Dire Dawa University

College of natural and computational science

Biology Department
Assignment for: Wildlife Ecology and management (Biol.453) Course Total Load: 40%

Academic year: 2017 E.C Semester: Winter- IV

Q#1. Define Wildlife, Wildlife management and Conservation (5 pts)

* Wildlife: Refers to all undomesticated plants, animals, fungi, and other organisms living in natural
habitats. While commonly associated with animals, it broadly encompasses all non-human, non-
domesticated species and their ecosystems. All non-domesticated animals living in their natural
environment. This includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates.

* Wildlife Management: The application of ecological and other scientific principles to the
conservation, use, and management of wildlife populations and their habitats. It aims to maintain
healthy populations of wild animals, often for a variety of purposes such as hunting, fishing, or
ecotourism, while also considering the needs of ecosystems and human communities. The science and
practice of maintaining wildlife populations and their habitats through active interventions. This includes
monitoring species, regulating hunting/fishing, habitat restoration, and controlling invasive species to
ensure ecological balance and sustainable use.

* Conservation: The protection, preservation, management, or restoration of natural environments and

the ecological communities that inhabit them. In the context of wildlife, conservation focuses on
maintaining healthy populations of wild animals and their habitats, preventing species extinctions, and
preserving biodiversity. The long-term protection and preservation of biodiversity, ecosystems, and
natural resources. It emphasizes preventing extinction, maintaining genetic diversity, and promoting
sustainable human practices to harmonize ecological health with human needs.

Q#2.Describe the distinctions between manipulative and custodial approaches to managing

different wildlife species and their main goals? (4pts).

Wildlife management employs two main approaches: manipulative and custodial. Here's a breakdown of
their distinctions and goals:

Manipulative Management

* Definition: This approach involves actively influencing wildlife populations or their habitats. It's often
used when a population needs to be increased, decreased, or maintained at a certain level.

* Methods:

* Direct:

* Population Control: Activities like hunting, trapping, or culling to manage population size.

* Translocation: Moving animals from one area to another.

* Indirect:

* Habitat Modification: Altering food, water, shelter, or other environmental factors.

* Predator Control: Managing predator populations to influence prey species.

* Disease Management: Addressing diseases that affect wildlife populations.

* Goals:

* Population Regulation: Maintaining a desired population size for sustainable use or to prevent
overpopulation.

* Species Restoration: Increasing populations of endangered or threatened species.

* Habitat Improvement: Enhancing habitat quality to support specific wildlife needs.

* Human-Wildlife Conflict Mitigation: Reducing negative interactions between humans and wildlife.

Custodial Management

* Definition: This approach focuses on protecting wildlife and their habitats with minimal human
intervention. It emphasizes preservation and allowing natural processes to shape wildlife populations.

* Methods:
 * Habitat Preservation: Establishing protected areas like national parks or reserves.

* Law Enforcement: Enforcing regulations against poaching, hunting, or habitat destruction.

* Education and Awareness: Raising public awareness about wildlife conservation.

* Species Protection: Implementing measures to protect endangered or threatened species.

* Goals:

* Biodiversity Conservation: Preserving the variety of life forms and ecosystems.

* Ecosystem Integrity: Maintaining the natural functioning of ecosystems.

* Species Preservation: Preventing extinctions and protecting vulnerable species.

* Natural Regulation: Allowing natural processes to regulate wildlife populations.

Key Differences

* Level of Intervention: Manipulative management involves active intervention, while custodial

management minimizes human interference.

* Focus: Manipulative management often targets specific populations or species, while custodial
management takes a broader ecosystem approach.

* Objectives: Manipulative management may aim for sustainable use or population control, while
custodial management prioritizes preservation and natural regulation.

The choice between manipulative and custodial management depends on various factors, including the
species, its conservation status, the specific management goals, and the ecological context.

Q#3. Explain the concept of habitat fragmentation and its impact on wildlife. (3pts).

Habitat fragmentation is the process where a large, continuous habitat is broken into smaller, isolated
patches. This is primarily caused by human activities like:

* Deforestation: Clearing forests for agriculture, urbanization, or logging.

* Urbanization: Expanding cities and towns, leading to habitat loss and fragmentation.

* Infrastructure Development: Building roads, railways, and power lines that dissect habitats.

* Agriculture: Converting natural habitats into farmland.

Impacts on Wildlife:
Habitat fragmentation has numerous negative consequences for wildlife:

* Loss of Habitat: The most obvious impact is the reduction in the total amount of habitat available for
wildlife. This can lead to population declines and even extinctions, especially for species that require
large home ranges or specialized habitats.

* Isolation of Populations: Fragmented habitats create isolated "islands" of wildlife populations. This
can prevent animals from moving freely to find food, mates, or suitable breeding grounds. Isolation can
lead to:

* Reduced genetic diversity: Smaller, isolated populations have less genetic variation, making them
more vulnerable to diseases and environmental changes.

* Increased inbreeding: Inbreeding can lead to genetic defects and reduced reproductive success.

* Local extinctions: Small populations are more susceptible to local extinction events due to factors like
disease outbreaks or natural disasters.

* Edge Effects: The edges of habitat fragments have different environmental conditions than the
interior, such as increased sunlight, wind, and temperature fluctuations. These edge effects can
penetrate deep into the fragment, altering the habitat and making it unsuitable for some species.

* Increased Predation: Fragmented habitats can make animals more vulnerable to predators. For
example, animals may have to cross open areas to move between fragments, increasing their exposure
to predators.

* Disruption of Ecological Processes: Fragmentation can disrupt important ecological processes such as:

* Migration: Animals may be unable to migrate long distances to find food or breeding grounds.

* Pollination: Fragmentation can reduce the movement of pollinators, affecting plant reproduction.

* Seed dispersal: Fragmentation can limit the dispersal of seeds, affecting forest regeneration.

* Increased Human-Wildlife Conflict: As habitats become fragmented, animals may come into closer
contact with humans, leading to increased conflicts over resources or space.

Overall, habitat fragmentation is a major threat to wildlife populations. It reduces habitat availability,
isolates populations, alters habitat quality, and disrupts ecological processes. These impacts can lead to
population declines, local extinctions, and even global extinctions of species.

Q#4. Discuss the main ecological requirements of wildlife populations? (4p ts)

Wildlife populations, like all living organisms, have specific ecological needs that must be met for their
survival and well-being. These requirements can be broadly categorized into:

* Habitat: This encompasses the physical environment where a species lives and includes:
 * Food: A sufficient and accessible source of nutrition, which varies depending on the species (e.g.,
plants, insects, other animals).

* Water: Access to clean and reliable water sources for drinking, bathing, and other needs.

* Shelter: Places for protection from predators, weather, and for raising young (e.g., dens, burrows,
nests, vegetation).

* Space: Adequate area to roam, forage, breed, and establish territories. The size of the space
requirement varies greatly among species.

* Interactions with other species: Wildlife populations are part of complex food webs and rely on
interactions with other species:

* Predator-prey relationships: The balance between predators and their prey is crucial for population
regulation.

* Competition: Species may compete for resources like food, water, or mates.

* Symbiosis: Some species have mutually beneficial relationships (e.g., pollinators and plants).

* Disease and parasites: Wildlife can be affected by diseases and parasites, which can impact
population health.

* Environmental conditions: Wildlife populations are influenced by various environmental factors:

* Climate: Temperature, rainfall, and other weather patterns can affect habitat suitability and food
availability.

* Natural disturbances: Events like fires, floods, or droughts can alter habitats and impact populations.

* Pollution: Contamination of air, water, or soil can have detrimental effects on wildlife health and
reproduction.

* Reproductive requirements: Successful reproduction is essential for maintaining healthy populations:

* Mating opportunities: Finding suitable mates and successfully breeding.

* Nesting or birthing sites: Safe and suitable locations for raising young.

* Parental care: Providing care and protection for offspring.

Meeting these ecological requirements is crucial for the survival and long-term viability of wildlife
populations. When these needs are not met, populations can decline, become fragmented, or even go
extinct. Conservation efforts often focus on protecting and restoring habitats, managing populations,
and mitigating human impacts to ensure that wildlife can thrive.
Q#5. Describe the major threats affecting wildlife resources of Ethiopia and prioritize them
based on their effect (4 pts)

Ethiopia, with its diverse ecosystems, harbors a rich variety of wildlife. However, these resources face
numerous threats, jeopardizing their survival. Here are some of the major threats, prioritized based on
their impact:

1. Habitat Loss and Degradation:

* Description: This is the most significant threat. It involves the conversion of natural habitats (forests,
grasslands, wetlands) into agricultural land, settlements, or infrastructure. Deforestation for fuel wood
and construction also contributes.

* Impact: Loss of food and shelter, fragmentation of populations, increased vulnerability to predators,
and disruption of ecological processes.

2. Human-Wildlife Conflict:

* Description: As human populations expand and encroach on wildlife habitats, conflicts arise. Animals
may raid crops, damage property, or even pose a threat to human lives. This often leads to retaliatory
killings of wildlife.

* Impact: Declines in wildlife populations, particularly large mammals like elephants, lions, and
primates. Negative attitudes towards wildlife conservation among local communities.

3. Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trade:

* Description: The illegal hunting of wildlife for their meat, fur, or other body parts (ivory, rhino horn)
fuels a lucrative international trade. This threatens endangered species like elephants, rhinos, and
Ethiopian wolves.

* Impact: Severe population declines, local extinctions, and disruption of ecosystems. Undermines
conservation efforts and deprives Ethiopia of its natural heritage.

4. Overgrazing and Livestock Encroachment:

* Description: Excessive livestock grazing in and around protected areas degrades habitats, reduces
food availability for wild herbivores, and can lead to soil erosion.

* Impact: Competition for resources, habitat degradation, and reduced carrying capacity for wildlife.

5. Climate Change:

* Description: Changing climate patterns, including increased temperatures, droughts, and erratic
rainfall, are altering habitats and impacting wildlife distribution and survival.
* Impact: Shifts in species ranges, changes in migration patterns, increased vulnerability to diseases, and
potential extinctions.

6. Invasive Species:

* Description: Introduction of non-native species that compete with native wildlife for resources, prey
on them, or alter habitats.

* Impact: Disruption of ecological balance, decline of native species, and difficulty in controlling invasive
species.

7. Pollution:

* Description: Contamination of water, soil, and air from agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and
urbanization can harm wildlife and their habitats.

* Impact: Reduced reproductive success, health problems, and even death in wildlife.

It's important to note that these threats are interconnected and often exacerbate each other.
Addressing these challenges requires integrated conservation strategies that involve government
agencies, local communities, NGOs, and international organizations.

Q#6. . I). What is the difference between invasive and exotic species and how invasive species can cause
threat to wildlife? (3 pts)

ii). What are the factors that affect an invasive species and exotic species being dominant in a given
area? (3 pts)

I) Difference between invasive and exotic species and how invasive species can cause threat
to wildlife:

* Exotic species: A species that is introduced to a new geographic area where it is not native. This
introduction can be intentional or accidental.

* Invasive species: An exotic species that establishes itself in a new environment and causes harm to
the native ecosystem, economy, or human health.

Key difference: Not all exotic species are invasive. An exotic species is only considered invasive if it
causes negative impacts.

How invasive species threaten wildlife:

 * Competition: Invasive species can compete with native wildlife for resources like food, water, and
shelter. This can lead to declines in native populations.

* Predation: Invasive predators can prey on native animals that have not evolved defenses against
them. This can lead to local extinctions of native species.

* Habitat alteration: Invasive species can alter habitats, making them unsuitable for native wildlife. For
example, invasive plants can outcompete native vegetation and change the structure of the habitat.

* Disease transmission: Invasive species can introduce new diseases to an area, which can then spread
to native wildlife populations.

* Disruption of ecological processes: Invasive species can disrupt important ecological processes such
as pollination, seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling.

II) Factors that affect an invasive/exotic species being dominant:

* Lack of natural predators or competitors: In their new environment, invasive species may not have
the natural enemies that kept their populations in check in their native range. This allows them to grow
and spread rapidly.

* High reproductive rate: Invasive species often have high reproductive rates, allowing them to quickly
establish large populations.

* Adaptability: Invasive species are often highly adaptable to a wide range of environmental conditions,
allowing them to thrive in their new environment.

* Human disturbance: Human activities can create disturbances in ecosystems that make them more
susceptible to invasion. For example, deforestation or urbanization can create open spaces that invasive
species can easily colonize.

* Climate change: Climate change can make some areas more suitable for invasive species and less
suitable for native species.

* Introduction pathways: The frequency and method of introduction can affect the likelihood of a
species becoming established. For example, species that are repeatedly introduced are more likely to
establish a population.

It's important to note that not all exotic species become invasive. Many exotic species remain harmless
and do not cause any negative impacts. However, the factors listed above can increase the likelihood of
a species becoming invasive and causing harm to the native ecosystem.

Q#7. Briefly describe the difference between National Park, Sanctuary & wildlife reserves?(3pts)
Both National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries are protected areas, but they differ in their purpose and
level of restriction:

National Park:

* Purpose: To conserve the entire ecosystem, including flora, fauna, and the landscape.

* Restrictions: More stringent; human activities like grazing and hunting are strictly prohibited.

* Focus: Broader conservation efforts, often encompassing a larger area.

Wildlife Sanctuary:

* Purpose: Primarily focused on the conservation of specific species or groups of animals.

* Restrictions: Relatively less strict; some human activities may be permitted under controlled
conditions.

* Focus: Species-specific conservation, potentially smaller in size compared to national parks.

Wildlife Reserve:

* Purpose: Similar to a wildlife sanctuary, with an emphasis on protecting wildlife and their habitat.

* Restrictions: Can vary, but generally allow for some level of human activity.

* Focus: May prioritize certain species or habitats, but can also have broader conservation goals.

In summary:

* National Parks have the highest level of protection and focus on overall ecosystem preservation.

* Wildlife Sanctuaries prioritize specific species or groups of animals, with slightly more relaxed
restrictions.

* Wildlife Reserves often share similar goals with sanctuaries but may have more flexible management
approaches.

Q#8. Describe the different methods of wildlife Inventory and monitoring Techniques (3 points)

Wildlife inventory and monitoring techniques are essential for understanding the status and trends of
wildlife populations. Here are some common methods:

1. Direct Observation and Counts:

* Visual Surveys: Trained observers identify and count animals within a specific area using binoculars,
spotting scopes, or aerial surveys. This method is suitable for large, visible animals.
* Camera Trapping: Deployed cameras capture images or videos of animals, providing data on their
presence, abundance, and behavior. This is useful for elusive or nocturnal species.

* Mark-Recapture: Individuals are captured, marked, and released. Subsequent captures allow
researchers to estimate population size and other demographic parameters.

2. Indirect Methods:

* Track and Sign Surveys: Identifying and analyzing animal tracks, scat, feathers, or other signs to infer
species presence, distribution, and activity.

* Acoustic Monitoring: Recording animal sounds (e.g., calls, songs) to detect and identify species,
especially birds, amphibians, and bats.

* Environmental DNA (eDNA) Analysis: Collecting DNA from water, soil, or air samples to detect the
presence of species, even if they are not directly observed.

3. Technological Approaches:

* GPS Tracking: Attaching GPS devices to animals to track their movements, home ranges, and habitat
use.

* Remote Sensing: Using satellite imagery or aerial photography to map habitats, monitor changes in
vegetation, and assess wildlife populations over large areas.

* Bioacoustics: Analyzing animal sounds to identify species, assess population density, and study
behavior.

4. Community-Based Monitoring:

* Citizen Science: Engaging volunteers in data collection and monitoring efforts, often through
standardized protocols and online platforms.

* Local Ecological Knowledge: Incorporating traditional knowledge and observations from local
communities to understand wildlife patterns and trends.

Choosing the appropriate method depends on the target species, study objectives, available resources,
and the environment.

Q#9. Wild animal populations mostly adjust their breeding season towards the rainy seasons; justify the
reason for such adjustments (4 pts).

This is for informational purposes only. For medical advice or diagnosis, consult a professional.

Wild animals often adjust their breeding seasons to coincide with rainy seasons for several key reasons:
* Increased Food Availability: Rainy seasons typically lead to a surge in plant growth, providing
abundant food sources for herbivores and the animals that prey on them. This increased food
availability is crucial for pregnant or lactating females, who require extra nutrition to support their
developing offspring.

* Improved Habitat Conditions: Rainy seasons often bring relief from dry, harsh conditions. Water
sources replenish, vegetation becomes lush, and temperatures may become milder. These improved
habitat conditions provide a more favorable environment for raising young, who are often more
vulnerable to extreme weather.

* Synchronized Breeding: In some species, breeding seasons are synchronized with the rainy season to
maximize mating opportunities. When many individuals breed at the same time, it increases the chances
of finding a mate.

* Reduced Predation Risk: In some cases, breeding during the rainy season may help reduce predation
risk. The increased vegetation cover can provide better camouflage for young animals, and the
abundance of prey may make it more difficult for predators to focus on specific individuals.

* Optimal Timing for Offspring Development: By timing their breeding with the rainy season, animals
ensure that their offspring are born into an environment with ample food and resources, increasing their
chances of survival and successful development.

Overall, adjusting breeding seasons to coincide with rainy seasons is a crucial adaptation for many wild
animals. It allows them to take advantage of favorable environmental conditions, maximize reproductive
success, and ensure the survival of their offspring.

Q#10.. Name three international legislation and/or conventions that supports wildlife conservation
efforts and briefly describe their purpose. (4 pts)11

Here are three important international agreements that support wildlife conservation:

* Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): CITES
regulates the international trade of wild animals and plants to ensure that it does not threaten the
survival of species. It lists species under different appendices based on their level of endangerment and
imposes varying degrees of trade restrictions.

* Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The CBD aims to conserve biological diversity, including
ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity. It promotes sustainable use of biodiversity and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

* Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS): CMS focuses on the
conservation of migratory animals that cross national boundaries. It encourages international
cooperation to protect these species and their habitats throughout their migratory ranges.