Unit – 2 Current Electricity

✓ In unit 1, we studied the properties of charges when they are at rest.

✓ In reality, the charges are always moving within the materials.
✓ For example, the electrons in a copper wire are never at rest and are continuously in
random motion.
✓ The motion of charges constitutes ‘electric current’.
✓ Current electricity is the study of flow of electric charges.
✓ It owes its origin to Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), who invented the electric battery which
produced the first steady flow of electric current.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
https://youtu.be/5LhUTgcGupk?t=29

Atoms in metals have one or more electrons which are loosely bound to the nucleus.
These electrons are called free electrons and can be easily detached from the atoms.
The substances which have an abundance of these free electrons are called conductors.

When a potential difference is applied by the battery across the ends of the conductor, the free
electrons drift towards the positive terminal of the battery, producing a net electric current.

The electric current in a conductor is defined as the rate of flow of charges through a given cross-
sectional area A.

𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡

SI unit of current is the ampere

E X A M P L E 2.1
Compute the current in the wire if a charge of 120 C is flowing through a copper wire in
1 minute.
𝑄
Given: Q = 120C , 𝑡 = 1 min = 60𝑠𝑒𝑐 , Formula: 𝐼 =
𝑡
Example 2.4
Determine the number of electrons flowing per second through a conductor, when a
current of 32 A flows through it
Given: 𝑄 = 32𝐴, t= 1𝑠 To find: n
𝑄 𝑛𝑒
Formula: 𝐼 = = , 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19𝐶
𝑡 𝒕

Conventional Current

the flow of electrons and the direction of conventional

current point in opposite direction

Drift velocity
1. In a conductor the charge carriers are free electrons.
2. These electrons move freely through the conductor and
collide repeatedly with the positive ions formed when
electron is detached from the metal atom.
3. On an average, the number of electrons travelling in any
direction will be equal to the number of electrons travelling
in the opposite direction.
4. As a result, there is no net flow of electrons in any direction
and hence there will not be any current.
5. Suppose a potential difference is set across the conductor by
connecting a battery, an electric field is created in the conductor.
6. Electric field accelerates the electrons, while ions scatter the electrons and change their
direction of motion. Thus, we see zigzag motion of electrons.
7. The drift velocity is the average velocity acquired by the electrons inside the conductor
when it is subjected to an electric field.
8. The average time between two successive collisions is called the mean free time denoted by
τ.
 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑣
𝑎=
𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑑 , 𝑡 = τ

E X A M P L E 2.2
If an electric field of magnitude 570 N C , is applied in the copper wire, find the
–1

acceleration experienced by the electron.

Given: 𝑬 = 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝑵𝑪−𝟏 ,
To Find: acceleration (a)
eE
Formula: a =
m

𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 , 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔

eE 1.6 × 10−19 × 570 912 × 10−19 × 10−31

a= = −31
= = 1.001 × 1014 𝑚/𝑠2
m 9.1 × 10 9.1

Microscopic model of current

⃗⃗⃗ applied from
✓ Consider a conductor with area of cross section A and an electric field E
right to left.
✓ There are n electrons per unit volume in the conductor which are moving with the
same drift velocity v
⃗d
✓ The electrons move through a distance dx within a small interval of dt
dx
vd = dx = vd dt …………(1)
dt
The electrons available in the volume of length dx N = volume × number per unit volume
= Adx × n ……(2)
Sub (1) in (2)
= A vd dt × n
Total charge in volume element
dQ = charge × number of electrons in the volume element (N)
dQ = e A vd dt ×n……(3)
dQ
I= …………..(4)
dt
Sub (3) in (4)
neAdtvd
I=
dt
I = neAvd
Since current density J = I/A
J = nevd ……………(4)
𝐞𝛕
Sub vd = 𝐄 in (4)
𝐦
nτe2
𝐽=− ⃗E
m
J⃗ = −σE
⃗
nτe2
J = σE (microscopic form’s of ohm’s law) WHERE σ = → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
m
1 𝑚
𝜌= =
𝜎 𝑛𝜏𝑒 2

E X A M P L E 2.3
A copper wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 𝒎𝒎𝟐 carries a current of 0.2 A. If the free
electron density of copper is 𝟖. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒎−𝟑 then compute the drift velocity of free
electrons
Given: I = 0.2A , A = 0.5mm2 = 0.5 × (10−3 )2 m , n = 8.4 × 1028 m−3
𝐼
Formula: 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑑 → 𝑣𝑑 = = 0.03 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
𝒏𝑨𝒆

OHM’S LAW
J = σE. ……..(1)
✓ Consider a segment of wire of length l and cross sectional area A.
✓ When a potential difference V is applied across the wire, a net electric field is created
in the wire which constitutes the current.
✓ Assuming electric field is uniform in the entire length of the wire, the potential
difference (voltage V) can be written as
𝑽
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙 E = ……… (2)
𝒍
Sub (2) in (1)
 𝑉
J=𝜎
𝑙
𝐼
J =
𝐴
𝐼 𝑉
= 𝜎
𝐴 𝑙
By rearranging above equation
𝑙
V = 𝐼( )
𝜎𝐴
𝒍
- Resistance of a conductor (R)
𝛔𝐀
𝑅 𝛼 𝑙 𝑅 𝛼 1/𝐴
Therefore, the macroscopic form of ohm’s law can be stated as
V = IR

the potential difference across a given conductor is directly

proportional to the current passing throught it when the temperature
remains constant˝.

𝑉
𝑅= Unit: ohm(Ω)
𝐼

Graph between current versus voltage is straight line with a slope

equal to the inverse of resistance R of the conductor

Materials for which the current versus voltage graph is a straight line through the origin, are
said to obey Ohm’s law and their behaviour is said to be ohmic.

Materials or devices that do not follow Ohm’s law are said to be non-ohmic.
Limitations of Ohms law
✓ A plot of I against V for a non-ohmic material is non-linear and they do not have a
constant resistance
✓ It is obeyed by many substance under certain conditions but it is not a fundamental
law of nature
✓ It is applicable only for simple circuits

E X A M P L E 2.5
A potential difference across 24 Ω resistor is 12 V. What is the current through the
resistor?
Given: 𝑅 = 24Ω , V = 12V , To find: Current (I)
𝑉
Formula: 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 → 𝐼 =
𝑅
Resistivity

ρ is called the resistivity of the material.

If l = 1 m and A = 1 m , then the resistance R = ρ.
2

electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered to current flow by a

conductor of unit length having unit area of cross section. The SI unit of ρ is ohm-metre (Ω m).

Based on the resistivity, materials are classified

Conductors – lowest resistivity
insulators - highest resistivity
semi-conductors - resistivity greater than conductors but less than insulators.

E X A M P L E 2.6
The resistance of a wire is 20 Ω. What will be new resistance, if it is stretched uniformly
8 times its original length?
Given: 𝑅1 = 20Ω , 𝑙2 = 8𝑙1 , to find 𝑅2
ρl1 ρl2 𝑅2 𝑙2 𝐴1
Formula: R1 = , R2 = . =
A1 A2 𝑅1 𝐴2 𝑙1
Initial volume = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
A1 l1 = A2 l2
Dry skin has high resistance of around 500 k Ω. But when the skin is wet, the resistance is reduced to
around1000 Ω. This is the reason why repairing the electrical connection with the wet skin is always
dangerous.

equivalent resistance of a series and parallel resistor network

Resistors in series
✓ R1, R2 and R3 connected in series .
✓ RS is effective resistance
✓ Current in each resistor is same and potential difference across resistors is different
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR 2 , qV3 = IR 3
V = RSI
R S I = R1 I + R 2 I + R 3 I
𝐑𝐒 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑
When several resistances are connected in series, the total or
equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances

Resistors in parallel
✓ R1, R2 and R3 connected in Parallel.
✓ RP is effective resistance
✓ Potential in each resistor is same
✓ Current in each resistor is different
I = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V V
I= I1 = , I2 = , I3 =
RP R1 R2 R3
V V V V
= + +
RP R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1 1
= + +
RP R1 R 2 R 3
When a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the sum of the reciprocal of the values
of resistance of the individual resistor is equal to the reciprocal of the effective resistance of
the combination

E X A M P L E 2.8
Calculate the equivalent resistance for the circuit which is connected to 24 V battery
and also find the potential difference across each resistors in
the circuit.
Given: V= 24𝑉 , 𝑅1 = 4 , 𝑅2 = 6
To find: 𝑅𝑆 , 𝑉1 , 𝑉2
𝑉
Formula: 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 , 𝐼 = , 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2
𝑅𝑆
E X A M P L E 2.9
Calculate the equivalent resistance in the following circuit and also find the values of
current I, 𝑰 and 𝑰 in the given circuit.
𝟏 𝟐

Given: 𝑅1 = 4 , 𝑅2 = 6, 𝑉 = 24𝑉
To find: 𝑅𝑝 , 𝐼, 𝐼 and 𝐼 1 2
R1 R2
V V V
RP = ,I= , I1 = , I2 =
R1 +R2 RP R1 R2

E X A M P L E 2.10
Two resistors when connected in series and parallel, their equivalent resistances are 15 Ω and
56
Ω respectively. Find the values of the resistances
15
56
Given: 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 15 , 𝑅𝑃 = To find: 𝑅1 , 𝑅2
15
R1 R2
𝑅𝑃 =
R1 +R2

Calculate the equivalent resistance between A and B in the given circuit.

Colour code for Carbon resistors
Carbon resistors consists of a ceramic core, on which a thin
layer of crystalline carbon is deposited

Colour code for carbon resistors

Colour Number Colour Number
Black 0 Brown 1
Red 2 Orange 3
Yellow 4 Green 5
Blue 6 Violet 7
Grey 8 White 9

16. Tolerance
Silver: ±10% Gold: ±5%
COLOURLESS - 20%

Temperature dependence of resistivity

The resistivity of a material is dependent on temperature

For conductors - the resistivity of a conductor increases with increase in temperature
For semiconductors, the resistivity decreases with increase in temperature
ρT = ρT 0 [1 + α(T − T0 )]

α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.

It is defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity per degree rise in temperature to its
resistivity at T0
𝜌T −ρ0 ∆ρ
α= = Unit: per°C
ρ0 .∆T ρ0 ∆T
Resistance of a conductor at a temperature t℃, R T = R 0 [1 + α(T − T0 )]

Superconductors
The resistance of certain materials become zero below certain temperature Tc.
This temperature is known as critical temperature or transition temperature.
The materials which exhibit this property are known as superconductors.
This phenomenon was first observed by Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911. He found that mercury exhibits
superconductor behaviour at 4.2 K. Since R = 0, current once induced in a superconductor persists without
any potential difference.

E X A M P L E 2.13
If the resistance of coil is 3 Ω at 20 °C and α = 0.004/℃ then determine its resistance at 100 ℃.
0.004
Given: 𝑹𝟐𝟎 = 3 , 𝛼 = , T = 100 , TO = 20
℃

To find: 𝑅100

Formula: R T = R 0 [1 + α(T − T0 )]

E X A M P L E 2.14
Resistance of a material at 20°C and 40°C are 45 Ω and 85 Ω respectively. Find its
temperature coefficient of resistivity
Given: 𝑅20 = 45 , 𝑅40 = 85 , ∆𝑇 = 40 − 20
To find: 𝜶
RT −R0
Formula: α =
R0 .∆T
ENERGY AND POWER IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
1. Positive charge of dQ moves from point a to b through
the battery and moves from point c to d through the
resistor and back to point a.
2. When the charge moves from point a to b, it gains
potential energy dU = V.dQ and the chemical potential
energy of the battery decreases by the same amount.
3. When this charge dQ passes through resistor it loses
the potential energy dU = V.dQ due to collision with
atoms in the resistor and again reaches the point a.
4. This process occurs continuously till the battery is
connected in the circuit.
5.
6. The electrical power P is the rate at which the electrical potential energy is delivered,
dU (𝑉.𝑑𝑄) dQ
P= = =V
dt 𝑑𝑡 dt
dQ
Since I = 𝐏 = 𝐕𝐈
dt

The SI unit of electrical power is watt (1W = 1 J s ).

–1

(ii) P = VI = V(IR) = I 2 R
V V2
(iii) P = VI = ( ) V =
R R

The total electrical energy used by any device is obtained by multiplying the power and
duration of the time when it is ON. If the power is in watts and the time is in.

1 kWh is known as 1 unit of electrical energy.

(1 kWh = 1000 Wh = (1000 W) (3600 s) = 3.6 × 10 J) 6

ELECTRIC CELLS AND BATTERIES

An electric cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy to produce electricity. It contains
two electrodes (carbon and zinc) immersed in an electrolyte (sulphuric acid)

Several electric cells connected together form a battery.

Electromotive force and internal resistance
• Electromotive force determines the amount of work a battery or cell has to do move a
certain amount of charge around the circuit.
• It is denoted by the symbol ε.
• An ideal battery has zero internal resistance and the potential difference (terminal voltage)
across the battery equals to its emf.
• In reality, the battery is made of electrodes and electrolyte, there is resistance to the flow
of charges within the battery.
• This resistance is called internal resistance r.
• For a real battery, the terminal voltage is not equal to the emf of the battery. A freshly
prepared cell has low internal resistance and it increases with ageing.

Determination of internal resistance

✓ The emf of cell is measured by connecting a high

resistance voltmeter across it without connecting the
external resistance R.
✓ Since the voltmeter draws very little current for deflection,
the circuit may be considered as open. Hence the voltmeter
reading gives the emf of the cell.
✓ External resistance R is included in the circuit and current
I is established in the circuit..
✓ The potential drop across the resistor R is
V = IR ………..(1)
Due to internal resistance r of the cell, the voltmeter reads a
value V, which is less than the emf of cell .
V = 𝜀 – Ir
Ir = 𝜀 – V …………..(2)
Dividing (2) by (1)
𝜀 −V
r =(
V
) R Since ξ, V and R are known, internal resistance r can be determined.
 2.17
A battery has an emf of 12 V and connected to a resistor of 3 Ω. The current in the circuit is
3.93 A. Calculate (a) terminal voltage and the internal resistance of the battery (b) power
delivered by the battery and power delivered to the resistor
Given: 𝜀 = 12𝑉 , 𝑅 = 3 , 𝐼 = 3.93 𝐴 , power delivered by the battery = 𝐼𝜀 and power delivered
to the resistor = 𝐼2 𝑅
ε−V
Formula for (a) 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 , r=(
V
) R . (b) 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 , 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜀𝐼

Cells in series

In series connection, the negative terminal of one cell is

connected to the positive terminal of the second cell, the
negative terminal of second cell is connected to the positive
terminal of the third cell and so on. The free positive terminal of
the first cell and the free negative terminal of the last cell
become the terminals of the battery.
The total emf of the battery = n 𝜀
The total resistance in the circuit = nr + R
By Ohm’s law, the current in the circuit is
total emf n𝜀
I= = ………(1)
total resistance nr + R

Case (a) If 𝒓 << 𝑹, then,

n𝜀
I= ≈ nI1
R
I1 - Current due to single cell

Case (b) If 𝒓 >> 𝑹,

n𝜀 𝜀
I= ≈
nr r
1. Current due to the whole battery is the same as that due to a single cell and hence there is
no advantage in connecting several cells
2. Thus series connection of cells is advantageous only when the effective internal
resistance of the cells is negligibly small compared with R.

E X A M P L E 2.18

From the given circuit,

Find
i) Equivalent emf of the combination = 𝒏𝜺
ii) Equivalent internal resistance = 𝒏𝒓
nξ
iii) Total current I =
nr+R
iv) Potential difference across external resistance 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
 𝑽
v) Potential difference across each cell
𝒏

Given : 𝜀 = 0.1 , 𝑉 = 9 , 𝑅 = 10

Cell in Parallel
✓ In parallel connection all the positive terminals of the cells are
connected to one point and all the negative terminals to a second
point. These two points form the positive and negative terminals
of the battery.
✓ Let n cells be connected in parallel between the points A and B
and a resistance R is connected between the points A and B .
✓ Let ξ be the emf and r the internal resistance of each cell.
1 1 1 1 1
The equivalent internal resistance of the battery is r = r + r + r ….. r (𝐧 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐬)
eq
r
req =
n
r
Total resistance of the circuit = R +
n
𝜀
Current in the circuit is given by I = r
R+
n
n𝜀
I=
nR + r
Case (a) If 𝒓 >> 𝑹,
n𝜀
I=I= ≈ nI1
R
I1 - Current due to single cell

Case (b) If 𝒓 << 𝑹,

𝜀
I=
R
1. From above equation that current due to the whole battery is the same as that due to a
single cell.
2. Hence it is advantageous to connect cells in parallel when the external resistance is
very small compared to the internal resistance of the cells.

E X A M P L E 2.19 given circuit

Find
i) Equivalent emf 𝜺 = 𝟓𝑽
𝒓
ii) Equivalent internal resistance
𝒏
ξ
iii) Total current (I) I = r
+R
n
iv) Potential difference across each cell 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
v) Current from each cell = I/n
Ohm’s law is useful only for simple circuits. For more complex circuits, Kirchhoff ’s rules can be
used to find current and voltage.
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

Kirchhoff’s first rule (Current rule or Junction rule)

✓ It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any
junction of a circuit is zero.
✓ It is a statement of conservation of electric charge.
✓ Current entering the junction is taken as positive and
current leaving the junction is taken as negative.
Applying this law to the junction A
I1 + I2 – I3 - I4 - I5 = 0

Kirchhoff’s Second rule (Voltage rule or Loop rule)

✓ It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of
the products of the current and resistance of each part
of the circuit is equal to the total emf included in the
circuit.
✓ This rule follows from the law of conservation of
energy for an isolated system.
✓ The product of current and resistance is taken as
positive when the direction of the current is followed.
Suppose if the direction of current is opposite to the
direction of the loop, then product of current and
voltage across the resistor is negative. It is shown in
(a) and (b).
✓ The emf is considered positive when proceeding from
the negative to the positive terminal of the cell. It is
shown in (c) and (d).

E X A M P L E 2.20
For the given circuit find the value of I
Wheatstone’s bridge.
✓ An important application of Kirchhoff ’s rules is the Wheatstone’s bridge. It is used to
compare resistances and also helps in
determining the unknown resistance in electrical
network.
✓ The bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R
and S connected.
✓ A galvanometer G is connected between the
points B and D.
✓ The battery is connected between the points A
and C. The current through the galvanometer is
IG and its resistance is G.
Applying Kirchhoff ’s current rule to junction B
I1 – IG – I3 = 0 ……………..(1)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s current rule to junction D,
I2 + IG – I4 = 0 ……………..(2)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule to loop ABDA,
I1P + IGG – I2R = 0 ……………..(3)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule to loop ABCDA,
I1P + I3Q – I2R – I4S = 0 ………..(4)
When the points B and D are at the same potential, the bridge is said to be balanced , no
current flows through galvanometer
IG = 0.
Substituting IG = 0 in (1) , (2) , (3) , (4)
I1 = I3 ……………..(5)
I2 =I4 ……………..(6)
I1P = I2R ……………..(7)
Sub (5) & (6) in (4)
I1P + I1Q – I2R – I2S = 0
I1 (P + Q) = I2(R +S) ………………(8)
Dividing (8) by (7)
P+Q R+S
=
P R
Q S
1+ =1+
P R
𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐒
https://youtu.be/apYROD1FikM?t=6

https://youtu.be/xyZ6CD6G3Ro?t=89
Meter bridge
1) The meter bridge is another form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
2) It consists of a uniform manganin wire AB of one
meter length.
3) This wire is stretched along a meter scale on a
wooden board between two copper strips C and
D.
4) Between these two copper strips another copper
strip E is mounted to enclose two gaps G1 and G2
5) An unknown resistance P is connected in G1 and a standard resistance Q is connected
in G2.
6) A jockey (conducting wire) is connected to the terminal E on the central copper strip
through a galvanometer (G) and a high resistance (HR).
7) The exact position of jockey on the wire can be read on the scale. A Lechlanche cell
and a key (K) are connected across the ends of the bridge.
8) The position of the jockey on the wire is adjusted so that the galvanometer shows zero
deflection. Let the point be J. The lengths AJ and JB of the bridge wire now replace
the resistance R and S of the Wheatstone’s bridge. Then
P R r.AJ
= =
Q S r.BJ
P AJ l1
= =
Q JB l2
𝐥𝟏
P=Q
𝐥𝟐
The bridge wire is soldered at the ends of the copper strips. Due to imperfect contact, some
resistance might be introduced at the contact. These are called end resistances. This error can
be eliminated, if another set of readings are taken with P and Q interchanged and the average
value of P is found
https://youtu.be/JTvzP7HrMxU?t=35

E X A M P L E 2.23
In a Wheatstone’s bridge P = 100 Ω, Q = 1000 Ω and R = 40 Ω. If the galvanometer shows
zero deflection, determine the value of S.
Given: P = 100 Ω, Q = 1000 Ω and R = 40 Ω.
To find: 𝑆
𝑃 𝑅
Formula: =
𝑄 𝑆
EXAMPLE 2.24
What is the value of x when the Wheatstone’s network is balanced?

Given: 𝑃 = 5000, 𝑄 = 800, 𝑅 = 𝑥 + 400 , 𝑆 = 1000

EXAMPLE 2.25
In a meter bridge experiment with a standard resistance of 15 Ω in the right gap, the
ratio of balancing length is 3:2. Find the value of the other resistance.
𝑙 3
Given: 𝑄 = 15 , 1 =
𝑙2 2
To find: 𝑃
l1
Formula: P = Q
l2

EXAMPLE 2.26
In a meter bridge experiment, the value of resistance in the resistance box connected in
the right gap is 10 Ω. The balancing length is 𝒍 = 55 cm. Find the value of unknown
𝟏

resistance.
Given: 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟎 , 𝒍 = 55 cm, 𝒍𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟒𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟏

To find: 𝑃
l1
Formula: P = Q
l2
Potentiometer
Potentiometer is used for the accurate measurement of potential differences, current and
resistances.
It consists of ten meter long uniform wire of manganin or constantan stretched in parallel
rows each of 1 meter length, on a wooden board.
The two free ends A and B are brought to the same side and fixed to copper strips with
binding screws. A meter scale is fixed parallel to the wire.
A jockey is provided for making contact.

The battery, key and the potentiometer wire connected in series form the primary circuit. The
positive terminal of a primary cell of emf ε is connected to the point C and negative terminal is
connected to the jockey through a galvanometer G and a high resistance HR. This forms the
secondary circuit.
Let the contact be made at any point J on the wire by jockey. If the potential difference across CJ
is equal to the emf of the cell ε, then no current will flow through the galvanometer and it will
show zero deflection. CJ is the balancing length l. The potential difference across CJ is equal to
Irl where I is the current flowing through the wire and r is the resistance per unit length of the
wire.
Hence ε = Irl

Since I and r are constants, ε ∝ l. The emf of the cell is directly proportional to the balancing
length.
Emf of two cells are compared using potentiometer
1) Potentiometer wire CD is connected to a battery Bt and a key K in series. This is the
primary circuit. The end C of the wire is connected to the terminal M of a DPDT (Double
Pole Double Throw) switch and the other terminal N is connected to a jockey through a
galvanometer G and a high resistance HR.
2) The cells whose emf 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 to be compared are
connected to the terminals M1 , N1 and M2, N2 of the
DPDT switch.
3) The positive terminals of Bt, ε1 and ε2 should be
connected to the same end C.
4) The DPDT switch is pressed towards M1, N1 so that
cell ε1 is included in the secondary circuit and the
balancing length l1 is found by adjusting the jockey
for zero deflection.
5) Then the second cell 𝜀2 is included in the circuit and the balancing length l2 is
determined.
6) Let r be the resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire and I be the current
flowing through the wire.
ε1 = Irl1 … (1) , ε2 = Irl2….(2)
Dividing (1) by (2)
ε1 l1
=
ε2 l2
https://youtu.be/GvogWA3-W1w?t=19
https://youtu.be/TZXvp8d-ntg?si=0awsFumkUVPpTorM

Measurement of internal resistance of a cell by potentiometer

✓ The end C of the potentiometer wire is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery Bt and the negative terminal of the
battery is connected to the end D through a key K1. This forms
the primary circuit.
✓ The positive terminal of the cell whose internal resistance is to
be determined is also connected to the end C of the wire.
✓ The negative terminal of the cell is connected to a jockey through a galvanometer and
a high resistance.
✓ A resistance box R and key K2 are connected across the cell . With K2 open, the
balancing point J is obtained and the balancing length CJ = l1 is measured.
✓ Since the cell is in open circuit, its emf is ε ∝ l1
✓ 10 Ω resistance is included in the resistance box and key K2 is closed.
ε
I= ………(1)
R+r
The potential difference across R is
εR
V=
R+r
When this potential difference is balanced on the potentiometer wire, let l2 be the balancing
εR
length. ∝ l2 ………..(2)
R+r
From (1) & (2)
R+r 𝒍𝟏 𝑙 −𝑙2
= r=R(1 )
R 𝒍𝟐 𝑙2

HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

When current flows through a resistor, some of the electrical energy delivered to the
resistor is converted into heat energy and it is dissipated. This heating effect of
current is known as Joule’s heating effect.

Joule’s law
If a current I flows through a conductor kept across a potential difference V for a time t, the
work done or the electric potential energy spent is
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑄
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
In the absence of any other external effect, this energy is spent in heating the conductor. The
amount of heat(H) produced is
H = VIt
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐻 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑡
It states that the heat developed in an electrical circuit due to the flow of current varies
directly as
(i) the square of the current
(ii) the resistance of the circuit and
(iii) the time of flow.

E X A M P L E 2.27
Find the heat energy produced in a resistance of 10 Ω when 5 A current flows through it
for 5 minutes.
Given: 𝑅 = 10 , 𝐼 = 5 , 𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 5 × 60𝑠 = 300𝑠
To find: Heat H
Formula: H = I 2 Rt
Application of Joule’s heating effect
1. Electric heaters
Electric iron, electric heater, electric toaster are some of the home appliances that utilize the
heating effect of current.
In these appliances, the heating elements are made of nichrome, an alloy of nickel and
chromium.
Nichrome has a high specific resistance and can be heated to very high temperatures without
oxidation.

Electric fuses
✓ Fuses are connected in series in a circuit to protect the electric devices from the heat
developed by the passage of excessive current. It is a short length of a wire made of a
low melting point material. It melts and breaks the circuit if current exceeds a certain
value.
✓ Whenever there is an excessive current produced due to faulty wire connection, the
circuit breaker switch opens. After repairing the faulty connection, we can close the
circuit breaker switch.
3. Electric furnace
✓ Furnaces are used to manufacture a large number of technologically important
materials such as steel, silicon carbide, quartz, gallium arsenide, etc).
✓ To produce temperatures up to 1500°C, molybdenum-nichrome wire wound on a silica
tube is used. Carbon arc furnaces produce temperatures up to 3000 °C.

4. Electrical lamp
✓ It consists of a tungsten filament (melting point 3380 0C) kept inside a glass bulb and
heated to incandescence by current. In incandescent electric lamps only about 5% of
electrical energy is converted into light and the rest is wasted as heat.
✓ Electric discharge lamps, electric welding and electric arc also utilize the heating
effect of current

THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT
Conversion of temperature differences into electrical voltage and vice versa is known as
thermoelectric effect.

Seebeck effect
Seebeck discovered that in a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the
junctions are maintained at different temperatures an emf (potential difference) is
developed.
The current that flows due to the emf developed is called thermoelectric current.
The two dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is known as thermocouple
https://youtu.be/YhxXjPp9xxo?t=20

Applications of Seebeck effect

1. Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (Seebeck generators).These
thermoelectric generators are used in power plants to convert waste heat into electricity.
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators for increasing
fuel efficiency.
3. Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and thermopiles to measure the temperature
difference between the two objects.

Peltier effect
In 1834, Peltier discovered that when an electric current is passed
through a circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This is known as
Peltier effect.

In the Cu-Fe thermocouple the junctions A and B are maintained at the

same temperature. Let a current from a battery flow through the
thermocouple.
At the junction A, where the current flows from Cu to Fe, heat is
absorbed and the junction A becomes cold.
At the junction B, where the current flows from Fe to Cu heat is
liberated and it becomes hot. When the direction of current is
reversed, junction A gets heated and junction B gets cooled. Hence Peltier effect is reversible

Thomson effect
Thomson showed that if two points in a conductor are at different temperatures, the
density of electrons at these points will differ and as a result the potential difference is
created between these points. Thomson effect is also reversible.

If current is passed through a copper bar AB which is heated

at the middle point C, the point C will be at higher potential.
This indicates that the heat is absorbed along AC and evolved
along CB of the conductor/
Thus heat is transferred due to the current flow in the
direction of the current. It is called positive Thomson effect.
Similar effect is observed in metals like silver, zinc, and
cadmium.

When the copper bar is replaced by an iron bar, heat is

evolved along CA and absorbed along BC. Thus heat is
transferred due to the current flow in the direction opposite to the direction of current. It is
called negative Thomson effect Similar effect is observed in metals like platinum, nickel, cobalt,
and mercury.