Here are the answers to the questions from the provided document.

Module 1: Memory Devices

1.
Explain the basic concepts of electronic memory.

Electronic memory is a component that stores digital data. The fundamental concept revolves around a memory cell, the basic unit
that can hold one bit of information (a 1 or a 0). These cells are organized into a larger array, accessible through addresses. Memory
is broadly classified into volatile memory, which requires power to maintain the stored information (like RAM), and non-volatile
memory, which retains data even when power is off (like flash drives or SSDs).

2.
Infer the details of the different types of electronic memory.
 Electronic memory includes RAM (Random Access Memory), which is volatile and used for temporary data storage, and ROM (Read-
Only Memory), which is non-volatile and stores firmware. Flash memory, a type of non-volatile memory, is widely used in SSDs and
USB drives for its speed and durability. Newer types include MRAM (Magnetoresistive RAM) and FeRAM (Ferroelectric RAM), which are
non-volatile and offer high speed and endurance, aiming to combine the best features of RAM and ROM.

3.
Write a note on Organic molecule-based memory used in organic memory devices?

Organic molecule-based memory uses organic molecules as the active material for data storage. These devices function by switching
the organic material between two different conductivity states (a high-resistance "OFF" state and a low-resistance "ON" state) by
applying an external voltage. This change in resistance represents the stored bits (0s and 1s). Materials like pentacene and polymers
are used, offering advantages like flexibility, low cost, and large-area fabrication, making them suitable for flexible electronics.

4.
Explain how Copper-TCNQ complex is suitable for electronic applications.

The Copper-Tetracyanoquinodimethane (Cu-TCNQ) complex is a charge-transfer material well-suited for memory devices. It exhibits
electrical bistability, meaning it can be switched between a high-resistance (OFF) and a low-resistance (ON) state with an applied
voltage. This switching is reversible and non-volatile, allowing it to function as a memory cell. Its suitability comes from its simple
structure, ease of fabrication through methods like vapor deposition, and reliable performance, making it a promising candidate for
organic electronic memory.

5.
 What is Polymer-based memory? Summarise the different Polymeric materials that are being used in organic memory devices?

Polymer-based memory is a type of non-volatile memory that uses polymers as the data storage medium. These devices work by
changing the polymer's electrical properties, such as resistance or capacitance, to store data. Commonly used polymeric materials
include ferroelectric polymers like PVDF, which store data using electric polarization. Conjugated polymers like polyaniline and
polythiophene are also used, where data is stored by changing their conductivity states. These materials enable the creation of
flexible and transparent memory devices.

6.
Classify electronic memory devices, each with suitable explanation.

Electronic memory is classified primarily by its volatility. Volatile Memory, such as SRAM (Static RAM) and DRAM (Dynamic RAM),
requires constant power to retain data and is used for primary storage. Non-Volatile Memory retains data without power and
includes ROM (Read-Only Memory), Flash Memory (used in SSDs), and emerging technologies like MRAM (uses magnetic states) and
FeRAM (uses ferroelectric polarization). Another classification is by access method, with Random Access (e.g., RAM) and Sequential
Access (e.g., magnetic tape).

7.
Infer what are organic-inorganic hybrid materials. Write a note on Au nanoparticle with 8-hydroxy quinoline as a hybrid material
used in memory devices.

Organic-inorganic hybrid materials combine organic components (like polymers or small molecules) with inorganic elements (like
metal nanoparticles) to create materials with enhanced properties. The Au nanoparticle with 8-hydroxy quinoline (Alq3) is such a
hybrid material for memory applications. In this system, gold (Au) nanoparticles are embedded within a matrix of Alq3, an organic
 semiconductor. The device stores data by trapping and de-trapping charges in the gold nanoparticles, which is controlled by an
external voltage, creating distinct ON/OFF states suitable for memory.

8.
Explain Classification of Electronic Memory Devices.

Electronic memory devices are broadly categorized into two main types: volatile and non-volatile. Volatile memory, like RAM
(Random Access Memory), holds data only while it receives power and is used for active tasks. Non-volatile memory, such as flash
drives, SSDs, and ROM (Read-Only Memory), retains its stored information even after the power is turned off. These categories are
further divided by their architecture and material, such as DRAM, SRAM, Flash, MRAM, and FeRAM, each offering different
performance characteristics.

Module 2: Liquid crystals and display systems

1.
 Relate the differences between liquid crystals and solid/liquid crystals?

Liquid crystals represent a distinct phase of matter between a conventional liquid and a solid. Unlike a regular liquid, where
molecules are randomly oriented, liquid crystals have molecules that possess a degree of orientational order. However, unlike a
solid crystal, they lack long-range positional order and can flow like a liquid. In essence, they combine the fluidity of liquids with the
anisotropic (directionally dependent) properties of crystalline solids, such as how they interact with light.

2.
What are liquid crystals? Mention their properties.

Liquid crystals are a state of matter that has properties between those of conventional liquids and solid crystals. Key properties
include anisotropy, meaning their physical properties (like optical and electrical) change with direction. They are thermotropic,
changing phase with temperature, or lyotropic, changing with concentration in a solvent. Critically, the orientation of liquid crystal
molecules can be easily manipulated by electric fields, which is the fundamental principle behind their use in displays (LCDs).

3.
Infer what is Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)? Explain the classification of liquid crystals with suitable examples.

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a flat-panel display technology that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. It doesn't
emit light directly but uses a backlight and polarizers to control which pixels are lit. Liquid crystals are classified based on molecular
arrangement. Nematic crystals (e.g., MBBA) have molecules aligned in the same direction but not in layers. Smectic crystals (e.g.,
ethyl-p-azoxybenzoate) have molecules aligned in parallel layers. Cholesteric crystals are chiral nematic crystals arranged in a
helical structure.
4.
Mention the properties and applications of liquid crystals in LCDs.

The key property of liquid crystals used in LCDs is their ability to change their molecular orientation in response to an applied
electric field. This change alters the polarization of light passing through them. When placed between two polarizers, this effect can
be used to either block light or let it pass, creating an image. This electro-optical effect, combined with their low power
consumption and ability to be arranged in a pixel grid, makes them ideal for applications like televisions, computer monitors, and
smartphone screens.

5.
Write a note on LEDs with a neat diagram.

An LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current flows through it. Inside the LED,
electrons from the n-type semiconductor recombine with holes from the p-type semiconductor at the p-n junction. This
recombination releases energy in the form of photons, producing light. The color of the light depends on the semiconductor
material used. LEDs are highly efficient, have a long lifespan, and are used in everything from general lighting and indicator lights
to traffic signals and digital displays.

(A diagram would show a p-type and n-type semiconductor junction, with arrows indicating the flow of electrons and holes and the
emission of photons from the junction when a forward bias voltage is applied.)

6.
Explain OLEDs. Mention properties and applications. (Draw diagram)
 An OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) is a type of LED where the emissive layer is an organic compound film. When a voltage is
applied, charge carriers (electrons and holes) are injected from the cathode and anode into the organic layers. They recombine in
the emissive layer to produce light. Key properties include being self-emissive (no backlight needed), allowing for thinner screens
and true blacks, wider viewing angles, and flexibility. Applications include high-end TVs, smartphone screens, and flexible lighting
panels.

(A diagram would show a multi-layer structure sandwiched between a cathode and an anode, with layers for electron transport,
hole transport, and the central emissive layer where light is generated.)

7.
Explain QLEDs. Mention its properties and applications. (Draw diagram)

A QLED (Quantum Dot Light Emitting Diode) display is a type of LCD that uses a layer of semiconductor nanocrystals called
quantum dots to enhance color and brightness. In a QLED TV, a blue LED backlight shines through a film containing red and green
quantum dots. These dots absorb the blue light and re-emit it as pure red and green light. This process results in a wider color
gamut, higher peak brightness, and greater color volume compared to traditional LCDs. They are primarily used in premium
televisions and monitors.

(A diagram would show the layers of a display: a blue LED backlight, a quantum dot film, and the standard LCD panel layers like
polarizers and liquid crystals.)

8.
Explain LECs. Mention its properties and applications. (Draw diagram)
 A Light Emitting Electrochemical Cell (LEC) is a solid-state lighting device that combines properties of OLEDs and electrochemical
cells. It consists of a single active layer containing a luminescent polymer mixed with a mobile ion-conducting material, sandwiched
between two electrodes. When a voltage is applied, the mobile ions redistribute to create p- and n-type doped regions near the
electrodes, facilitating charge injection and light emission. LECs are simple to fabricate and can operate at low voltages, making
them suitable for signage, large-area lighting, and displays.

(A diagram would show a single active layer between an anode and a cathode. Within the active layer, it would depict luminescent
polymer molecules and mobile positive and negative ions.)

9.
What are photoactive and electroactive materials. Give examples.

Photoactive materials are substances that exhibit a change in their properties upon exposure to light. This can include absorbing
light to generate electricity (photovoltaic effect) or emitting light when excited. An example is Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), used in
photoresistors. Electroactive materials are materials that change their size, shape, or other physical properties when stimulated by
an electric field. An example is a piezoelectric material like Quartz, which generates a voltage under mechanical stress and deforms
under an electric field.

10.
Explain the working mechanism of photoactive and electroactive materials with a neat diagram.

The working mechanism of a photoactive material (like in a solar cell) involves photons from light striking the material and exciting
electrons to a higher energy state, creating electron-hole pairs. An internal electric field then separates these charges, generating a
 current. For an electroactive material (like a piezoelectric actuator), applying an electric field causes a realignment of the electric
dipoles within the material's crystal structure. This internal rearrangement leads to a macroscopic change in the material's shape or
size.

(A diagram for a photoactive material would show a p-n junction with photons creating electron-hole pairs. A diagram for an
electroactive material would show a crystal lattice deforming under an applied electric field.)

11.
What are nanomaterials. Explain their properties. Elucidate various Nanomaterials used in the optoelectronic devices with their
applications.

Nanomaterials are materials with at least one external dimension in the size range of 1-100 nanometers. At this scale, materials
often exhibit unique quantum mechanical and surface area effects, leading to different properties (e.g., optical, electrical,
mechanical) than their bulk counterparts. In optoelectronics, quantum dots are used in QLED displays for their size-tunable color
emission. Carbon nanotubes are used for transparent conductive films in touch screens. Silver nanowires are also used as
transparent conductors, and metal oxides like TiO2 and ZnO are used in solar cells and UV sensors.

12.
Elucidate various organic materials that are used in the optoelectronic devices with their properties and applications.

Organic materials are widely used in optoelectronics due to their tunable properties, flexibility, and low-cost processing. Small
molecules like Alq3 (Aluminum(III) tris(8-hydroxyquinolinate)) are used as emissive and electron-transport layers in OLEDs.
Conjugated polymers such as P3HT (Poly(3-hexylthiophene)) are used in organic solar cells (OPVs) and organic photodetectors
because of their semiconducting properties. Photochromic organic molecules like spiropyrans are used in smart windows and
 optical data storage as they can change color upon light exposure.

Module 3: Introduction to Electrochemistry

1.
Define Concentration cell. Derive an expression to find Electromotive force of a Electrolyte concentration cell.

A concentration cell is an electrochemical cell that generates a potential difference from the transfer of matter between two half-cells
containing the same electrodes and electrolyte, but at different concentrations. The cell operates to equalize the concentrations. The
Electromotive Force (EMF or E_cell) is derived from the Nernst equation. For an electrolyte concentration cell, the expression is:

Ecell=nFRTln(C1C2)
 where R is the gas constant, T is the temperature, n is the number of electrons transferred, F is Faraday's constant, and C2 and C1
are the higher and lower electrolyte concentrations, respectively.

2.
Define electrochemical cell. Explain different types of electrodes used in electrochemical devices with suitable examples.

An electrochemical cell is a device that can generate electrical energy from chemical reactions (a Galvanic or Voltaic cell) or use
electrical energy to drive chemical reactions (an Electrolytic cell). Common types of electrodes include:

Metal-Metal Ion Electrode: A metal rod dipped in a solution of its own ions (e.g., a Zinc rod in ZnSO₄ solution).

Gas Electrode: A gas is bubbled over an inert metal conductor in a solution of its ions (e.g., the Standard Hydrogen Electrode,
SHE).

Metal-Insoluble Salt Electrode: A metal in contact with one of its sparingly soluble salts and a solution containing the anion of the
salt (e.g., the Calomel electrode, Hg/Hg₂Cl₂).
3.
Define reference electrodes. State the need to discover the secondary reference electrodes against the primary reference electrode
(SHE).

A reference electrode is an electrode that has a stable and well-known electrode potential. It is used as a reference point for
measuring the potentials of other electrodes (half-cells). The primary reference electrode is the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE),
which is defined as having a potential of exactly 0 volts. However, the SHE is difficult and inconvenient to set up and maintain, as it
requires a continuous supply of pure hydrogen gas and a specially prepared platinum electrode. Secondary reference electrodes, like
the Calomel or Silver/Silver Chloride electrodes, were developed because they are stable, robust, and much easier to use in practice.

4.
With a neat labelled diagram explain the construction and working of a reference electrode made of Hg/Hg₂C₁₂?

This describes the Calomel Electrode. It consists of pure mercury (Hg) at the bottom of a tube, which is covered by a paste of
mercury(I) chloride (calomel, Hg₂Cl₂). This paste is in contact with a saturated solution of potassium chloride (KCl), which fills the rest
of the tube. A platinum wire is immersed in the mercury to provide electrical contact. The electrode potential is determined by the
equilibrium reaction: Hg₂Cl₂(s) + 2e⁻ 2Hg(l) + 2Cl⁻(aq). Its potential is stable as it depends on the constant concentration of chloride
ions provided by the saturated KCl solution.

(A diagram would show a glass tube with mercury at the base, a layer of Hg/Hg₂Cl₂ paste on top, filled with saturated KCl solution,
and a platinum wire making contact with the mercury.)

5.
 Explain how saturated calomel electrode is used to find the potential of other test electrode.

To find the potential of a test electrode (e.g., a zinc electrode), an electrochemical cell is constructed. The Saturated Calomel
Electrode (SCE) is used as one half-cell (the cathode), and the test electrode is the other half-cell (the anode). The two half-cells are
connected by a salt bridge. A voltmeter is connected between the SCE and the test electrode to measure the overall cell EMF (E_cell).
The potential of the unknown electrode (E_test) is then calculated using the formula: E_cell = E_cathode - E_anode, which becomes
E_cell = E_SCE - E_test. Since E_SCE is a known, constant value (+0.241 V), the potential of the test electrode can be easily determined.

6.
A concentration cell was formed by immersing two electrodes made up of silver with 0.05 M and 0.1 M AgNO₃ solution. Write cell
representation, cell reactions and calculated Ecell.

Cell Representation: Ag(s) | AgNO₃ (0.05 M) || AgNO₃ (0.1 M) | Ag(s)

Cell Reactions:

Anode (oxidation): Ag(s) Ag⁺(0.05 M) + e⁻

Cathode (reduction): Ag⁺(0.1 M) + e⁻ Ag(s)

E_cell Calculation (at 298 K): Using the Nernst equation for a concentration cell:

Ecell=n0.0592log(C1C2)

Ecell=10.0592log(0.050.1)=0.0592×log(2)=0.0592×0.3010 0.0178V

7.
Two copper rods are separately placed in copper sulphate solution of different concentrations. Write cell representation, cell
reactions, and calculate the emf of copper concentration cell at 303 K, where the copper ions ratio in the cell is 10.

Cell Representation: Cu(s) | Cu²⁺(C₁) || Cu²⁺(C₂) | Cu(s) where C₂/C₁ = 10.

Anode: Cu(s) Cu²⁺(C₁) + 2e⁻

Cathode: Cu²⁺(C₂) + 2e⁻ Cu(s)

Overall: Cu²⁺(C₂) Cu²⁺(C₁)

EMF Calculation (at 303 K): Using the Nernst equation:

Ecell=nF2.303RTlog(C1C2)

Ecell=2×965002.303×8.314×303log(10)=0.0301×1=0.0301V

8.
 Derive Nernst equation for concentration cell. Discuss the factors affecting EMF of a concentration cell.

The Nernst equation for a general reaction is E = E° - (RT/nF)ln(Q). In a concentration cell, the electrodes are the same, so E° = 0. The
reaction quotient Q is the ratio of the ion concentrations (C₁/C₂), with C₁ being the anode (lower concentration) and C₂ being the
cathode (higher concentration). The equation becomes E_cell = -(RT/nF)ln(C₁/C₂), which simplifies to E_cell = (RT/nF)ln(C₂/C₁).

The factors affecting the EMF are:

Ratio of Electrolyte Concentrations (C₂/C₁): The EMF is directly proportional to the natural logarithm of the ratio of the
concentrations. A larger ratio results in a higher EMF.

Temperature (T): The EMF is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

Module 4: Battery Technology and Advanced Battery Technology

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices. It
converts stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Batteries are classified into two main types:

Primary Batteries: These are single-use or "disposable" batteries that cannot be recharged once depleted. Examples include AA
alkaline batteries and zinc-carbon batteries.

Secondary Batteries: These are rechargeable batteries that can be used multiple times by reversing the chemical reactions with
an external electric current. Examples include lithium-ion batteries (in phones and EVs) and lead-acid batteries (in cars).

2.
Define secondary battery. Explain Construction, working and limitations of Lithium-ion batteries.

A secondary battery is a type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times. A
 lithium-ion battery consists of an anode (typically graphite), a cathode (a metal oxide like LiCoO₂), a separator, and an electrolyte (a
lithium salt in an organic solvent).

Working: During discharge, lithium ions (Li⁺) move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte, and electrons move
through the external circuit. During charging, an external voltage forces the ions and electrons to move back to the anode.

Limitations: They suffer from capacity degradation over time, can be sensitive to high temperatures, and pose a safety risk (fire) if
damaged or improperly charged.

3.
What is redox flow battery. Explain construction, working of Vanadium redox flow battery.

A redox flow battery is a type of rechargeable battery where energy is stored in two liquid electrolytes contained in external tanks.
These electrolytes are pumped through an electrochemical cell where the redox reactions occur. A Vanadium redox flow battery
uses vanadium ions in different oxidation states (V²⁺/V³⁺ in the negative half-cell and V⁴⁺/V⁵⁺ in the positive half-cell). During
discharge, these electrolytes are pumped into the cell, where they exchange ions across a proton exchange membrane, generating
an electric current. To recharge, a voltage is applied to reverse the reaction.

4.
Outline the advantages of Sodium-Ion Batteries over Lithium-Ion Batteries

Sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries offer several key advantages over lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. The most significant is the abundance
and low cost of sodium, which is readily available worldwide, unlike lithium, which is geographically concentrated and more
 expensive. Na-ion batteries can also use aluminum as the anode current collector instead of more expensive copper. They
potentially offer better safety characteristics and can be fully discharged to zero volts for safer transportation and storage, which is
hazardous for Li-ion cells.

5.
Explain how redox flow batteries differ from conventional batteries.

Redox flow batteries differ from conventional batteries (like Li-ion) primarily in their architecture. In a conventional battery, the
energy is stored within the electrode materials inside the battery casing. In a redox flow battery, the energy is stored externally in
liquid electrolytes in large tanks. This means the power and energy capacity are decoupled; power is determined by the size of the
electrochemical stack, while energy is determined by the volume of the electrolyte tanks. This makes them highly scalable for large-
scale energy storage and gives them a very long cycle life.

6.
Discuss the steps involved in the recovery of Li by applying the knowledge of electrochemical methods.

Electrochemical recovery of lithium from spent Li-ion batteries is a form of hydrometallurgy. First, the batteries are discharged and
dismantled. The valuable cathode material is separated and leached into an acidic solution to dissolve the metals (like Cobalt,
Nickel, and Lithium) into their ionic forms. In the electrochemical step, a potential is applied across two electrodes in this solution.
This process, known as electrowinning or electrodeposition, selectively plates the metals out of the solution. By carefully controlling
the voltage, different metals can be recovered sequentially. Lithium is often recovered last from the remaining solution through
chemical precipitation.

7.
 Define E-mobility. Applying the knowledge of IoT, show how this technology can help in Battery Monitoring System for Electric
Vehicles.

E-mobility refers to the use of electric-powered vehicles, including electric cars, bikes, and scooters, for transportation. The Internet
of Things (IoT) is crucial for modern electric vehicles (EVs), especially in their Battery Monitoring Systems (BMS). An IoT-enabled BMS
uses sensors to continuously collect data on battery parameters like state of charge, temperature, voltage, and current. This data is
transmitted to the cloud, allowing for real-time remote monitoring by the driver and manufacturer. This helps in predicting range
accurately, optimizing charging, diagnosing potential faults early, and improving overall battery safety and longevity.

8.
Summarize best storage, handling practices and Safe disposal of of Li ion batteries.

For storage, Li-ion batteries should be kept in a cool, dry place, ideally at a state of charge of around 40-50%, not fully charged or
empty. For handling, avoid physical damage like punctures or crushing, and prevent exposure to extreme temperatures or direct
sunlight. Do not connect them with metal objects which could cause a short circuit. For safe disposal, Li-ion batteries must never be
thrown in general waste as they contain hazardous materials and pose a fire risk. They should be taken to dedicated battery
recycling centers or e-waste collection points where they can be processed safely.

9.
Explain the key hazards of lithium-ion batteries.

The primary hazard of lithium-ion batteries is thermal runaway. If a battery is damaged, overcharged, or overheats, it can enter an
uncontrollable self-heating state. This can cause the flammable organic electrolyte to catch fire and vent toxic gases. Other hazards
include electrical shocks from high-voltage battery packs and chemical hazards from electrolyte leakage, which can cause skin and
 respiratory irritation. Physical damage, manufacturing defects, and improper use are common triggers for these hazardous events.

10.
What makes it necessary to develop next generation sodium ion batteries as an alternative to Lithium ion batteries despite its
superior performance? Give few applications.

The necessity for sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries arises from the significant geopolitical and economic concerns surrounding lithium.
Lithium reserves are limited and concentrated in a few countries, leading to price volatility and supply chain risks. Sodium, in
contrast, is one of the most abundant elements on Earth, making Na-ion batteries a cheaper and more sustainable alternative.
While Li-ion offers superior energy density, Na-ion is a perfect fit for applications where cost and stability are more important than
weight. Applications include large-scale grid energy storage, stationary power backup systems, and low-cost electric vehicles for
shorter ranges.

11.
Explain the electrochemical recovery of lithium from Li-spent batteries.

Electrochemical methods for recovering materials from spent lithium-ion batteries focus on using electricity to separate the
valuable metals. After shredding the batteries and separating the components, the cathode material is dissolved in a leach solution
(hydrometallurgy). The primary electrochemical process used is electrodeposition, where a controlled voltage is applied to the
solution. This causes specific metal ions, like cobalt and nickel, to plate onto the cathode. Lithium itself is typically not recovered
electrochemically due to its high reactivity but is precipitated from the remaining solution as a salt like lithium carbonate after other
metals have been removed.
Module 5: Corrosion, Plating, and E-Waste

1.
What is corrosion? Explain with examples.

Corrosion is the gradual destruction or degradation of a material, usually a metal, by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its
environment. It is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide,
or sulfide. A common example is the rusting of iron, where iron reacts with oxygen and water to form iron oxide. Another example
is the tarnishing of silver, where silver reacts with sulfur compounds in the air to form a dark layer of silver sulfide.

2.
Explain electrochemical theory of corrosion. Illustrate the corrosion mechanism of rusting of iron.

The electrochemical theory of corrosion states that corrosion occurs due to the formation of tiny galvanic cells on the surface of the
metal. In the rusting of iron, an anodic area forms on the iron surface, where iron is oxidized: Fe Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻. These electrons travel
through the metal to a cathodic area, where they reduce oxygen from the air in the presence of water: O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻ 4OH⁻. The
Fe²⁺ ions and OH⁻ ions then combine to form ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)₂, which is further oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to form
hydrated ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃·xH₂O), which is commonly known as rust.
3.
Outline the characteristics of chemical (dry corrosion) and electrochemical (wet corrosion). Mention the examples.

Chemical (Dry) Corrosion occurs in the absence of an aqueous electrolyte, usually at high temperatures. It involves the direct
chemical attack of a material by its environment. Its main characteristic is that oxidation occurs at the same spot. An example is the
formation of mill scale (an iron oxide layer) on steel during hot rolling.

Electrochemical (Wet) Corrosion is more common and occurs in the presence of a conducting liquid (electrolyte). It is characterized
by the formation of separate anodic and cathodic areas. The mechanism involves the flow of electrons between these areas. An
example is the rusting of iron in humid conditions.

4.
Illustrate with suitable reactions and examples, the differential metal corrosion and differential aeration corrosion.

Differential Metal Corrosion (Galvanic Corrosion) occurs when two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in the presence of an
electrolyte. The more active metal becomes the anode and corrodes, while the less active metal becomes the cathode. For example,
when steel (iron) is in contact with copper, the steel will rust faster. Anode (Fe): Fe Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻.

Differential Aeration Corrosion occurs when different parts of the same metal are exposed to different concentrations of oxygen.
The area with lower oxygen concentration becomes anodic and corrodes, while the area with higher oxygen concentration becomes
cathodic. For example, the area under a droplet of water on a steel plate becomes anodic and corrodes. Anode: Fe Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻.
Cathode (at edge of droplet): O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻ 4OH⁻.
5.
Summarize how differential aeration corrosion occurs in the nature with example. Mention its characteristics.

Differential aeration corrosion commonly occurs in nature when a part of a metal surface is shielded from the air, creating an area
with low oxygen concentration. This oxygen-deficient area becomes the anode and corrodes preferentially. A prime example is
waterline corrosion, where a metal post in water corrodes most intensely just below the waterline. The area just below the water is
poorly aerated (anodic), while the area at the waterline is well-aerated (cathodic). Its main characteristic is localized corrosion in
areas with restricted oxygen access, like crevices or under dirt deposits.

6.
Explain waterline corrosion and Pitting corrosion with suitable examples.

Waterline corrosion is a form of differential aeration corrosion that affects metals partially submerged in water, like ship hulls or
storage tank walls. The area just below the water level has limited oxygen access and becomes the anode, corroding rapidly. The
area at the waterline has maximum oxygen access and becomes the cathode.

Pitting corrosion is a highly localized form of corrosion that leads to the creation of small holes or "pits" in the metal. It is very
destructive because the pits can penetrate the thickness of the metal quickly. It often starts due to a small surface defect or a break
in a protective oxide layer, creating a tiny anodic area. An example is the pitting of stainless steel in chloride-containing
environments.

7.
Explain in detail about the various factors affecting the rate of corrosion.
 Several factors influence the rate of corrosion:

Nature of the Metal: More reactive metals (higher in the electrochemical series) corrode faster. The physical state and purity of
the metal also play a role.

Nature of the Environment: The presence of impurities in the atmosphere (like CO₂, SO₂), moisture (humidity), and electrolytes
(like salts) significantly accelerates corrosion.

Temperature: Higher temperatures generally increase the rate of chemical reactions, including corrosion.

pH of the Medium: Acidic environments (low pH) tend to accelerate the corrosion of most metals like iron.

Oxygen Concentration: Differential oxygen concentration can lead to localized corrosion cells, as seen in crevice and waterline
corrosion.

8.
 Explain anodic coating. Outline the various steps involved in the galvanization process. Mention its advantages, disadvantages and
applications.

An anodic coating is a protective coating where the coating metal is more reactive (anodic) than the base metal. This provides
sacrificial protection; the coating corrodes preferentially, protecting the base metal even if it gets scratched.

Galvanization (coating iron/steel with zinc) is a key example. The process involves: 1) Surface preparation (cleaning and pickling in
acid), 2) Rinsing, 3) Fluxing (applying a chemical like zinc ammonium chloride), and 4) Dipping the object into a bath of molten zinc.

Advantages: Provides excellent sacrificial and barrier protection.

Disadvantages: Can be bulky and is not suitable for high-precision parts.

Applications: Roofing sheets, car bodies, nuts, and bolts.

9.
Outline the principle of Cathodic protection. Explain how to achieve cathodic protection by Sacrificial anode and impressed current
methods.
 The principle of cathodic protection is to make the entire surface of the metal structure to be protected act as the cathode of an
electrochemical cell, thereby preventing it from corroding. This is achieved in two ways:

Sacrificial Anode Method: A more reactive metal (like zinc, aluminum, or magnesium) is electrically connected to the structure
(e.g., a steel pipeline). This more active metal becomes the anode and corrodes "sacrificially," while the steel structure becomes
the cathode and is protected.

Impressed Current Method: An external DC power source is used. The negative terminal is connected to the structure to be
protected, making it the cathode. The positive terminal is connected to an inert anode (like graphite), which is buried nearby in
the soil or water. The power source impresses a current that forces the structure to be cathodic.

10.
Write a note on vapor corrosion inhibitors (volatile corrosion inhibitors).

Vapor Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs), also known as Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors, are chemical compounds that have a high vapor
pressure. They are often used to protect metal parts in enclosed spaces like packages or containers. The VCI solid or liquid slowly
volatilizes, and the vapor spreads throughout the enclosure. The vapor then condenses on the metal surfaces, forming a thin,
protective molecular layer. This layer inhibits corrosion by preventing moisture and other corrosive agents from reaching the metal
surface. They are widely used in packaging, preservation, and shipping of metal components.
11.
Outline the process of thermal management of CPU using liquid colling systems.

CPU liquid cooling systems manage heat more effectively than air coolers. The system consists of a water block mounted directly on
the CPU, a radiator, a pump, and connecting tubes. The water block absorbs heat from the CPU. The pump circulates a coolant
(usually a water-based mixture) from the water block to the radiator. At the radiator, which has a large surface area and is equipped
with fans, the heat from the liquid is transferred to the surrounding air. The now-cooled liquid is then pumped back to the CPU
water block to repeat the cycle, continuously drawing heat away from the processor.

12.
Outline the various steps involved in the electroless plating of copper with suitable reactions.

Electroless plating of copper is an autocatalytic process that deposits copper without using an external electrical current. The key
steps are:

1.
Substrate Preparation: The non-conductive surface (like a PCB) is cleaned and etched to create a rough texture for better
adhesion.

2.
Sensitization: The substrate is dipped in a stannous chloride (SnCl₂) solution, where Sn²⁺ ions are adsorbed onto the surface.

3.
 Activation: The substrate is then treated with a palladium chloride (PdCl₂) solution. The Sn²⁺ ions reduce Pd²⁺ ions to metallic
palladium (Pd), which acts as the catalyst for copper deposition: Sn²⁺ + Pd²⁺ Sn⁴⁺ + Pd(s).

4.
Plating: The activated substrate is immersed in the electroless copper bath containing copper sulfate (source of Cu²⁺), a reducing
agent (like formaldehyde, HCHO), and a complexing agent. The formaldehyde reduces copper ions onto the catalytic palladium
surface: Cu²⁺ + 2HCHO + 4OH⁻ Cu(s) + H₂(g) + 2HCOO⁻ + 2H₂O.

13.
Define Electroless plating. Discuss the principle and procedure involved in electroless plating of copper for double sided PCBs?

Electroless plating is a method of depositing a layer of metal from a solution onto a substrate without the use of an external
electrical power source. The deposition is achieved through a controlled, autocatalytic chemical reduction reaction at the surface of
the substrate. For double-sided PCBs, the goal is to create conductive through-holes (vias). The procedure involves cleaning and
activating the entire board, including the inside walls of the drilled holes, with a catalyst like palladium. The board is then
submerged in an electroless copper bath. The chemical reaction deposits a thin, uniform layer of copper over the entire surface,
including inside the non-conductive holes, thereby connecting the top and bottom layers of the PCB.

14.
What is e-waste? Mention its sources and hazardous components.

E-waste, or electronic waste, refers to discarded electrical or electronic devices. Sources are widespread and include everything
from household appliances like refrigerators and microwaves to information technology equipment like computers, mobile phones,
 and televisions. Hazardous components are a major concern in e-waste. These include heavy metals like lead (in CRT monitors and
solder), mercury (in LCD screens and switches), and cadmium (in batteries and circuit boards). It also contains brominated flame
retardants in plastics and beryllium in connectors, all of which are toxic and can harm human health and the environment if not
managed properly.

15.
Explain why e-waste is considered as hazardous material?

E-waste is considered hazardous primarily because it contains a complex mixture of toxic materials that can pose significant risks to
human health and the environment. When e-waste is improperly disposed of—for example, in landfills or incinerated—these
hazardous substances can be released. Heavy metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium can leach into the soil and groundwater,
contaminating drinking water and entering the food chain. Burning e-waste releases toxic fumes and dioxins, leading to air
pollution and respiratory problems.

16.
Explain the various steps involved in the segregation of e-waste.

Segregation is a critical first step in e-waste management. The process typically involves:

1.
Collection: Gathering e-waste from various sources like households, businesses, and collection centers.

2.
 Manual Sorting & Dismantling: Workers manually separate the items into categories (e.g., TVs, computers, phones). They then
dismantle these items to remove key components like batteries, circuit boards, plastics, and metals.

3.
Component Categorization: The dismantled parts are further sorted. For instance, circuit boards are separated for precious metal
recovery, plastics are sorted by type for recycling, and hazardous components like batteries and mercury lamps are isolated for
special handling.

4.
Shredding/Crushing: Larger components may be shredded into smaller, more manageable pieces for further automated
separation processes.

17.
Explain the various recycling processes (Direct recycling, hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy) used in the recovery of valuable
components from the e-waste.

Direct Recycling: This involves refurbishing and reusing whole devices or their components. For example, a functional computer
might be updated and resold, or its RAM and hard drive could be used in another system.

Pyrometallurgy: This method uses high temperatures (smelting) to recover metals. E-waste, particularly circuit boards, is heated
in a furnace. The plastics and resins burn away, while the metals melt and separate based on their densities, allowing for the
 recovery of copper, precious metals (like gold, silver), and other base metals.

Hydrometallurgy: This process uses aqueous chemistry (leaching) to recover metals. E-waste is first shredded, and then strong
acids or chemical solutions are used to dissolve the metals into a liquid solution. The different metals are then selectively
recovered from the solution through processes like precipitation or electrowinning.

18.
What are the sources of e-waste? Explain the procedure for the extraction of gold from e-waste by hydrometallurgical process.

Sources of e-waste include all discarded electronics from consumers and businesses, such as computers, mobile phones, printers,
televisions, refrigerators, and other household appliances. The hydrometallurgical extraction of gold from e-waste (like printed
circuit boards) involves several steps. First, the circuit boards are shredded. Next, they undergo a leaching process, where a
chemical solution (a "lixiviant") like cyanide or, more recently, less toxic alternatives like thiourea, is used to selectively dissolve the
gold into the solution. After leaching, the gold is recovered from the solution through methods like adsorption onto activated
carbon or electrowinning, where an electric current is used to plate the pure gold onto a cathode.