MODULE – 2

➢ Infrastructure is a system of services and communication that is required for the overall
development of society.
➢ It refers to facilities such as transportation (i.e., Railways, Highways, Airways,
Waterways), hospitals, education, energy (coal, electricity, oil, etc.), irrigation, farm
equipment & pieces of machinery, science and technology, communication, health &
hygiene, banking that facilitate and contribute in the process of production of goods and
services for the overall development of the economy of the society.
➢ The infrastructure is of two types.
a) Economic infrastructure:
• It contributes directly to the economic development of any country.
• It consists of transport and communication, power supply, irrigation networks,
financial institutions, etc.
b) Social infrastructure:
• It contributes to the process of economic development of any country indirectly.
• It consists of education & training, health & family welfare, housing & water
supply, and other civic amenities.

➢ Transport provides a vital link between production centers and distribution points.
➢ It also exercises a unifying and integrating influence on the economy.
➢ It facilitates the exploitation of natural resources, helps the mobility of labor, and serves
administration and defence requirements, movement of agricultural produce from scattered
farms to distant markets, and industrial development by facilitating the regular and prompt
movement of raw materials.

Impact of Infrastructure
The overall development of any country is directly dependent on the infrastructural facilities made
available to the people of the country.
1. Self-sufficiency in the food sector can be achieved.
2. Foreign exchange can be saved.
 3. Export of surplus food products and industrial products is possible.
4. Unemployment can be reduced through increased job opportunities.
5. Prevention of unhealthy urbanization can be prevented, by solving many problems such as
urban congestion, acute housing shortage, traffic problems, crimes, pollution, etc.
6. Per capita income is increased.
7. The living standards of people can be enhanced.
8. Public health can be improved.
9. Inflation can be reduced.
10. Draught and flood-related problems can be controlled/minimized.
11. Pollution can be controlled.
12. Literacy level of people can be increased.
13. Public awareness gets improved.

SUSTAINABILITY
➢ The concept of sustainability become so important nowadays, because of the irreparable
damage caused to the environment by industrial civilization & consumerism.
➢ Sustainability is the ability to achieve continuing economic prosperity while protecting the
natural systems of the planet and providing a high quality of life for its people.
➢ Sustainability is the ability to achieve continuing economic prosperity while protecting the
natural systems of the planet and providing a high quality of life for its people.

Sustainability goals
 MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT
GOALS (MDGs)

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
GOALS (SDGs)

Millennium Development Goals

➢ The United Nations Millennium Development Goals are eight goals that all 191 UN member
states have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.
➢ The United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000 commits world leaders
to combat poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination
against women.
➢ The MDGs are derived from this Declaration, and all have specific targets and indicators.
1. to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
2. to achieve universal primary education;
3. to promote gender equality and empower women;
4. to reduce child mortality;
5. to improve maternal health;
6. to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases;
7. to ensure environmental sustainability;
8. to develop a global partnership for development.
➢ The MDGs are interdependent; all the MDGs influence health, and health influences all the
MDGs.
➢ For example, better health enables children to learn and adults to earn. Gender equality is
essential to the achievement of better health. Reducing poverty, hunger, and environmental
degradation positively influences, but also depends on, better health.

Sustainable Development Goals

➢ Recently, the international community decided to adopt a new set of development goals
focusing on improving the sustainability of nation-states.
➢ The need for a new set of targets was developed at the Rio +20 Conference, held in Rio de
Janeiro, in June 2012.
➢ The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) build on the achievements of the Millennium
Development Goals.
➢ Sustainable development goals are built on the successes of the Millennium Development
Goals, and that applies to all countries and can provide a tremendous boost to efforts to
implement sustainable development.
➢ It also helps us to address issues ranging from reducing poverty and creating jobs to the issues
meeting the economic, social, and environmental aspirations of all people.
➢ There are a total of 17 Sustainable Development Goals:
1. No Poverty - Ending poverty everywhere in all its forms.
2. Zero Hunger - Ending world hunger by achieving food security, improving nutrition, and
promoting sustainable agriculture
3. Good Health and Well-being - Ensuring healthy lives and well-being for everyone at all
stages.
4. Quality Education - Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting
opportunities for lifelong learning.
5. Gender Equality - Achieving gender equality and empowering women at all stages of life.
6. Clean Water and Sanitation - Ensuring water availability, sustainable management, and
adequate sanitation for all.
7. Affordable and Clean Energy -Ensuring access to affordable, sustainable, reliable, and
modern energy for all.
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth - Promoting economic growth that is sustainable and
inclusive with an assurance of productive employment and decent work for all.
9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure - Building resilient infrastructure, promoting
sustainable and inclusive industrialization that fosters innovation.
10. Reduced Inequality - Reducing inequalities within and among countries.
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities - Making human settlements and cities inclusive, safe,
and sustainable.
 12. Responsible Consumption and Production - Ensuring a sustainable pattern of consumption
and production.
13. Climate Action - Taking quick actions to combat climate change.
14. Life Below Water - Conserving the oceans, seas, and marine resources and using them
mindfully.
15. Life on Land - Protecting, promoting, and restoring the sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, along with managing forests sustainably, combating desertification, halting
biodiversity loss, and reversing land degradation.
16. Peace and Justice Strong Institutions - Promoting peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, providing access to justice for everyone, and building effective,
accountable, inclusive institutions at all levels.
17. Partnerships to achieve the Goal - Strengthening the implementation and revitalizing of the
global partnership for sustainable development.
➢ There are 3 core elements to sustainable development.
1. Economic Growth:
• This element envisages a sustainable pattern of economic growth, that helps to achieve
sustainable livelihood and harmonious living with technology.
• It involves focusing on economic growth that generates wealth for all, without impacting
the environment negatively.
• It also involves the equal distribution of economic resources for the well-rounded growth
of all and eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions.
2. Environmental Sustainability:
• This element envisages the mindful and sustainable use of natural resources at our
dispense.
• Furthermore, it invokes the prevention of mindless and inexhaustible use of natural
resources ensuring their protection and rational use.
• It involves several aspects of environmental conservation investing in renewable energy,
judicious use of water, supporting sustainable mobility, innovative and sustainable
construction, and architecture, etc.
3. Social Sustainability:
 • This element envisages a social sphere where this is equality and equity in all aspects of
life.
• Social sustainability can foster a sense of gender equality that shall guarantee the
development of people, communities, and cultures to help achieve a better and reasonable
quality of life, healthcare, and education across the Globe.

SMART CITY
➢ A 'smart city' is an urban region that is highly advanced in terms of overall infrastructure,
sustainable real estate, communications, and market viability.
➢ It is a city where information technology is the principal infrastructure and the basis for
providing essential services to residents.

Origin of the Concept

➢ The concept of smart cities originated at a time when the entire world was facing one of the
worst economic crises.
➢ In 2008, IBM began work on a 'smarter cities' concept as part of its Smarter Planet initiative.
➢ By the beginning of 2009, the concept had captivated the imagination of various nations across
the globe.
➢ Countries like South Korea, UAE, and China began to invest heavily in their research and
formation.
➢ Today, a number of excellent precedents exist that India can emulate, such as those in Vienna,
Aarhus, Amsterdam, Cairo, Lyon, Málaga, Malta, the Songdo International Business District
near Seoul, Verona, etc.

Competitiveness refers to a city’s ability to create employment opportunities and attract

investments, experts, professionals, and people. The ease of being able to do business and the
quality of life it offers determine its competitiveness.

Sustainability includes social sustainability, environmental sustainability, and financial

sustainability.
 Quality of Life includes safety and security, inclusiveness, entertainment, ease of seeking and
obtaining public services, cost-efficient healthcare, quality education, transparency,
accountability, and opportunities for participation in governance.

Factors
1. It should provide an opportunity for the new generations to participate in the city’s
management.
2. It should provide a satisfactory lifestyle to the people.
3. It should be a technologically sound and efficient city.
4. It should have smart grids in infrastructure, transportation, and energy.
5. It should offer quality water supply, sanitation, electrical supply, cost effective health care,
quality education, communication network, better public transport etc.

Features of smart cities

1. Promoting mixed land use in area-based developments:
Planning for unplanned areas containing a range of compatible activities and land uses
close to one another in order to make land use more efficient.
2. Housing and inclusiveness: expand housing opportunities for all.
3. Preserving and developing open spaces: parks and playgrounds reduce the urban heat
effects in areas and generally promote eco-balance.
4. Traffic management: monitoring the road system will inform drivers about which route is
best at any given time.
5. Intelligent transport system: Many public transport systems are already interconnected.
This allows for different public transport to be coordinated and to provide information in
real time.
6. Smart Parking: There will be systems that will alert drivers when there is a free parking
spot. Citizen will no longer waste their time looking for a place to park and the city will be
less polluted.
7. Giving an identity to the city: Based on its main economic activity, such as local cuisine,
health, education, arts and craft, culture, sports goods, furniture, etc.
 8. Smart city maintenance: Citizens will now be able to rely on systems to notify the city
council of any damages in the urban elements through their smartphones.
9. Smart urban lighting: smart urban lighting will adjust the intensity of the light depending
on the people who are around.

CLEAN CITY
➢ Over the last century, there was a qualitative change in the nature of cities.
➢ The cities were compact; rapid industrialization, the invention of automobiles, the expansion
of land, etc. led to the emergence of dispersed cities.
➢ As automobiles became popular, more and more infrastructure such as expressways, and radial
and peripheral roads began to be built.
➢ This led to the deterioration of the environmental parameters of cities, increased footprints and
impermeable surfaces, reduced water availability and quality, reduced greenery, and increased
air and noise pollution.
➢ The adverse effects of this automobile-led growth of cities led planners and urban managers to
innovative ways to promote economic and urban growth with minimum environmental impact.
➢ The term ‘clean city’ refers to a city that is free from pollution, environmental degradation,
and free from waste.
➢ Clean cities mean moving to a zero-carbon and waste world.
➢ Clean Cities is a government-industry partnership designed to reduce petroleum consumption
in the transportation sector by advancing the use of alternative fuels and vehicles, idle reduction
technologies, hybrid electric vehicles, fuel blends, and fuel economy.
➢ Clean Cities contribute to the energy, environmental, and economic security of the country by
reducing the dependence on imported petroleum.
➢ The Clean Cities portfolio provides a range of options and flexibility to meet petroleum
displacement goals and also solid waste management.
➢ It includes alternative fuels and vehicles, hybrids, idle reduction, fuel blends, and fuel
economy, adopting specialized techniques to reduce waste generation.
➢ Furthermore, it involves the reduction in waste generation.
➢ To optimize garbage or waste collection a special system was adopted.
➢ This system allows one to carry out the following tasks:
 • Use of a specialized truck that collects waste only if containers are filled.
• Each container generates the message on filling.
• Rational distribution of containers according to the areas of the city.

Policies to improve w.r.t clean city

• Low-emission zones.
• Promotion of eco-driving
• Promotion of low-carbon fuels & vehicles using alternative fuels such as bio-fuel, biomethane,
natural gas, hydrogen, or electricity.
• Imposing standards and taxes on fuels and vehicles.
• Intelligent transport systems and signaling systems.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

➢ Water distribution systems are designed to adequately satisfy the water requirement. The
performance of a distribution system can be judged on the basis of pressure available on the
system for a specific rate of flow. The distribution system consists of a network of pipes with
appurtenances.
➢ A well-planned distribution of pipe network can distribute water supply to the premises in an
organized way.
➢ The purpose of a distribution system is to deliver water to consumers with appropriate quality,
quantity & pressure.
➢ A distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from
its source to the point of usage.
➢ Pipes can be placed either parallel or in series.

Main Source of Water Supply

➢ The main source of water supply is from the river, ponds underground, etc. however, there
is also water taken from former mines and rain. The responsible party will treat the water
from the main sources before supplying, it to the consumers. This is to ensure that the quality
of water is free from contamination while ensuring the health and safety of consumers.
➢ Water is a basic necessity of life such as for drinking. However, the consumption of water is
highly needed for daily use such as bathing, cleaning, washing, cooking, and watering plants,
 etc. this includes the use for religious rituals, business, and related activities. Water that has
been used will be channeled into the sewage system for treatment before being discharged into
to river.

Requirements of a Good Distribution System

• Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
• It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure.
• It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire-fighting.
• The layout should be such that no consumer would be without a water supply, during the repair
of any section of the system.
• All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter away or above the sewer line.
• It should be fairly water-tight to keep losses due to leakage to a minimum.

Distribution Method of Water Supply

➢ After the cleaning process, the water supply system will go through the main pipeline system
which consists of several major pipelines. The main pipeline system connects the storage pool
or the pumping to the communication pipe that will supply water to the building. The piping
system varies from one area to another depending on the size and characteristics of the area.
Among the factors that affect the main piping system are:
• Physical condition of soil and contour of distribution areas.
• The distance between the distribution area and the main pipe.
• The ability to balance the needs of consumers with water production.
• The number and types of users.
• Water loss in terms of friction.

Classification of Distribution Network System

1. Dead-End System
2. Radial System
3. Grid Iron System
4. Ring System

Methods of Water Distribution System

 ➢ For an efficient distribution system, adequate water pressure is required at various points.
➢ Depending upon the level of the source, the topography of the area and other local
conditions, the water may be forced into distribution system by following ways-
1. Gravity System
2. Pumping System
3. Combined Gravity and Pumping System

SANITATION SYSTEM
➢ Sewage is water-carried waste, in solution or suspension that is intended to be removed from a
community. It is also known as wastewater.
➢ It is characterized by physical and chemical constituents and another bacteriological organism.
➢ The system of pipes used to collect and carry rain, wastewater, and trade waste away for
treatment and disposal is called the sewerage or sanitation or the wastewater system.
➢ There are three types of sewage system depending upon the kind of wastes it is required to
handle.
1. Combined Sewer System
➢ Combination sewers are the oldest variety sewage system.
➢ They are required to carry both storm and sanitary wastes to some safe terminal or to the
treatment plant.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Size of the sewers being large, choking problems are less and easy to clean.
2. Economical as only 1 set of sewers is laid for both types of wastes.
3. Due to the dilution of sanitary sewage stormwater nuisance potential is reduced.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Size of the sewers is large and difficult in handling and transport.
2. Load on the treatment plant is unnecessarily increased.
3. It is uneconomical if pumping is needed because of a large amount of combined flow.
4. Unnecessarily stormwater is polluted.
2. Separate Sewer System
➢ In this system, two sets of sewers are laid.
➢ The sanitary sewage is carried through sanitary sewers while the storm sewage is carried
through storm sewers.
➢ The sewage is carried to the treatment plant and stormwater is disposed of to the river.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Size of the sewers is small and hence can be easily handled.
2. Sewage load on the treatment unit is less.
3. Rivers are not polluted since only stormwater is discharged.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Sewerage is small; thus cleaning becomes difficult.
2. Frequent choking problem occurs.
3. System proves costly as it involves two sets of sewers.
4. The use of storm sewers is only partial because in the dry season, they will be converted
into dumping places and may get clogged.

3. Partially combined or partially separate system

➢ A partially combined/separate system is a type of sewer system that combines the attributes
of a separate sewer system and a combined sewer system.
➢ A portion of stormwater during rain is allowed to enter sanitary sewer to treatment plants
while the remaining stormwater is carried through open drains to the point of disposal.

ADVANTAGES:
1. The sizes of sewers are not very large as some portion of stormwater is carried through
open drains.
2. Combines the advantages of both the systems.
3. Silting problem is completely eliminated.
4. The problem of disposing storm water from houses is simplified.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. The quantity of storm water admitted in sewer may increase.
2. The load on pumping and treatment units may increase.
3. The velocity of flow is low in dry weather condition.
Solid waste management
The discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport,
processing and disposal of solid waste in accordance with best principle of public health,
economics, engineering, conservation, and other environmental considerations is known as solid
waste management.

Functional Elements of Solid waste management

i) Waste generation:
• Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer
being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
• Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at all stage as raw materials
are converted into goods for consumption.
• For example, waste is generated from households, commercial areas, industries,
institutions, street cleaning, and other municipal services.
ii) Waste handling, sorting, storage, and processing at the source:
• Waste handling and sorting ieeeeee the activities associated with the management of waste
until they are placed in storage for collection.
• Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection.
• Sorting waste components is an important step in handling and storing solid waste at the
source.
• For example, the best place to separate waste materials for reuse and recycling is at the
source of generation.
• Processing at the source involves activities such as backyard waste composting.
iii) Waste collection:
• The functional element of collection includes not only gathering of solid waste and
recycling materials, but also to transport these materials, after collection, to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied.
• This location may be a materials processing facility, a transfer station, or a landfill disposal
site.
iv) Sorting, Processing, and transportation of solid waste:
• The recovery of sorted materials, processing of solid waste, and transformation of solid
waste occur primarily in locations away from the source of waste generation.
• Sorting of mixed waste usually occurs at a material recovery facility, transfer station
combustion facilities, and disposal sites.
• Sorting often includes the separation using a screen, manual separation, and separation of
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
• Waste processing is undertaken to recover conversion products and energy.
• The solid waste can be transformed by a biological or thermal process.
• The most commonly used biological transformation process is aerobic composting,
whereas thermal transformation is incineration.
• Waste transformation is undertaken to reduce the volume, weight, and size of waste without
resource recovery.

v) Transfer and transport:

• The transfer of wastes involves collection from smaller vehicles to larger transport
equipment.
• The subsequent transport of waste haul over long distances to a processing or disposal site.
The transfer usually takes place at a transfer station.
vi) Waste disposal:
• The wastes are usually disposed of either by any one of the following methods.
1. Landfill - waste that cannot be reused or recycled are separated out and spread as a thin
layer in low-lying areas across a city.
2. Incineration - the process of controlled combustion of garbage to reduce it to
incombustible matter.
3. Waste compaction - waste such as plastics is compacted into blocks and sent for
recycling.
4. Composting – Organic wastes are buried under the layers of soil and left to decay.
5. Vermicomposting - It is the process of using worms for the degradation of organic
matter into nutrient-rich manure.

Energy Efficient Buildings

➢ Efficient energy consumption in buildings is one of the most affordable ways to lessen the
detrimental effects of climate change and health-related problems.
➢ Energy Efficiency helps to protect the environment.
➢ When we use less energy, the less energy we need to generate at power plants, which reduces
greenhouse gas emissions and improves the quality of the air.
➢ In fact, buildings use more energy than either transportation or industrial sectors to heat, cool,
power electronics and artificially light interiors.
➢ According to BEE (Bureau of energy Efficiency), the energy efficiency in buildings is
calculated based on two different parameters.
• By quantity (BTUs, watts, etc.)
• By quality (its relative temperature or intensity)
➢ Energy-efficient buildings involve increasing the efficiency of natural resource use; energy,
water, and materials while reducing the impact on human health and the environment during
the building’s lifecycle.
➢ There certain are representative values, known as benchmarks, for common building types
against which a building’s actual performance can be compared.
➢ The benchmarks are derived by analyzing data on different building types within a given
country.
➢ The typical benchmark is the median level of performance of all the buildings in a given
category and good practice represents the top quartile performance.
➢ Benchmarks are applied mainly to heating, cooling, air-conditioning, ventilation, lighting,
fans, pumps, controls, office or other electrical equipment, and electricity consumption for
external lighting.
➢ The heat loss through a material, referred to as the U-Value, is used to describe the energy
performance of a building.
➢ The U-value refers to how well an element conducts heat from one side to the other by rating
how much heat the component allows to pass through it.
➢ They are the standard used in building codes for specifying the minimum energy efficiency
values for windows, doors, walls and other exterior building components.
➢ U-values also rate the energy efficiency of the combined materials in a building component or
section.
➢ A low U-value indicates good energy efficiency.
➢ Windows, doors, walls, and skylights can gain or lose heat, thereby increasing the energy
required for cooling or heating.
➢ Hence for this reason most building codes have set minimum standards for the energy
efficiency of these components.

Temperature Control in Buildings

➢ Thermal control helps keep the occupants of a building more comfortable by moderating the
temperatures of the interior surfaces of the building.
➢ It also reduces the energy consumption of a building for heating and cooling.
➢ Thermal insulation helps to keep a building cooler in summer and warmer in winter by
decreasing the passage of heat through the exterior surfaces of a building.
➢ A variety of materials are as thermal insulation, such as wood, plastics, and metal products.
➢ Thermal insulation is composed of materials that have a high thermal resistance (R) or high
reflectivity, such as aluminum foil.
➢ Enclosed air has excellent insulation properties; therefore insulation materials are typically
made of air enclosed cells in foamed glass or plastic.
➢ Some common types of insulation include loose fill, batt or blanket, board or sheet, reflective,
and foam.
➢ Each has advantages depending on the use and placement.
➢ Normally, the Insulation is measured using R-Value, the inverse of thermal conductivity
(R=1/k) where R is resistance and k is thermal conductivity.
1. Loose Fill Insulation:
• Loose fill is composed of glass or mineral wool, vermiculite, and perlite.
• Loose fill insulation is well suited for places where it is difficult to install other types of
insulation, such as irregularly shaped areas, around obstructions, and in hard-to-reach places.
2. Reflective Insulation:
• Reflective insulation is made up of aluminum foil in combination with layers of paper and 1-
inch air space.
• It is typically used on roofs, walls, and floor insulation with a vapor barrier.
3. Foam Insulation:
• Foam can be either the spray type or rigid panels.
• It is commonly used as sheathing or in the case of spray foam in irregular spaces.

Sound Control in Buildings

➢ All materials have some sound-absorbing properties.
➢ Sound energy that is not absorbed is be reflected or transmitted.
➢ A material’s sound-absorbing property is typically described as a sound absorption coefficient
at a particular frequency range.
➢ Sound absorbing materials used in buildings are rated using the Noise Reduction Coefficient
(NRC), range from 250 Hz to 2 kHz.
➢ The NRC theoretically can range from perfectly absorptive (NRC = 1.0) to perfectly reflective
(NRC = 0.0).
➢ Adding sound-absorbing materials to a space usually becomes an interior design issue.
➢ Many options are possible to provide sound absorption on walls and ceilings, which are
attractive and maintainable.
➢ Absorptive materials are often covered with acoustically transparent surfaces such as fabric,
perforated metal and spaced wood slats.
➢ These surfaces allow the sound energy to pass through and be absorbed by the material located
behind them.
➢ Perforated metal panels are commonly used to create a certain finish appearance.
➢ For best results, the material should be as thin as possible, with the smallest hole diameter and
the greatest open area (the greatest number of holes).
➢ Some absorptive materials are attractively designed to be exposed to view, such as normal
suspended ceiling tiles.
➢ Generally, thicker porous materials provide better sound absorption.
➢ Ceiling tiles have an NRC of 0.50 when mounted in a lay-in grid ceiling.
➢ A 1-inch thick glass fibre ceiling tile can have an NRC rating of 0.80 or greater.

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