MEMORY
Computers have different types of memory, which comes in different form factors and chip types. Computer
memory components can be volatile and nonvolatile, and it can store information temporarily, as RAM
(random access memory) does, or permanently, as ROM (read-only memory) does.
TYPES OF MEMORY
A computer might use different types of memory chips. However, all memory chips store data in the form
of bytes. A byte is a grouping of digital information and represents information such as letters, numbers, and
symbols. Specifically, a byte is a block of 8 bits stored as either 0 or 1 in the memory chip.
READ-ONLY MEMORY
An essential computer chip is the read-only memory (ROM) chip. ROM chips are located on the motherboard
and other circuit boards and contain instructions that can be directly accessed by a CPU. The instructions
stored in ROM include basic operation instructions such as for booting the computer and loading the
operating system.
ROM is nonvolatile memory, which means the contents are not erased when the computer is powered off.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
Random access memory (RAM) is temporary working storage for data and programs being accessed by the
CPU. Unlike ROM, RAM is volatile memory, which means the contents are erased every time the computer
is powered off.
Adding more RAM in a computer enhances the system performance. For instance, more RAM increases the
memory capacity of the computer to hold and process programs and files. With less RAM, a computer must
swap data between RAM and the much slower hard drive. The maximum amount of RAM that can be
installed is limited by the motherboard.
TYPES OF ROM
ROM: Information is written to a ROM chip when it is manufactured. A ROM chip that cannot be erased or
rewritten is now obsolete. The term ROM still tends to be used generically for any read-only memory chip
type.
PROM: Information on a programmable read-only memory (PROM) chip is written after it is manufactured.
PROMs are manufactured blank and can be programmed by a PROM programmer when needed. Generally,
these chips cannot be erased and can be programmed only once.
EPROM: Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) is nonvolatile but can be erased by being
exposed to strong ultraviolet light. EPROM usually has a transparent quartz window on the top of the chip.
Constant erasing and reprogramming could eventually render the chip useless.
EEPROM: Information is written to an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) chip
after it is manufactured and without removing it from the device. EEPROM chips are also called Flash ROMs
because the contents can be “flashed” for deletion. EEPROMs are often used to store a computer system’s
BIOS.
TYPES OF RAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Older technology, popular until the mid-1990s
Used for main memory
DRAM gradually discharges energy, so it must be constantly refreshed with pulses of electricity in
order to maintain the stored data in the chip
Static RAM (SRAM)
Requires constant power to function
Often used for cache memory
Uses lower power consumption
Much faster than DRAM
More expensive than DRAM
Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM)
DRAM that operates in synchronization with the memory bus
Able to process overlapping instructions in parallel (for example, can process a read before a write
has been completed)
Higher transfer rates
Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM (DDR SDRAM)
Transfers data twice as fast as SDRAM
Able to support two writes and two reads per CPU clock cycle
Connector has 184 pins and a single notch
Uses lower standard voltage (2.5V)
Family: DDR2, DDR3, DDR4
Double Data Rate 2 Synchronous Dynamic RAM (DDR2 SDRAM)
Transfers data twice as fast as SDRAM
Runs at higher clock speeds than DDR (553 MHz vs. DDR at 200 MHz)
Improves performance by decreasing noise and crosstalk between signal wires
Connector has 240 pins
Uses lower standard voltage (1.8V)
Double Data Rate 3 Synchronous Dynamic RAM (DDR3 SDRAM)
Expands memory bandwidth by doubling the clock rate of DDR2
Consumes less power than DDR2 (1.5V)
Generates less heat
Runs at higher clock speeds (up to 800 MHz)
Connector has 240 pins
Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM (DDR4 SDRAM)
Quadruples the maximum storage capacity compared to DDR3
Consumes less power than DDR3 (1.2V)
Runs at higher clock speeds (up to 1600 MHz)
Connector has 288 pins
Advanced error correction features
GDDR Synchronous Dynamic RAM
The G stands for graphics
RAM specifically designed for video graphics
Used in conjunction with a dedicated GPU
Family: GDDR, GDDR2, GDDR3, GDDR4, GDDR5
Each higher family member improves performance
Each higher family member lowers power consumption
GDDR SDRAM processes massive amounts of data but not necessarily at the fastest speeds
MEMORY MODULES
Early computers had RAM installed on the motherboard as individual chips. The individual memory chips,
called dual inline package (DIP) chips, were difficult to install and often became loose. To solve this problem,
designers soldered the memory chips to a circuit board to create a memory module that would then be
placed into a memory slot on the motherboard.
The different types of memory modules are as follows:
A dual inline package (DIP) is an individual memory chip. A DIP has dual rows of pins used to attach it to the
motherboard.
A single inline memory module (SIMM) is a small circuit board that holds several memory chips. SIMMs
have 30-pin or 72-pin configurations.
A dual inline memory module (DIMM) is a circuit board that holds SDRAM, DDR SDRAM, DDR2 SDRAM,
DDR3 SDRAM, and DDR4 SDRAM chips. There are 168-pin SDRAM DIMMs, 184-pin DDR DIMMs, 240-pin
DDR2 and DDR3 DIMMs, and 288-pin DDR4 DIMMs.
A small outline DIMM (SODIMM) has 72-pin and 100-pin configurations for support of 32-bit transfers and
144-pin, 200-pin, 204-pin, and 260-pin configurations for support of 64-bit transfers. This smaller, more
condensed version of DIMM provides random-access data storage that is ideal for use in laptops, printers,
and other devices where conserving space is desirable.
Memory modules can be single-sided or double-sided. Single-sided memory modules contain RAM on only
one side of the module. Double-sided memory modules contain RAM on both sides.
DIMM TECHNOLOGIES
DIMMs use a 64-bit data path. (Some early DIMMs had a 128-bit data path, but they’re now obsolete.) A
DIMM (dual inline memory module) gets its name because it has independent pins on opposite sides of the
module.
Early DIMMs did not run in sync with the system clock because they were too slow to keep up. Their speeds
are measured in nanoseconds (ns), which is how long it takes for the module to read or write data. The first
DIMM to run synchronized with the system clock was synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), which has two notches,
and uses 168 pins. (Don’t confuse SDRAM with SRAM. SRAM is static RAM used in processor memory caches,
and SDRAM is dynamic RAM used on DIMMs.) Synchronized memory runs in step with the processor and
system clock, and its speeds are measured just as processor and bus speeds are measured in MHz.
Factors that affect the capacity, features, and performance of DIMMs include the number of channels they
use, how much RAM is on one DIMM, the speed, error-checking abilities, and buffering.
SINGLE, DUAL, TRIPLE, AND QUAD CHANNELS
When you look at a motherboard, you might notice the DIMM slots are different colors. This color coding is
used to identify the channel each slot uses. Channels have to do with how many DIMM slots the memory
controller can address at a time. Early DIMMs only used a single channel, which means the memory
controller can access only one DIMM at a time. To improve overall memory performance, dual channels
allow the memory controller to communicate with two DIMMs at the same time, effectively doubling the
speed of memory access. A motherboard that supports triple channels can access three DIMMs at the same
time. Sandy Bridge technology introduced quad channels where the processor can access four DIMMs at the
same time. DDR, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 DIMMs can use dual channels. DDR3 DIMMs can also use triple
channels. DDR3 and DDR4 DIMMs can use quad channels. For dual, triple, or quad channels to work, the
motherboard and the DIMM must support the technology.
When setting up dual channeling, know that the pair of DIMMs in a channel must be equally matched in size,
speed, and features, and it is recommended they come from the same manufacturer.
DIMM SPEEDS
DIMM speeds are measured either in MHz (such as 1333 MHz or 800 MHz) or PC rating (such as PC6400). A
PC rating is a measure of the total bandwidth in MB/second of data moving between the module and the
CPU. To calculate the PC rating for a DDR DIMM, multiply the speed by 8 bytes because a DIMM has an 8-
byte or 64-bit data path. For example, a DDR DIMM that runs at 800 MHz has a bandwidth or transfer rate
of 800×8 or 6400 MB/second, which is expressed as a PC rating of PC6400. A DDR2 PC rating is usually labeled
PC2, a DDR3 PC rating is labeled PC3, and a DDR4 PC rating is labeled PC4.
Memory type Alternative name Clock speed Data rate
PC2-9200 DDR2-1150 575 MHz 1.15 GT/s
PC2-9600 DDR2-1200 600 MHz 1.2 GT/s
PC3-6400 DDR3-800 400 MHz 800 MT/s
PC3-8500 DDR3-1066 533 MHz 1.06 GT/s
PC3-10600 DDR3-1333 666 MHz 1.33 GT/s
PC3-12800 DDR3-1600 800 MHz 1.6 GT/s
PC3-16000 DDR3-2000 1000 MHz 2 GT/s
PC3-17000 DDR3-2133 1066 MHz 2.13 GT/s
PC4-1866 DDR4-1866 933 MHz 1.86 GT/s
PC4-2400 DDR4-2400 1200 MHz 2.4 GT/s
PC4-2666 DDR4-2666 1333 MHz 2.66 GT/s
PC4-3000 DDR4-3000 1500 MHz 3 GT/s
PC4-25600 DDR4-3200 1600 MHz 3.2 GT/s
MEMORY FEATURES
PARITY
Older SIMMs used an error-checking technology called parity. Using parity checking, a ninth bit is stored with
every 8 bits in a byte. If memory is using odd parity, it makes the ninth or parity bit either a 1 or a 0, to make
the number of 1s in the nine bits odd. If it uses even parity, it makes the parity bit a 1 or a 0 to make the
number of 1s in the 9 bits even. Non-parity: Chips that do not use any error checking
ERROR CORRECTING CODE (ECC)
An alternative to parity checking that uses a mathematical algorithm to verify data accuracy. ECC can detect
up to 4-bit memory errors and correct 1-bit memory errors. ECC is used in higher end computers and network
servers. Non-ECC memory modules are simply modules that do not support ECC.
BUFFERED AND REGISTERED DIMMs
Buffers and registers hold data and amplify a signal just before the data is written to the module. (Using
buffers is an older technology than using registers.) Some DIMMs use buffers, some use registers, and some
use neither. If a DIMM doesn’t support registers or buffers, it’s referred to as an unbuffered DIMM.
Tech Tip
Beware of RAM over 4 GB
Do not install over 4 GB on a computer with a 32-bit operating system such as 32-bit Windows. The operating
system will not be able to recognize anything over 4 GB. As a matter of fact, even when a system has 4 GB
installed, the 32-bit operating system shows the installed amount as slightly less than 4 GB because some of
that memory space is used for devices attached to the PCI/PCIe bus.
Memory safety reminder
Before installing a memory module, power off the computer, disconnect the power cord from the back of
the computer, and use proper antistatic procedures. Memory modules are especially susceptible to ESD. If
ESD damages a memory module, a problem might not appear immediately and could be intermittent and
hard to diagnose.
