Basic Networking Concepts
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another
over a shared network medium.
Need for Networking
Resource Sharing – Sharing hardware and software resources is made possible by
networking computers. Printer, scanner, and memory are three examples…
CBSE textbooks
Communication – Information sharing between network nodes is facilitated by connecting
computers through a network. For instance, because the printer is linked to every network
node, any of the computer systems can send data to any of the three computer systems or
to the printer.
Access to remote databases – A regular individual can easily access any remote
database, such as airline bookings, and book tickets.
Requirements of a network
1. At least two computers
2. Network Interface Cards (NIC) A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although
wireless communication between networked computers and peripherals is also
possible.
3. Network Operating system soft Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux
Network Terminologies
Nodes (Workstations) – Any network device that can receive and deliver data from one
endpoint to another using a connection point is known as node, such as a router, printer, or
switch.
Server – The server is a computer that enables the exchange of data, software, and
hardware resources through a network. There are two types of Server –
Dedicated Server – These are generally used on big network installations where one
computer is reserved for the dedicated task.
Non – dedicated Server – A workstation can function as both a client and a server in small
networks.
Network Interface Unit – Each workstation and the server have a network interface unit
attached to them, which aids in establishing connection between the server and
workstations.
Switching Techniques
In order to efficiently send data across the network, switching mechanisms are used. Circuit
switching and packet switching are the two switching methods now used to enable
communication between two computers on a network.
Circuit switching – Circuit switching is a style of network design in which a physical path is
acquired and allocated for the duration of a dedicated connection between two endpoints in
the network. Circuit switching is used in standard voice phone service. The duration of a call
is when this reserved circuit is utilised.
Packet switching – Small data packets are sent between different networks using packet
switching. These data “packets” or “chunks” enable quicker, more effective data transport.
When a user transfers a file over a network, it frequently travels in smaller data packets
rather than all at once.
Data communication terminologies
Channel – The medium over which a message is transmitted from one location to another
is known as a communication channel. It is a channel that allows data to be transmitted
between distant devices, to put it simply. The complete physical medium, such as a phone
line, optical fibre, coaxial cable, or twisted pair wire, may be referred to as a communication
channel.
Bandwidth – The most data that can be sent through an internet connection in a specific
amount of time is known as Bandwidth. It is actually the amount of data that can be delivered
across a connection in a given amount of time, measured in megabits per second (Mbps).
Modal.
The data transfer rate – The speed at which a device or network component can send and
receive data is referred to as a data transfer rate (DTR).
Network Types
On the basis of geographical span, the network can be broadly categorized as PAN, LAN,
MAN, and WAN.
Personal Area Network – A personal area network (PAN) is a type of computer network
designed to connect computers and other devices that are near to a single user. Personal
computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners are the example of Personal
Area Network.
Local Area Network – When a network is established within a restricted geographic area,
it is referred to as a local network. Private networks with a radius of up to 1 km. They are
typically established on a campus or in a building. LANs function at speeds between 10
Mbps and 1 Gbps.
Metropolitan Area Network – A single organisation, a large group of people, or many
different people or organisations may own a metropolitan area network (MAN). These
networks, which have a radius of up to 50 km, are used to create connections within cities.
Wide Area Network – The WAN (wide area network) covers roughly 1000 km. They are
useful for linking isolated places and for long-distance communication. They create
connections inside a nation or continent.
Networking Concepts – II
A transmission medium is a channel of transmission used to send signals carrying data from
one node to another. The data is converted into an appropriate form for transmission on the
medium via a signal.
Guided Medium – Physical conductors like twisted pairs, coaxial cable, and fibre optics are
referred to by this phrase. The signal travels as voltage and current in coaxial and twisted
pair cable but as light in optical fibre.
Unguided Medium – Electrons are used by the unguided medium instead of a physical
conductor. Microwave, radio waves, and infrared are a few examples of unguided media.
Network Topologies
Network topology refers to a network’s configuration of notes. Broadly speaking, there are
two different topologies: broadcast and point-to-point.
Broadcast Topology – Broadcasting information typically refers to sending it to numerous
receivers. In the same way that a radio station sends a signal to its many listeners, a TV
provider broadcasts a signal to digital TV customers.
Point – to – point Topology – The simplest topology is point to point, which uses a shared
link to directly connect two nodes. Transmission between such two nodes is limited to using
the total available bandwidth of the common link.
Bus Topology
Bus topology, often called line topology, is a type of network topology in which each device
is connected to the network by a single coaxial or RJ-45 network wire.
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, every device is connected via a wire that forms a ring. The intended
recipient of the message is reached by way of a one-way transmission of the intended
message. Device addition and deletion, as well as fault isolation and detection, are simple
processes.
Star Topology
All of the devices in a star topology are linked to a central controller called a hub since
communication between any two devices occurs through the hub. Installation and
configuration of the Star network are simple. Furthermore, fault isolation and detection are
simple.
Mesh Topology
Every node in the network is connected to every other node thanks to mesh topology. The
topology offers secure data transport without any triffic issues because to dedicated point-
to-point connections between every feasible pair of nodes.
Tree Topology
A hybrid topology that combines bus and star topologies is called tree topology.
In a bus topology, backbone cable functions as the tree’s stem, while star networks (and
even individual nodes) are connected to the primary tree by star cables.
Network Devices
Creation of a network requires various network devices, each of which plays a specific role
in the network.
Repeater – A signal may weaken and degrade with increased distance. In order for the input
signal to return to its original form and cover a greater distance, a repeater is required.
Hub – A hub is a computer device’s connection point where data from various ways
converge before being delivered in various directions to the appropriate devices. By stopping
specific data packets from travelling to a destination, a hub can also function as a switch.
Bridge – A bridge is a multiport network interface used to connect two or more LANs,
sometimes at differing speeds. Therefore, a bridge can be used to combine smaller LANs to
create a larger LAN.
Switch – Switches are used to connect individual nodes in the network with one another, as
opposed to bridges, which join two or more LAN segments. Each node in the network is
linked to a different switch port.
Router – Switches are used to connect individual nodes in the network with one another, as
opposed to bridges, which join two or more LAN segments. Each node in the network is
linked to a different switch port.
Gateway – A gateway enables communication across networks based on various protocol
systems. Data from one network that uses one protocol is translated to the outgoing
network’s protocol before being forwarded. As a result, a gateway can be compared to a
router that has software for protocol conversion.
RJ-45 – RJ-45, the abbreviation for Registered Jack, is used to link computers on LANs,
particularly Ethernet LANs. RJ connectors resemble RJ equipment in appearance, however
they are a little wider.
Wi-Fi Card – Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow your desktop or laptop
computer to connect to the internet through a wireless network.
Network Protocols
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – For communication via a network, TCP is a well-
known communication protocol. Any communication is split up into a number of packets that
are transferred from the source to the destination, where they are reassembled.
Internet Protocol (IP) – The process or technique used to transmit data from one computer
to another via the internet is known as Internet Protocol (IP). Every computer on the internet,
referred to as a host, has at least one IP address that distinguishes it from every other
computer there.
Point-to-Point Protocol – One computer system is connected to another using the TCP/IP
protocol known as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). PPP is a protocol that computers use to
communicate across landlines and the Internet. When two systems are physically linked by
a phone line, a PPP connection is created.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – Resources are transferred across the internet
between client devices and servers via the HTTP protocol. Client devices ask servers for the
resources required to load a web page; the servers respond by sending the client devices
the requested resources.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – The file transfer protocol is a method for downloading,
uploading, and moving files between computer systems and across the internet. File
transfers between computers or via the cloud are made possible through FTP.
Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP) – Outgoing email can be sent and distributed via
SMTP. The SMTP protocol is dependable and simple to set up. Either messages reach their
intended destination or an error message notifying them of the situation.
Post office Protocol (POP) – Incoming emails can be received via POP3. A popular way
of getting email that receives and retains email for a person until they pick it up is known as
Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3).
Telnet – The primary internet protocol for connecting to distant machines is telnet. It enables
TCP/IP network connections to remote computers.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) – IRC protocol is used for chatting. The message is passed
between clients via the IRC server.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) – Instead of using a public switched telephone
network, it makes it possible to transport voice over a packet switched network. Phone calls
can be made utilizing a regular internet connection by using VOIP software. Today, there
are three major types of VoIP service that are frequently used – ATA, IP phones, Computer-
to-computer.
Web Architecture
Before a website is designed, developed, and launched, its technical, functional, and
aesthetic components are planned and designed as part of its website architecture. It is a
tool that website designers and developers use to create websites.
Types of web architectures
Client-server model
Clients and servers made up the first two tiers of the web’s architecture. The functions and
services that the system was designed to provide were shared by clients and servers. For
instance, the client might ask the server for a service, and the server would then respond by
offering the requested service.
Three-tier model
Three-tier architectures have an application logic that handles data processing and permits
some interaction between the client and the server. For instance, a database server is just
used for data storage, whereas an application server can process data. This allows for the
dynamic loading and saving of content. The client’s behavior is frequently dictated by the
scripting language JavaScript.
Service-oriented architectures (SOA)
The web is being utilized to connect internationally dispersed IT structures. The client-server
model is much simpler than the complexity of modern IT and online applications. Business
processes can be automated using SOAs by the systems involved talking with one another,
sometimes without human intervention, and carrying out specific duties. Online
marketplaces, e-commerce, e-learning, online banking, and business intelligence
applications are a few examples.
MAC Address
Each device on a network has a unique identity known as a Media Access Control address
(MAC address). It is primarily assigned by the manufacturer. They are frequently located on
the network interface controller (NIC) card of a device.
IP Address
Every computer in a network has an additional distinctive identification code called an IP
Address. The four bytes (or 32 bits) that make up an IP address can range in value from 0
to 255. A typical IP address appears as follows:
59.177.134.72
Domain Name
Consequently, we may use a computer’s IP address whenever we need to speak with it
online. However, it is virtually difficult for anyone to keep track of all the computers’ IP
addresses with whom they might need to interact. As a result, a system that gives names to
some computers (web servers) and keeps a database of these names and associated IP
addresses has been created.
Generic Domain Names:
·com – commercial business
·edu – Educational institutions
·gov – Government agencies
·mil – Military
·net – Network organizations
·org – Organizations (nonprofit)
Country Specific Domain Names:
.in – India
·au – Australia
·ca – Canada
.ch – China
.nz – New Zealand
.pk – Pakistan
.jp – Japan
.us – United States of America
Domain Name Resolution
The process of translating domain names into IP addresses is known as domain resolution.
The DNS server is responsible for domain name resolution. Domain resolution is also
referred to as domain pointing, server configuration, reverse IP registration, and other similar
terms.
Network Threats and Security Measures
Malwares
Malicious software (programmes) that are intended to harm the system or to gain
unauthorised access to it, interfere with regular system performance, or prevent authorised
users from using computing resources are referred to as malware. Malware includes viruses,
worms, and Trojan horses.
Virus – A virus is a piece of software code that can damage your computer by corrupting or
overwriting system data. A computer virus behaves similarly to viruses that impact human
bodies by replicating and harming cells.
Worm – A worm is frequently acquired via a network, and it floods the hard disc by
automatically producing several copies of itself there. It causes network congestion when a
worm is received as an email attachment and automatically forwarded to the recipients.
Trojan Horse – A Trojan Horse is a piece of code that makes the system seem desirable
and useful but actually does the opposite. A Trojan horse can integrate with a reliable
programme. For instance, it might be included with any game that you download from the
Internet.
Eavesdropping – The act of secretly or covertly listening to another person’s private
discussion or communications without that person’s agreement is known as eavesdropping.
Telephone lines, cell phone networks, email, and instant messaging are all used for
eavesdropping.
Denial of Service – A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) is a cyber-attack in which the
machine or network resource becomes unavailable to its users by temporarily or indefinitely
disrupting services.
Phishing – The practice of stealing a user’s personal information through fraudulent mail is
known as phishing. These emails either include embedded forms that request personal
information from you or include links to web pages that might ask you for it. There may be
attempts to steal passwords, bank account numbers, debit/credit card numbers, and other
sensitive information.
Cyber Crime
Cybercrimes are the crimes related to the misuse of computers or the Internet such as theft,
fraud, and forgery. Some of these crimes are mentioned below
Sending spam mails to uninterested recipients.
Hacking someone’s account or system.
Stealing someone’s personal information through phishing
Hosting a site carrying lots of malwares or being a source for spreading them.
Harassing someone through mails, messages or social networking.
Posting offensive content on any site or sending it to anyone.
Defaming someone using the Internet.
Forging someone’s digital signatures
Indulging in fraudulent financial transaction
Providing misleading information to clients/ general public through use of Internet
resources
Intellectual Property theft
Illegal downloads, plagiarism
Network Security Tools and Services
Firewalls – An enterprise, home, or individual’s internal network is protected by a firewall
from malicious traffic coming from other networks.
Antivirus – Antivirus software works to safeguard your computer from harmful and
potentially undesirable programmes. It is in charge of looking for and deleting these
malicious programmes in order to keep the system safe.
Password managers – A password manager is a piece of software that aids in organising
and storing passwords.
Protective Measures while accessing Internet
Never click on a suspicious link specified on a web page or send through a mail for
which you are not sure about its authenticity.
Make sure that passwords are strong and are changed frequently.
Never disclose personal information such as date of birth, home address, personal
phone number, account details, passwords, credit and debit card details, work history
details.
Report phishing issues to the concerned authorities or at cybercrime.gov.in. In case
of unsolicited mails, mark them as spam mails.
Secure HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTPs) is a secure version used for
communication between client and host on the Internet.
Ensure that the web browser being used for accessing the web is updated and is
secure.
Beware before spreading any kind of a rumor as it may be treated as a cybercrime.
If someone is harassing or threatening you, take a snapshot of it as a proof, and block
the person. Also, report the incident to the site administrator
Use updated antivirus and firewall, secure browsing, and password management
techniques.
Cyber Law
Cyber laws are the laws for systematic use of e-resources, for example, e-business, and
serve as a measure against illegal cyber-crime.
Cyber offenses under IT Act
Tampering with computer source documents – Section 65
Hacking -Section 66
Publishing of information which is obscene in electronic form -Section 67
Intellectual property rights (IPR) Issues
Intellectual property rights are the rights given to an individual over the invention of their own.
Patent – An invention is a product or a technique that, in general, offers a new way of doing
something or presents a new technical solution to a problem. A patent is an exclusive right
awarded for an invention. Technical details concerning the innovation must be made public
in a patent application in order to obtain one.
Trademark – A trademark is characterized as a name, a different sign, or a tool used to
distinguish a good or a service. A particular person or business produces or offers the goods
or service.
Copyright – A written document is referred to as having copyright. The violation of
copyrights may result in legal action. The following type of work is eligible for copyright
protection. written works any accompanying words for musical works.
