
of a terrain's surface created from elevation data. digital elevation model (DEM) is a digital
representation of ground surface topography or terrain. It is also widely known as a digital
terrain model (DTM). While the term can be used for any representation of terrain as GIS
data, it is generally restricted to the use of a raster grid of elevation values. DEMs are
commonly built using remote sensing techniques, but they may also be built from land
surveying, DEMS are used often in geographic information systems, and are the most
common basis for digitally-produced relief maps.

Different Sources of Elevation Data

1. Point elevation data
2. Contour and stream-line data
3. Space-borne and air-borne remotely sensed elevation data

• Various optical satellite sensors are used for DEM generation, such as Quickbird,
IKONOS (2-5 m resolution), the Pleiades 1A/1B constellation (Im resolution),
WoldView-2 and GeoEye 2 (1-2 m resolution), the Japanese Advanced Land
Observing Satellite (ALOS) PRISM (2.5 m). Indian Cartosat (2.5 m), the French SPOT
satellite (5-10m), and ASTER (15-30m). Most of these have been used in hazard
assessment studies, at local or smaller scale. MIT
• DEMs are also derived using radar satellites such as RADARSAT, TerraSAR-X, ALOS
PALSAR, ERS-1 and 2, ENVISAT). Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) can
be used for the generation of Digital Elevation Models, but in practice it is mostly
used for detecting changes in topographic heights, related to different hazardous
geological processes, such as land subsidence, slow moving landslides, tectonic
motions, ice movement and volcanic activity.
• More detailed DEMs are nowadays derived using LIDAR (Light Detection And
Ranging). Normally LIDAR point measurements will render so-called Digital Surface
Models (DSM). which contains information on all objects of the Earth's surface,
including buildings, trees etc.

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 Application of Digital Elevation Model
1. In heuristic analysis at small scales (e.g., hill-shading images for display as backdrop
image physiographic classification, internal relief, drainage density),
2. In statistical analysis at regional scales (e.g., altitude zones, slope gradient, slope
direction, contributing area, plan curvature, profile curvature, slope length),
3. In physically-based modelling at local scales (local drain direction, flow path, slope
gradient) and in spread modelling (detailed slope morphology, flow path).
4. The use of slope gradient maps in hazard assessment is greatly affected by the
resolution of the DEM. As a general rule of thumb, the use of slope gradient maps is
not advisable for small scale studies.

Triangular Irregular Network Model (TIN)

Triangular irregular networks (TIN) have been used by the GIS community for many years and
are a digital means to represent surface morphology. TINS are a form of vector-based digital
geographic data and are constructed by triangulating a set of vertices (points). The vertices
are connected with a series of edges to form a network of triangles. There are different
methods of interpolation to form these triangles, such as Delaunay triangulation or distance
ordering. ArcGIS supports the Delaunay triangulation method.
Applications of Triangular Irregular Networks (TIN)
A TIN used to represent terrain is often called a digital elevation model (DEM), which can be
further used to produce digital surface models (DSM) or digital terrain models (DTM). An
advantage of using a TIN over a rasterized digital elevation model (DEM) in mapping and
analysis is that the points of a TIN are distributed variably based on an algorithm that
determines which points are most necessary to create an accurate representation of the
terrain.
Data input is therefore flexible and fewer points need to be stored than in a raster DEM, with
regularly distributed points. While a TIN may be considered less suited than a raster DEM for
certain kinds of GIS applications, such as analysis of a surface's slope and aspect, it is often
used in CAD to create contour lines. A DTM and DSM can be formed from a DEM. A DEM can
be interpolated from a TIN.

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 Digital Surface Model (DSM)
DSM (digital surface model) is a topographic digital model, which describes the relief and the
situation on the surface. It consists of digital terrain model and represents the earth's
surface, including all objects on it.
A digital surface model (digitized map) is a three-dimensional representation of the heights
of the Earth's surface, including natural or man-made objects located on it.
Application of Digital Surface Model (DSM)
• localities for various purposes (urban planning, architectural planning, tourism,
virtual tours, etc.),
• navigation systems,
• intelligent transport systems,
• forecasting of urban risks;
• telecommunications-positioning of mobile phone transmitters;
• In the mapping of flood risk.
Digital Terrain Model (DTM)
A DTM is effectively a DEM that has been augmented by elements such as break lines and
observations other than the original data to correct for artifacts produced by using only the
original data. With the increasing use of computers in engineering and the development of
fast three-dimensional computer graphics the DTM is becoming a powerful tool for a great
number of applications in the earth and the engineering sciences.
Application Digital Terrain Model (DTM)
• Modelling water flow or mass movement (for example, landslides).
• Creation of relief maps.
• Rendering of 3D visualizations
• Creation of physical models (including raised-relief maps).
• Rectification of aerial photography or satellite imagery.
• Reduction (terrain correction) of gravity measurements (gravimetry, physical
geodesy).
• Terrain analysis in geomorphology and physical geography.

Remote Sensing and GIS 4.Image Processing and Analysis

 5. Fundamentals of GIS
Various Definitions of GIS
1. Geographic information system, commonly referred to as a GIS, is an
integrated set of hardware and software tools used for the manipulation and
management of digital spatial (geographic) and related attribute data.
2. Geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping
and analysing things that exist and events that happen on earth. GIS
technology integrates common database operations such as query and
statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps.
3. GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software and trained
personnel linking topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and
other resource data that are geographically referenced.
4. Geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based information
system that enables capturing, modelling, manipulation, retrieval, analysis
and presentation of geographically referenced data.
From the above definitions, the following observations can be made:
• GIS database uses geo-references as a primary mean to store and access
information.
• GIS integrates technology
• GIS can be viewed as a process rather than software/hardware.
• GIS helps to make better and quick decisions.
Spatial and Non-Spatial Data
Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, is a term used to describe any data
related to or containing information about a specific location on the Earth's surface.
Non-spatial data, on the other hand, is data that is independent of geographic
location.
1. Spatial data is the physical representation of earth features. It represents the
location, size, and shape of the object in the earth i.e., building, ponds, mountains,
administration, boundaries, etc. Spatial Data is available in two primary formats
1. Vector
2.Raster
2. non-spatial data are represented in table formats. For example, the
administrative boundary table has population information, district name, provinces,
sex ratio, etc.

Remote Sensing and GIS 5.Fundamentals of GIS

 Database
The database concept is a method of organizing information in computer data
processing. A database is defined as a collection of automation, formal definition, and
centralized control of persistent data used and shared by different users of the
company. The term "centralized control" means that databases are often physically
distributed on different computer systems in different locations at the same time.
Types of Databases
1. Spatial Data Spatial data refers to information on the location, shape, size,
and orientation of items or objects. The layout of three stumps in a cricket
ground is an example of spatial data.
2. Non-Spatial Data Non-spatial data is also referred to as attribute or
characteristic data. It consists of spatial feature characteristics that are
independent of all geometric considerations. It is important that the
mentioned town data are not dependent on their geographical identities. As a
result, non-spatial data is not dependent on location information.

Functions of GIS
GIS is defined as a collection of subsystems operating within the framework of the
main system. GIS performs four functional tasks. They are as follows:
1. Data entry (data input from maps, aerial photos, satellite imageries and from
other sources)
2. Storage and retrieval of data (data storage retrieval and query)
3. Transformation and analysis of data (data manipulation, analysis and
modelling)
4. Output and display of data (data reporting such as maps, reports and plans)

Remote Sensing and GIS 5.Fundamentals of GIS

 Cloud Computing
` Cloud services are infrastructure, platforms, or software that are hosted by third-
party providers and made available to users through the internet

GIS Cloud
GIS is computer hardware, software, and spatial data (topographic, demographic,
tabular, graphic image, digitally summarized) integrated system that performs
manipulative and analytical operations on this data to produce reports, graphics, and
statistics and controls geographic data processing workflows.

Application of GIS Cloud

1. Giving Application Infrastructure: The GIS cloud offers a dedicated framework
for geo enabling business data and systems. GIS cloud resources can be used by
organisations that have previously invested in GIS to increase assistance, making
the organizations, business, and geographic data easier to analyse, author, and
manage.
2. Help Technology Infrastructure: As a computing paradigm for geographical
data, GIS cloud enables subscribers to leverage virtual sophisticated hardware and
software resources while also providing full access to data creation, analysis,
editing, and visualisation.

Remote Sensing and GIS 5.Fundamentals of GIS

 3. Plummeting Support and Maintenance : Implementing in-house GIS within an
organisation necessitates the use of people with specialised skills and advanced
technical abilities.

4. Diminishing usage cost: GIS cloud has tremendous capability of providing

advanced geo technology infrastructure, services, and geospatial data to its
customers.

5. Leveraging Data Command: The essence of GIS is to provide imagery and

topographic mapping as a foundation for other spatial data to be encrusted on.
Obtaining and processing spatial data from a spatial data vendor costs a significant
amount of money for GIS application providers.

6. Location Independent Resource Pooling: The GIS cloud has the incredible
ability to provide location-independent resource pooling.

7. Data Conversion and Presentation: A data conversion service entails the

transformation and import of data from one format into another.

Advantages of GIS
1. The ability to store and easily update large amounts of data.
2. Organize and store spatial features known as entities into thematic layers. Data is
stored in layers so that complex spatial data can be manipulated and analysed
efficiently layer by layer rather than attempting to deal with the entire database at
once.
3. Zoom in on specific areas of the displayed data to generate additional graphics that
may be hidden at default scales.
4. Search for items of interest to obtain tables of attribute information that may have
been associated with specific points of interest.
5. Using sophisticated computer programmes, analyse both entities and their attribute
data.
6. Create maps depicting specific thematic layers of interest. Maps can be quickly
updated as new data is gathered.

Remote Sensing and GIS 5.Fundamentals of GIS

 Essential Elements of GIS
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system wherein data related to earth,
associated phenomena, and events is mapped and analysed. It is a powerful system that
incorporates spatial data, manages it, analyses it, answers geographic queries and
provides great visualization capability.
There are five basic GIS components that make it effective.
1. Hardware: Hardware consists of the technical equipment needed to run a GIS
efficiently. It includes computer/s (standalone / networked) with good configuration –
good processing capability to run the GIS software, enough hard disk space to store large
spatial data, and input and output devices such as scanners, printers, etc.
2. Software: GIS software helps to store, analyse, and display geographic information in
the form of maps and reports. It provides a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for easy display
and access to tools for input, visualizing, processing, editing, analysing and querying
geographic data. Data is accessed and managed through Data Base Management System
(DBMS).
3. Data: The most important GIS component is the data – how it is managed and accessed.
Data is stored as geographic data (spatial data) and related tabular data (non-spatial
data). Data comes in various formats, and GIS integrates such spatial data and non-spatial
data by using DBMS. It is the key functionality of GIS that helps in organizing, managing
and accessing data.
4. Methods: To make a GIS system work properly requires not only the necessary
investments in hardware, software and data, but also requires knowledge to utilize the
GIS technology. The methods are the procedure followed to answer the question need to
be resolved. Method in GIS includes how the data will be accessed, stored, managed,
processed, analysed, and finally presented as output for particular application
5. People: People in GIS are technical persons (GIS managers, database administrators,
specialists, analysts, and programmers) who design and maintain the GIS work and those
who use it. They are the ones who make GIS work. People in GIS can be categorized into:
viewers – the people who just use GIS for reference; general users – who use GIS for
business, services, and making decisions such as planners, scientists, engineers, etc; GIS
specialists: who is the backbone of GIS and maintain, process and analyse geographic
data. They provide technical support to the users.

Remote Sensing and GIS 5.Fundamentals of GIS

 4.Thematic Layers and Layer combination
A thematic map depicts a specific theme that is linked within a specific geographic area. As
aspects of a geographical area, a thematic map focuses on various themes such as physical,
social, political, economic, sociological, and agricultural. Real-world entities are so complex
that they should be classified into object classes with some similarity in a spatial database using
thematic data modelling.

Basic Elements of Visual Interpretation

Geographic information system (GIS) technology provides the tools for creating, managing,
analysing, and visualizing the data associated with developing and managing infrastructure.
Each and every phase of infrastructure life-cycle is greatly advanced by the enrolment of GIS
and remote sensing.
1. Planning In planning its major contribution is providing information on site location
including environmental impacts, economic analysis, regulatory permitting,
alternative site analysis, sustainability issues, data overlay, risk analysis, routing of
roads and pipelines etc.
2. Data Collection Precise and accurate data is the core driving factor of any successful
project. GIS is equipped with almost all tools and functions to collect precise site data
used for predesign inspection; design; and calculations with respect to topography,
soils, subsurface geology, traffic, imaging, sensitive environmental areas, wetlands,
hydrology, and other site-specific design-grade data.

Remote Sensing and GIS 5.Fundamentals of GIS

 3. Environmental Analysis Analysis is one of the major and most influential phases of
infrastructure life cycle which allows you to view patterns, trends, and relationships
that were not clearly evident without the visualization of data. It provides analysis to
support design including hydrology analysis, volume calculations, soil load analysis,
Site feasibility, environmental impact, slope stability, materials consumption, runoff,
erosion control, and temperature and humidity.
4. Design It allows creation of new infrastructure data for new civil works including
grading, contouring, specifications, cross sections, design calculations, mass haul
plans, environmental mitigation plans, and equipment staging.
5. Construction GIS helps the professionals to understand the site conditions that affect
the schedule baseline and cost baseline. To keep the construction within budget and
schedule, GIS guides how to utilize the resources on site efficiency by timely usage of
construction equipment, working hours, effects of seasonal fluctuations, optimizing
routes, earth filling and cutting, calculation of volumes and areas of constructed phase
thereby helping in estimation and valuation.
6. Operations/Maintenance Operations are controlled through models of site data and
compared to the baselines prepared in planning phase. Modelling of site may be in the
form of raster images or CAD drawings. Spatial selection and display tools allow
visualizing scheduled work, ongoing activities, recurring maintenance problems, and
historical information.
Cartography and map design
Cartography is both a science and an art form that involves the creation of maps and charts.
The term can be used broadly to refer to all of the steps required to create a map, such as
planning and aerial photography. However, most people associate the term with map
finishing operations, in which the master manuscript is edited and colour separation plates
are prepared for lithographic printing.

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 6. GIS Data and Application
Concept of GIS with Diagram
A model is a simplified representation of a phenomenon or a system. The data model
provides a set of guidelines for transforming the real world, called an entity, into digitally
and logically represented spatial objects consisting of attributes and geometry. The
attributes are managed by a thematic structure, while the geometry is represented by a
geometric topological structure.
The thematic layer approach allows us to organize the complexity of the real world into
a simple representation to facilitate our understanding of natural relationships.
Conceptually, a GIS can be viewed as a stacked set of map layers, with each layer aligned
or registered with all other layers. Typically, each layer contains a unique geographic
theme or data type.

GIS Data Types

1. Spatial Data Geographic data describes the absolute and relative position of
geographic features. Spatial features can be discrete or continuous. A GIS can
represent spatial data that has a physical dimension on Earth. The various
components of geospatial data can be reduced to points, arcs, or polygons for
efficient processing. In the case of a GIS, the data can be in tabular form, a
geographic map, a digital map, or a remote map.

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application

 2. Attribute Data describes the properties of spatial features. It contains the
characteristics of spatial features and descriptive information about geographic
features. These characteristics can be quantitative and qualitative in nature.
Attribute data is non-spatial data associated with units of time and area. Attribute
data is often called tabular data. GIS attributes are represented by colors,
textures, and linear or graphic symbols; for example, school / university
locations are marked with special symbols and contour lines in brown.
Various Data Variables Used in GIS Representation
1. Nominal Variables are used when the data are principally classified into
mutually exclusive sets or levels based on relevant characteristics. The nominal
variable is the commonly used measure for spatial data. It can be two types as
below.
• Dichotomous Data
• Categorical data

Dichotomous (Presence or absence) data are mainly logical definition of a data

characteristic, and are also referred to as Yes/No data.
Categorical data are used when it is required to classify the data into one of several
categories by name with no specific order
2. Ordinal Variables Ordinal variables are lists of discrete classes, but with an
inherent order or sequence. This representation of data is more complex and
ordered, since the classes are classified based on a property of logical size.
3. Internal Variables Internal variables also have a natural sequence, but in
addition, the differences between the values are quantified.
4. Ratio Variables Ratio variables have the same properties as internal variables,
but they also have a natural zero point or a real origin (that is, a starting point).

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application

 Sources of Collecting Spatial Data
1. Natural resource data consists of land use, crop type, cropping area, water
bodies and drainage, soil types, forest types, groundwater potentials, mineral
resources.
2. Demographic data consists of data related to population, age structure, sex
ratio, urban and rural population, reserved caste population, occupational
structure, and migration patterns.
3. Agro -economic data consists of information about cropped and irrigated
area agricultural production, land holdings, livestock population, livestock
produce, market and pricing information.
4. Socio-economic data pertains to activities related to industrial, fishing
tourism development as well as beneficiaries of various schemes and
programmes of development.
5. Infrastructure data consists of information related to various facilities,
utilities and services, such as education, health, power, transport network,
water supply communication, general amenities, and drainage.

Geo Referencing of GIS Data

A spatial reference system is required to process spatial information. The main
purpose of a reference system is to locate a feature on the surface of the earth or a 2D
representation of that surface, such as a map.
The goal of geo-referencing is to provide a rigid spatial framework with which to
measure, calculate, record, and analyse the positions of real features for the length of
a line, the size of an area, and the shape of a feature.
There are several geo-referencing methods, all of which can be grouped into three
categories as follows:
a) Geographic Coordinate System,
(b) Rectangular Coordinate System, and
(c) Non-Coordinate System.
1. Geographic Coordinate System
The geographic coordinate system is the only system that defines the true
geographical coordinates in terms of latitude and longitude. In this system of
coordinates, the Earth is defined by a reference surface using latitude and longitude

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application

 At small scales, these factors causing blemishes and imperfections in shape can be
ignored. However, when dealing with large-scale maps of a small portion of the
Earth's surface it is essential to make local corrections for these factors.
2. Rectangular Coordinate System
Since most of the geospatial data available for use in GIS is in 2D format, a
rectangular coordinate reference system is best. This requires a map grid or grid to be
placed on top of the map. The grid is obtained by projecting the latitude or longitude
of our representation of the world as a globe onto a flat surface using a map projection.
The function of map projection is to define positions on the curved surface of the
earth when it is transformed into a flat map surface. There are multiple map
projections and a variety of them are widely used because no single projection can
meet the needs of all users.
3. Non-Coordinate System
In non-coordinate systems, spatial referencing is done using descriptive codes instead
of coordinates. The most common postal code attached to a postal address is one of
the examples of code geo-referencing. These codes can be fully numeric, such as
267667 (India PIN code) or alphanumeric, such as DL3 6KT (UK post code) (Fig.
6.5.3). The main purpose of such codes is to increase the efficiency of mail sorting
and delivery rather than being an effective spatial reference system for GIS.

Spatial Data Models

Traditionally, spatial data has been stored and presented in the form of a map. Three
basic types of spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data
digitally. They are vector, raster and image.

Vector Data Models

All spatial data models are approaches to storing the spatial position of geographic features
in a database. Vector storage involves the use of vectors (direction lines) to represent a
geographic feature. Vector data is characterized by the use of sequential points or vertices
to define a line segment. Each vertex consists of an x coordinate and a y coordinate.

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 To understand topology, the following terms should be clearly understood:
1. Node: An intersection of more than two lines or strings, or start and end points of a
string with node number.
2. Chain: A line or a string with chain number, start and end node number, left and right
neighbour polygons
3. Polygon: An area with polygon number, series of chains that form the area in clockwise
order (minus sign is assigned in case of anti-clockwise order).

Vector Data Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
• Data can be represented in its original resolution and form without generalization.
• The graphical output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional mapping).
• Since most data (for example, printed maps) is in vector form, no data conversion
is required.
• The exact geographic location of the data is preserved.
• It enables efficient topology coding and, as a result, more efficient operations that
require topological information, e. g. approximation, network analysis.
Disadvantages
• For efficient analysis, vector data must be converted into a topological structure.
This requires intensive processing and extensive data cleansing. Also, the topology
is static and any updates or edits to the vector data require the topology to be
rebuilt.
• Algorithms for manipulation and analysis functions are complex and may be
required for intensive processing. This often inherently limits functionality for
large data sets, for example a large number of functions.
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, are not represented efficiently in vector
form. Typically, significant data generalization or interpolation is required for
these data layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible.

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application

 Raster Data Models
Raster data models involve the use of a grid cell data structure in which the geographic
area is divided into cells identified by rows and columns. This data structure is commonly
known as a grid. While the term grid implies a regularly spaced grid, there are other tiled
data structures in grid-based GIS systems. In particular, the four-tree data structure has
found some degree of acceptance as an alternative raster data model.
Advantages
• The geographic location of each cell is implicit in its position in the cell's array.
Consequently, apart from a point of origin (for example, lower left corner), no
geographic coordinates are stored.
• Due to the nature of data warehousing technology, data analysis is often easy to
program and quick to perform.
• The inherent nature of raster maps, Ex. Maps with one attribute are ideal for
mathematical modelling and quantitative analysis.
• Discrete data, such as forest stands, record just as well as continuous data, such as
elevation data, and facilitate the integration of the two types of data.
Disadvantages
• The size of the cell determines the resolution with which the data is displayed.
• Depending on the resolution of the cell, it is particularly difficult to adequately
represent linear features. Consequently, network connections are difficult to
establish.
• Processing related attribute data can be cumbersome when there is a large amount
of data. By nature, raster maps only reflect one attribute or property of an area.
• Since most of the input data is in vector form, the data must undergo vector raster
conversion. In addition to increasing processing requirements, this can create data
integrity problems due to generalization and choosing an inappropriate cell size.
Image Data
Image data is most commonly used to represent graphic or pictorial data. The term image
naturally reflects a graphical representation and is very different from raster data in the
GIS world. Generally, image data is used to store remotely captured images, such as
satellite scenes, orthophotos, or auxiliary graphics, such as scanned plan documents and
photos. Image data is typically used in GIS systems as background display data (if the
image has been rectified and geo-referenced) or as a graphic attribute.

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 4.Rasterization
Converting between raster and vector data is very useful in practical GIS applications.
Rasterization refers to the conversion of vector data to raster. The raster format is more
convenient for making color-coded polygonal maps, such as a color-coded land use map, while
digitizing maps in vector format is easier just by keeping track of the boundary. Rasterization
is also useful for integrating GIS with remote sensing, since remote sensing images are in raster
format.

Vectorization
Vectorization refers to the conversion of raster data to vector, often called raster-to-vector
conversion. Vectorization is not very easy compared to rasterization because the vector format
requires a topological structure, e.g., Ex. Direction of the line or chain, limits and nodes of
polygons, order of the chains that make up a polygon, left and right polygons, ID of a chain,
etc.
Application of GIS in Environmental Fields
In environmental areas, GIS has been used for a variety of applications, ranging from simple
inventories and inquiries to map analysis and overlay of complex spatial decision-making
systems. Some examples are: forest modeling, air / water quality modeling and monitoring.
mapping of environmentally sensitive areas, analysis of the interaction between economic,
meteorological, hydrological and geological changes. Typical data inputs in an environmental
GIS include elevation, forest cover, soil quality, and hydro-geological cover. In many cases,
environmental GIS is used to better incorporate environmental aspects into socio-economic
development and to allow a balance between the two.

Application of GIS in Forestry

The use of GIS applications in the field of environmental research has grown exponentially in
the last decade. Originally focusing on forestry, the tools have been used for a wide variety of
environmental projects, from environmental research to forest fire prevention planning, to
protecting endangered species. With the tools available today, and the increasing amount of
data being compiled, the potential for new uses grows daily. Forestry involves the
management of a broad range of natural resources within a forested area.

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application

 Application of GIS in Hydrology
GIS water resources applications address the water cycle and related processes. They are
varied because
1. Many of the problems concern the interactions between the hydrosphere, theatmosphere, the
lithosphere, and the biosphere.
2. Solutions must serve competing user groups.
3. Many of the important hydrological processes have local, regional, national and global
dimensions.
GIS technology enables rapid organization, quantification, and interpretation of large amounts
of geohydrological data with computational precision and minimal risk of human error.
Application of GIS in Military
GIS play a central role in military operations because they are essentially spatial in nature.
The concept of command, control, communication and coordination in military operations
depends largely on the availability of accurate information to make quick decisions about
operational commands. GIS is used by military officers in a wide variety of applications,
including mapping, intelligence, battlefield management, terrain analysis, RS, managing
military facilities, and monitoring potential terrorist activities.
Application of GIS in Health Management
Public health management needs information on various aspects, such as the prevalence of
diseases and the facilities available to make decisions about the construction of
infrastructure or take immediate measures to deal with the situation. These decisions should
be made based on the observations made and the data available.
Application of GIS in Geology
Another area in which GIS is useful is in the field of geology. Geological interpretation in an
area, whether for mineral and oil exploration or for engineering geological studies, is in
principle a process composed of different data. The geologist or researcher linking various
geological data searches for useful geological structures in an area. To be fertile and
productive, all geological data must be interpreted with your geographic location in mind.
Application of GIS in Land Information
GIS has helped manage land information by facilitating the creation and maintenance of data
for land records, land planning, and land use. In particular, several local governments have
started to implement GIS to help manage their land information. GIS makes entering,
updating, and retrieving data such as tax records, land use plans, and zoning codes much
easier than in the age of paper maps.

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application

 Application of GIS in Civil Engineering
GIS plays a crucial role and serves as a complete platform in every phase of the infrastructure
life cycle. The advancement and availability of technology have set new standards for
professionals in infrastructure development. Now civil engineers are seeking help with these
improved and technologically intelligent information systems like GIS for infrastructure
development
• Planning: The main contribution of GIS in planning is to provide us with an organized
data set that can help professionals to create complex scenarios related to site
selection. environmental impact, ecosystem study, risk management related to use
natural Fighting resources, sustainability issues, congestion management, road and
pipeline routing, etc
• Data Collection: Precise and accurate data is a very important factor in any
successful project. GIS is equipped with almost all the tools and functions that allow
the user to access the required data in a reasonable time.
• Analysis: Analysis is one of the most important and influential phases of the
infrastructure life cycle. The analysis guides us on the validity or correctness of the
design or we can say that the analysis is a method that supports our design. Some of
the analyses that the GIS can perform are:
1. Water distribution analysis
2. Traffic management analysis
3. Soil analysis
4. Site feasibility analysis
5. Environment impact analysis
6. Volume or area analysis of catchment
7. River or canals pattern analysis
8. Temperature and humidity analysis
• Construction: It is the phase where all layout plans and design paperwork are
created in the real world. The GIS helps professionals understand site conditions that
affect the schedule basis and cost basis. To keep construction on budget and on
schedule, GIS guides us on how to use our resources efficiently on site by:

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application

 1. Timely usage of construction equipment
2. Working hours
3. Effects of seasonal fluctuations
4. Optimizing routes for dumpers and concrete trucks
5. Earth filling and cutting
6. Calculation of volumes and areas of constructed phase thereby helping in
estimation and valuation.
• Operations: The operation is controlled by modelling location data and compared to
the baselines created in the planning phase. The site can be modelled in the form of
raster images or CAD drawings. These can help us to track the timely progress of
activities.

Remote Sensing and GIS 6. GIS Data and Application