SCIENCE MATTERS

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 Publisher’s Note
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Key Elements
Hello children! I am Robittoo, the robot. I will be your friend and guide you
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and research done by great scientist
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Did You Know?

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Word Galaxy
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assess your understanding
 Pledge

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 Contents
Unit I: Food
1. Nutrition in Plants�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1-15
2. Nutrition in Animals��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16-35

Unit II: Materials

3. Fibre to Fabric��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36-47
4. Heat and Its Transfer�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������48-68
5. Acids, Bases and Salts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69-85
6. Physical and Chemical Changes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 86-100

Unit III: The World of the Living

7. Weather, Climate and Adaptations of Animals to Climate�������������������������������������������������101-115
8. Soil������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������116-133
9. Respiration in Organisms�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������134-149
10. Transportation in Plants and Animals�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������150-169
11. Reproduction in Plants����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170-192

Unit IV: Moving Things, People and Ideas

12. Motion And Time��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������193-212

Unit V: Natural Phenomena

13. Wind, Storms and Cyclones������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������213-224
14. Light ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������225-245

Unit VI: How things work

15. Electric Current And Its Effect���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������246-262

Unit VII: Natural Resources

16. Water : A Precious Treasure �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������263-274
17. Forests: Our Lifeline����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������275-291
18. Wastewater Story �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������292-306
 1 Nutrition in Plants

Let’s Learn

• What is nutrition? • Heterotrophic mode of

• Autotrophic mode of nutrition nutrition

• Photosynthesis 9 Parasitic plants

9 Materials required for 9 Insectivorous plants

photosynthesis 9 Symbiotic plants
9 Products of photosynthesis • Plant soil interaction

Tune In
Garima and her mother were eating breakfast and enjoying the morning scene from the
balcony. The trees were standing strong, the winds were blowing and the birds were
chirping their morning song. Garima saw the birds flying away from their nests in search
of food. She asked her mother, “We all eat breakfast, lunch and dinner at specific times.
Even our dog eats the food that is served to him. Birds eat grains. What about plants? What
do they eat? I have never seen a plant or a tree eating anything.” Her mother smiled and
said, “That’s because they don’t eat the way we eat. They have a different mode of feeding
themselves.”
Can you answer Garima’s query?

Plants and animals have many things in common. However, plants are unique and different
from animals. Plants remain anchored to the soil; they also have defences to protect themselves
from predators and adaptations to survive different environmental conditions. Plants and
animals also differ in the way they obtain and eat their food. Most plants make their own food.

What is nutrition?
The process of obtaining and utilising food by a living organism is called nutrition. Living
organisms show two modes of nutrition- autotrophic and heterotrophic. The mode of nutrition
in which an organism produces its own food from simple raw materials is called autotrophic
nutrition (‘auto’ means ‘self’ and ‘trophos’ means ‘to feed’). The mode of nutrition in which
organisms cannot synthesise their own food and have to depend on other organisms for food
is called heterotrophic nutrition (‘hetero’ means ‘another’ and ‘trophos’ means ‘to feed’). Let
us learn more about the modes of nutrition in plants.

1
Autotrophic mode of nutrition in plants
Plants are unique in their nutrition as most of them are autotrophic. The organisms that make
their own food are called autotrophs. Autotrophs make complex organic molecules using
simple substances from their surroundings with the help of either light energy or chemical
energy. Autotrophs are the ultimate source of food for all heterotrophic organisms, and for
this reason, biologists consider autotrophs as producers.

Photosynthesis
Most of the energy used by living organisms comes directly
or indirectly from the Sun. The word `Photo’ means `light’ and
the word `synthesis’ means `to prepare’. The process by which
green plants make their food, from carbon dioxide and water Sunlight
in the presence of chlorophyll by using light energy from the
Oxygen
sun is called photosynthesis. Oxygen is given out during the
process of photosynthesis.
Glucose
The equations for photosynthesis can be written as follows.
Carbon
• The word equation of photosynthesis: dioxide
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water  → Glu cos e + Oxygen + Water
Chlorophyll Water

• The chemical equation of photosynthesis: Fig 1.1: Photosynthesis

light
6CO2 + 12 H 2O + → C6 H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H 2O
chlorophyll

Carbon Water Glu cos e Oxygen Water

dioxide

During the process of photosynthesis, six molecules of carbon dioxide combine with twelve
molecules of water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll to form one molecule of
glucose, six molecules of oxygen and six molecules of water.
The food synthesised by green plants is in the form of simple sugars (glucose). These organic
compounds are then transported to other parts of the plant and are used as a source of
energy to carry out various internal reactions. The excess glucose is stored in the form of
starch in the leaves.

Check Your Progress

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. The food synthesised by green plants is in the form of proteins.
2. During photosynthesis, six molecules of oxygen are released as a by-product.
3. The organisms that produce their own food are called autotrophs.
4. Heterotrophs are the ultimate source of food for all organisms.

2
Materials required for photosynthesis
Plants need carbon dioxide, water, sunlight and chlorophyll for the process of photosynthesis.
The materials (carbon dioxide and water) that react during the process of photosynthesis are
called the reactants of photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide Chloroplast

Stomatal pore
The carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere is taken
up by plants through small openings present on the
surface of the leaves. These tiny openings are called
stomata (singular – stoma). The stomata are bound
Nucleus
by two bean shaped guard cells which regulate its Guard cells Guard cells
opening and closing. Fig 1.2: Stomata

Activity 1

Aim: To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials: Two de-starched potted plants, potassium hydroxide in a watch glass, two
bell jars, iodine solution, alcohol, dropper, water, beaker, petri dish, tripod stand, burner
Procedure:
• Take two healthy de-starched potted plants. It is important to de-starch the plant
because the plant will use up all the starch stored in leaves. This is necessary as we
are going to test the production of starch at the end of the experiment.)
• Keep a watch glass containing potassium hydroxide near one plant and cover the
plant and the watch glass with a bell jar as shown in the fig. 1.3. (Potassium hydroxide
absorbs the carbon dioxide present in the bell jar.)
• Keep this assembly in the sunlight for 3 to 4 hours.
• Similarly cover the other plant with a bell jar and keep it in sunlight.
• Pluck a leaf from each plant and test for the presence of starch by performing the
starch test given below.
• Starch Test - Test the leaf for the presence of starch by following the steps given
below.
9 Boil the leaf in water for 2 minutes.
9 Take a test tube and add some alcohol into it. Dip the leaf in the alcohol. Boil
the leaf in the alcohol using a water bath. Remove the leaf from the alcohol and
wash it under tap water.
9 Place the leaf in a petri dish and add a few drops of iodine solution on it.

3
 Observations: The leaf from the plant that was kept with potassium hydroxide did not
turn blue-black while the leaf from the other plant turned blue-black.
Conclusion: The plant kept with potassium hydroxide could not carry out photosynthesis
as there was no carbon dioxide available in the bell jar for photosynthesis. This proves
that plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

Bell jar
Potted plants

Watch glass containing

potassium hydroxide

Fig 1.3: Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

Water

The water required for the process of photosynthesis is absorbed from the soil by the roots
and is transported to the leaves through the xylem. In case of lesser availability of water, the
plants decrease the rate of photosynthesis.

Sunlight

Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis to occur. Plants trap the light energy from the sun
and convert it into the chemical energy (glucose) by the process of photosynthesis. In the
absence of sunlight (i.e. during night time), plants cannot carry out photosynthesis.

Activity 2

Aim: To show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials: A potted plant, black paper strips, clips or cellotape, iodine solution, alcohol,
beakers, tripod stand, burner, water, dropper, petri dish
Procedure:
• Take a healthy potted plant and de-starch it by keeping in complete darkness for 2
to 3 days. (It is important to de-starch the plant because the plant will use up all the
starch stored in leaves. This is necessary as we are going to test the production of
starch at the end of the experiment.)

4
 • Cover a part of one leaf of the de-starched plant with black paper on both the sides
using clips or cellotape.
• Place the watered potted plant in sunlight for 5-6 hours.
• Pluck the leaf and remove the paper strips.
• Test the leaf for the presence of starch by following the starch test given in Activity 1.
Observation:
The part of the leaf exposed to sunlight turns blue-black in colour. The part of the leaf
covered with the black paper strip remains brown-yellow.
Conclusion:
The part of the leaf exposed to sunlight produced starch. This proves that sunlight is
necessary for photosynthesis.

Leaf washed in water Few drop of iodine

solution added to
the leaf Blue-black
colour
Leaf in boiling water Leaf boiled in alcohol using a
waterbath
Fig 1.4: Starch Test

Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll
Leaves contain chloroplasts, which are the pigments
actual site for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts
contain a green pigment called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll traps the light energy of the Sun Chloroplast
necessary for the process of photosynthesis.
The green colour of the leaves is attributed Fig 1.5: Chloroplast and chlorophyll
to the colour of the chlorophyll.

Thus, carbon dioxide, water, sunlight and chlorophyll are necessary for the process of
photosynthesis. In case of insufficient availability of water, carbon dioxide or sunlight, the
plant reduces its rate of photosynthesis.

5
 Activity 3

Aim: To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials: Variegated plant (e.g. coleus), iodine solution, alcohol, beakers, tripod stand,
burner, water, dropper, petri dish
Procedure:
• Take a healthy and well-watered potted variegated plant and keep it in sunlight for
3 to 4 hours. (A variegated leaf shows green and non-green parts in the leaves.)
• Pluck a leaf from the plant and make a drawing of it in your notebook to show the
pattern of green and white areas.
• Check the leaf for the presence of starch as described in Activity 1.
Observation:
The area of the leaf which is not green did not turn blue-black in the starch test. The
green areas of the leaf turned blue-black in the starch test.
Conclusion:
The green areas of the leaf contained chlorophyll and could photosynthesise. This
proves that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Products of Photosynthesis Did You Know

Glucose (sugar) oxygen and water The two main parts of a chloroplast are the grana
are the products of photosynthesis. and stroma. The stack of disc shaped compartments
Oxygen is released through the stomata inside the chloroplasts are called the grana while the
and is used by plants and other living fluid surrounding the grana is called the stroma.
organisms.

Check Your Progress

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide.

2. In case of lesser availability of water, plants increase the rate of photosynthesis.

3. Oxygen is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis.

4. In absence of sunlight, photosynthesis cannot occur.

6
Heterotrophic nutrition in Plants
Most plants are autotrophic. However, there are some plants that are heterotrophic. These
plants cannot make their own food and depend on other sources of food for their survival.
Organisms that show the heterotrophic mode of nutrition are called heterotrophs. There are
three types of heterotrophic plants namely parasitic plants, insectivorous plants, and symbiotic
plants.
Parasitic plants
An association between two organisms, in which one is
benefited at the cost of the other, is called parasitism. A
parasite is an organism that lives in or on another organism.
The organism on which the parasite lives is called the host.
In parasitism, the parasitic plant derives some or all of its
nutrition from the host plant and often harms it in this
process. There are two types of parasitic plants – partial Fig 1.6: Mistletoe
parasites and total parasites.
• Partial parasites – Some parasitic plants are photosynthetic and depend on the host only
for water and minerals. Such plants are called partial parasites or hemi-parasites.
Mistletoe is an example of a partial parasite.
• Total parasites – Some other parasitic plants depend
completely on the host for sugar, minerals and water.
Such plants are termed total parasites. Cuscuta (dodder)
or amarvel is a typical example of a total parasitic plant.
It can be identified by thin stems appearing leafless,
with the leaves reduced to minute scales.
FigFig
1.7:
1.7: Cuscuta (dodder)
Many parasitic plants such as Cuscuta have modified roots Cuscuta (dodder)

called haustoria. Haustoria penetrate the host plant, connect to the phloem which carries
food and suck food from the host plant. Hence they are also called as sucking roots.
Eyebright, witchweed, and
broomrape are some other Did You Know
known examples of parasitic Rafflesia, a parasitic plant,
plants. The parasitic plants are produces the world’s largest single
of great concern. They affect (individual) flower, whose average
the growth of variety of crops diameter is around one meter.
and thus cause huge economic The only visible part of this plant
losses if not controlled. outside the host plant is the flower.

7
Insectivorous plants
Some plants derive nutrients by Did You Know
trapping and consuming insects. These
Attenborough’s pitcher plant is one of the largest
plants are known as insectivorous
carnivorous plants. It can be up to 1.5 metres tall.
plants. Insectivorous plants generally
Its pitchers are 30 cm (11.8 inches) in diameter
grow in soils deficient in minerals
and are able to capture and digest rats and other
especially, nitrogen. These plants are
small animals.
able to carry out photosynthesis for
production of food. The only obstacle in the process of growth is the absence of nitrogen
which they obtain by feeding on insects. These plants are found all over the world and are also
called carnivorous plants. Pitcher plants, Sundew, Venus flytrap and Utricularia are some
examples of insectivorous plants. They show different adaptations that enable them to capture
and digest their prey easily.

• Pitcher plants have leaves shaped like a pitcher

or jar. The cavity formed by the jar shaped
leaves is filled with nectar and attracts the flying
or crawling insects. The inside of the leaf is very
smooth and slippery, and has stiff hair like
structures at the rim. These hair-like structures,
once disturbed, close the opening of the pitcher
Fig 1.8: Pitcher plant
by lowering the flap and the insect gets trapped
inside. At the bottom of the pitcher is the fluid
containing digestive juices.

• The Sundew plants have numerous tentacles

with drops of sticky substance at their ends. The
insect gets stuck and entangled in the sticky
substance. The tentacles curl inward and trap
Fig 1.9: Sundew plant
the insect. Later on it is digested by the plant.

• In Venus flytrap, the leaf is modified into a

trap. The inner surface of the trap has short, stiff
hair. When the insect touches these hair, the
two halves of the leaf snap shut, thus trapping
the insect.

Fig 1.10: Venus flytrap

8
Symbiotic plants
An interaction between two organisms in which both are benefitted is known as symbiosis.
Some plants grow in an environment where nutrients and minerals are not easily available,
they enter into partnerships with other organisms such as bacteria, fungi or other plants. Such
plants which live in association with other organisms and share food resources are called
symbiotic plants. Some examples of symbiotic plants are as follows.

Nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium (association of plant and bacteria)

Plants need nitrogenous substances to make
proteins. However, they cannot directly utilise the
atmospheric nitrogen in its gaseous state. Many
plants absorb soluble nitrogenous substances
(either nitrate ions or ammonium ions) from the
soil. Certain bacteria such as Rhizobium (plural-
rhizobia) found in the root nodules of leguminous
plants (peas, beans) convert gaseous nitrogen into
soluble nitrogenous substances. In nitrogen Fig 1.11: Root nodules in leguminous plants
deficient soils, plants enter into symbiotic
partnerships with these bacteria to get soluble nitrogenous substances. This process is called
nitrogen fixation. In turn, the plants provide other nutrients to the bacteria for growth.

Lichens (association of algae and fungi)

Lichens are formed by a symbiotic relationship
between autotrophic algae and heterotrophic
fungi. The fungus helps the alga in absorption of
minerals and water from the soil. In turn, the alga
being photosynthetic prepares the food and shares
it with the fungus. Lichens are found in some of the
most extreme environments on the Earth-Arctic
Tundra, hot deserts, rainforests and rocky coasts.
Fig 1.12 Lichens
Myco-heterotrophs (association of
plant and fungi) Did You Know

Organisms that feed on dead Plants enter into symbiotic relationships with
and decaying matter are called fungi to form fungal roots called mycorrhizae.
saprophytes. Fungi are saprophytic. In this association, the plant provides the fungus
Some plants enter into an association with sugar. In turn, the fungus supplies the plant
with saprophytic fungi. The plants that with minerals absorbed from the soil.

9
form an association with fungi are called Myco-heterotrophs. The fungi digest the dead and
decaying matter by producing digestive juices. The products of digestion are then used by
the plant. These plants are often leafless and are found in places with lots of decaying organic
matter, such as tropical forests. Indian pipe (monotropa) and coral root are two examples of
myco-heterotrophic plants.

Fig 1.13: Indian pipe Fig 1.14: Coral root

Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. The plant on or in which a parasite lives.
2. Plants that derive nutrition from insects.
3. A symbiotic association between an alga and a fungus.
4. An interaction between two organisms in which both are benefitted.

Plant Soil Interaction

Plants continuously absorb and deplete mineral nutrients from the soil. These nutrients need
to be replenished, otherwise the soil will lose its fertility.
How does soil regain the lost nutrients? When living organisms like plants and animals die,
certain organisms present in the soil break down the complex organic molecules and release
simple nutrients back into the soil. Organisms that break down organic matter to release
nutrients are called decomposers. Decomposers are of two types detritivores and saprotrophs
based on how they decompose organic matter.
• Detritivores– These organisms ingest the dead organic matter and digest and break
it down internally into simple nutrients. Earthworms and dung beetles are examples of
detritivores.
• Saprotrophs– These organisms digest the dead organic matter externally by secreting
digestive enzymes onto the organic matter. Fungi and bacteria are examples of saprotrophs.

10
Thus, the nutrients that are absorbed by the plants through the soil are released back into the
soil by the action of decomposers. This process is called recycling of nutrients.
However, in nature the nutrient cycles are sometimes too Let’s discuss
slow to fulfill the requirements of the plants or at times Can growing different crops
the soil may lack certain nutrients. Thus, for healthy and alternatively in the same field
fast growth of plants, farmers add fertilisers and manures help in recycling the nutrients
to the soil. The fertilisers and manures contain important and enriching the soil?
nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous
required by the plant. Addition of manures is better than adding chemical fertilisers for the
health of the soil, plants and the environment.

Word Galaxy

Nutrition: the process of obtaining and utilising food by an organism.

Autotrophic nutrition: the mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares
its own food.
Heterotrophic nutrition: the mode of nutrition in which an organism depends on other
organisms for food.
Autotroph: an organism that produces its own food.
Stomata: tiny openings present on the leaves through which gases enter and exit the
plant.
Guard cells: the cells surrounding the stomata which regulate the opening and closing of
the stomata.
Chloroplasts: structures present in the leaves that serve as the site of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll: green coloured pigments present within the chloroplasts.

At a Glance

• Autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition are the two modes of nutrition in plants.
• The mode of nutrition in which an organism produces its own food from simple raw
materials is called autotrophic nutrition.
• The mode of nutrition in which an organism depends on other plants and animals for food
is called heterotrophic nutrition.
• Most green plants are autotrophic in nature and produce food by the process of
photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants use carbon dioxide and water to form
simple sugars (glucose) in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Oxygen is released
during the process of photosynthesis.

11
• There are three types of heterotrophic plants namely parasitic plants, insectivorous plants,
and symbiotic plants.
• Parasitic plants derive some or all of their nutrition from another (host) plant. There are
two types of parasitic plants namely partial parasites and total parasites.
• The plants that derive some or most of their nutrients by trapping and consuming insects
are called insectivorous plants.
• Plants enter into symbiotic associations with other organisms where both are benefitted.
• Rhizobium, a soil bacterium associates with the roots of leguminous plants and helps in
nitrogen fixation.
• Lichens are symbiotic association between an alga and a fungus.
• Myco-heterotrophic plants enter into an association with fungi which break down dead
and decaying organic matter.
• Soil nutrients are continuously depleted as they are used up by the plants. Decomposers
break down organic matter and release nutrients back into the soil.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. Which one of the following is an example of an insectivorous plant?
i. Indian pipe ii. Sundew
iii. Cuscuta iv. Mistletoe
b. A plant was kept in the dark for two to three days and then was shifted into bright
light for five hours. However, the plant was deprived of carbon dioxide. Which of the
following will be the observation if a leaf from this plant is tested for the presence of
starch?
i. Only the upper surface of the leaf will turn blue-black in colour
ii. The entire leaf will turn blue-black in colour
iii. The leaf will not turn blue-black in colour
iv. Only the lower surface of the leaf will turn blue-black in colour
c. are as also known as producers.
i. Heterotrophs ii. Saprophytes
iii. Parasites iv. Autotrophs

d. Which one of the following is not a decomposer?

i. Rats ii. Mushrooms
iii. Earthworms iv. Bacteria

12
2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.
a. The process of obtaining and utilising food by an organism is called .
(parasitism/nutrition)
b. Parasitic plants like cuscuta derive food from host plants by means of .
(haustoria/leaves)
c. In lichens, produces food and supplies it to the partner. (alga/
fungus)
d. is an example of a saprotroph. (Fungi/Earthworm)
e. help in nitrogen fixation. (Lichen/Rhizobium)

3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. All plants are autotrophic. 
b. Chlorophyll is the main site of photosynthesis.
c. Eyebright is a heterotrophic plant.
d. Addition of chemical fertilisers is better than adding manures for the health
of the soil.
e. Myco-heterotrophic plants associate with fungi for their nutritional needs. 

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Partial parasite i. Mushroom
b. Total parasite ii. Utricularia
c. Decomposer iii. Mistletoe
d. Carnivorous plant iv. Cuscuta

5. Answer the following in one word or one sentence.

a. A plant having two halves which snap shut when an insect sits on it.
b. The modified sucking roots in parasitic plants.
c. A relationship between two organisms in which both are benefited.
d. The tiny pores present on the leaves through which gases enter and exit the plant.

6. Answer the following questions in short.

a. How does carbon dioxide enter the plant?
b. Explain the term heterotrophic nutrition.
c. Name the two types of decomposers.
d. List the materials necessary for photosynthesis.

13
7. Give reason.
a. Insectivorous plants rely on insects for nutritional needs.
b. The inner side of the jar shaped leaf of the pitcher plant has stiff hair like structures.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. Write a note on detritivores.
b. What is parasitism? Explain the two types of parasites.
c. How do leguminous plants enrich the soil?

9. Diagram based question. A

a. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of a chloroplast and state its

significance. B

b. Identify and name the parts labelled as A, B and C in the adjoining C

figure.

10. Practical based question.

a. Naresh kept his plant in the dark for 48 hours before conducting an experiment to
prove the necessity of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Can you justify Naresh’s
actions?
b. How will you test for the presence of starch in a leaf?

11. Value based question.

Madhav wanted to grow a plant at home. He purchased a potted plant from the nursery
and kept it in one corner of his room away from the window. He watered the plant everyday.
He however noticed that the plant was not growing properly. He asked his mother for
advice. She advised him to keep the plant in balcony. He followed his mother’s advice and
after a few days he found that the plant was growing properly.
a. What could be the possible reasons why the plant did not grow initially?
b. Why do you think Madhav’s mother asked him to keep the plant in the balcony?
c. What qualities were shown by Madhav?

12. Life skills.

Write an essay on the topic – `Manures are better than chemical fertilizers.’

13. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

What would happen if the leaves of a plant are coated with Vaseline?

14
 My Project Idea

Gather information about different heterotrophic plants by using the internet and books
from the library. Collect pictures of the same and prepare a power Point presentation.

Let’s Create

Divide the class into two groups. Each group will make decorative quiz cards on the
topics covered in the chapter by following the instructions:
• Write the question on one side and the answer on the other side of the card.
• Make around 15 such cards with challenging questions.
• Conduct a quiz between the two groups using the quiz-cards.

14. Field trip

Visit a park near your home and note down various plants (at least 10) that you see there.
Find out the names of the plants, their mode of nutrition and any unique feature of the
plants using the internet. Prepare a report of the information gathered and discuss it in
the classroom.

Meet the Scientist

Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann (1843– 1909) was a

German botanist, physiologist, microbiologist, university
professor, and musician who discovered that photosynthesis
occurs in the chloroplast. Engelmann continued studying
photosynthesis and the role of chloroplasts. In his 1882
experiment he also measured the effects of different colours
of light on photosynthetic activity. His studies on plants and
photosynthesis also helped in understanding how oxygen is
produced in unicellular organisms during photosynthesis.

WEBLINKS

http://www.shmoop.com/photosynthesis/history.html
https://www.secretsofgreen.com/20-amazing-facts-about-plants/
https://www.funfactsabout.net/plant-facts/
https://biologydictionary.net/difference-detritivores-decomposers/

As on 30.04.2019

15
 2 Nutrition in Animals

Let’s Learn

• Nutrition in animals • Nutrition in amoeba

• Types of heterotrophic nutrition • Nutrition in ruminants
• Steps in nutrition • Nutrition in human beings

Tune In

We feel tired when we walk, run, swim or perform any physical activity. We often feel like
eating something after a heavy workout or a jog. This is because our body needs energy to
perform any activity. Have you ever wondered from where the body gets energy?

Introduction
All living organisms need nutrients to live and grow. Food is the source of energy for living
organisms to perform different activities. The food taken in by an organism is broken down
into simpler substances that can be absorbed by the body and provide nutrition. Nutrition is
defined as the process of obtaining food and its utilisation by the body.

In the previous chapter, we have learnt that green plants have the ability to produce food by
the process of photosynthesis. This mode of nutrition is known as autotrophic nutrition and
green plants are known as autotrophs. All other organisms depend directly or indirectly on
green plants for their nutrition.

Nutrition in Animals
Unlike green plants, animals cannot make their own food. They depend either on plants or
on other animals for their food. This mode of nutrition is known as heterotrophic nutrition
and these animals are known as heterotrophs.

Types of heterotrophic Nutrition

There are four main types of heterotrophic nutrition:
Holozoic nutrition
In holozoic nutrition, animals consume the solid or liquid food which is later broken down in
the body. Animals that follow holozoic nutrition are divided into the following types based on
their food habits – Herbivores, Carnivores, and Omnivores.

16
• Herbivores eat only green plants. Cows, deer, camels are examples of herbivores.

• Carnivores feed only on the flesh of other animals. Lions, tigers, cheetahs are carnivores.

• Omnivores feed on both plants and other animals. Bears and pigs are omnivores. Humans
are also omnivores, as we can consume foods from both plant and animal sources. Foods
obtained from plant sources include vegetables, fruits, cereals, pulses etc. Food obtained
from animal sources include eggs, fish, meat and milk.

Herbivore (deer) Carnivore (tiger) Omnivore (bear)

Fig 2.1: Classification of animals based on their food habits

Parasitic nutrition
Animals that live inside or outside the body of other
animals and obtain nutrition from there are called
parasites. This mode of nutrition is called parasitic
nutrition and the animal in/on which the parasite lives is
harmed in this process. For example, a leech is a parasite
that feeds on human and animal blood. A tapeworm is Fig 2.2 Parasite (tapeworm)
a parasite that lives in the intestines of other animals.

Saprotrophic nutrition
Organisms that feed on dead and decaying organic matter are called saprotrophs and the
mode of nutrition is called saprotrophic nutrition. Fungi and bacteria are saprotrophs.

Symbiotic Nutrition
Some organisms enter into a symbiotic association with other plants or animals and obtain
their nutrition from them. Both the organisms involved are benefitted in symbiosis. For
example, bacteria found in the intestines of humans aid in the digestion of food and in turn
obtain their nutrition from the digested food. Rhizobium bacteria living in the root nodules
of leguminous plants obtain their nutrition from the plant and in turn help to fix atmospheric
nitrogen that can be utilised by the plant.

17
The differences between the different types of heterotrophic nutrition are summarised in the
flowchart (Fig 2.3)

• The animal consumes the whole solid or liquid food which is

then broken down or digested into simpler substances.

Holozoic • The useful substances are absorbed by the body.

nutrition • The undigested and harmful substances are thrown out of the
body.
• Example - All herbivores, carnivores and omnivores

• An organism known as a parasite, associates itself with another

animal, known as a host to obtain nutrition.
• The host is harmed in this process while the parasite is
benefitted.
Parasitic
nutrition • When a parasite lives inside the body of the host, it is known
as an endoparasite. Example - Hookworms and tapeworms
• Parasites that attach themselves to the outside of the host
body or suck and feed on the blood of the host are known
as ectoparasites. Example - mosquitoes, ticks, mites and
leeches

Saprotrophic • An organism that obtains nutrition from non-living organic matter.

nutrition • Example - bacteria, fungi such as bread moulds

• An association between two organsims in which both are

benefitted.
Symbiotic
nutrition • Example - bacteria found in the human intestine, the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium and the root nodules of
leguminous plants.

Fig 2.3 Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition

Steps in nutrition
The food eaten by animals needs to be digested and broken down into simple soluble forms
that can be utilised by the body.
There are five steps of nutrition in animals – ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion.

18
Ingestion
The process of consuming food is known as ingestion. Some ways in Ingestion
which animals ingest food are:
• Humans and other animals ingest food through the mouth.
Digestion
• Paramoecium has hair-like cilia that pushes food into the cell.
• Frogs and chameleons have long sticky tongues to catch their
prey. Absorption

• Butterflies suck nectar from flowers with a long tube called

proboscis. Assimilation
Digestion
The food eaten by an animal is broken down further into smaller
Egestion
parts so that it can be absorbed by the body. This process of breaking
down food into small and simple compounds to be absorbed by the Fig 2.4 Steps in Nutrition
body is known as digestion.

Absorption
The digested food contains nutrients and has to be transported to all parts of the body. The
process of extracting nutrients from the digested food and carrying them to all parts of the
body is known as absorption.

Assimilation
The nutrients absorbed from the food are utilised for growth, repair and maintenance of the
body. This process is known as assimilation.

Egestion
After absorbing nutrients and useful substances from the food, the undigested food along
with waste material is excreted from the body. This process is known as egestion.

Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. Organisms that obtain food from non-living organic matter.
2. The first step of nutrition in which food is consumed.
3. Animals that feed only on green plants.
4. The long tube used by butterflies to suck nectar from flowers.

19
Nutrition in Amoeba
Amoebae are unicellular organisms found in freshwater bodies such as streams, lakes and
rivers. They feed on microscopic organisms like protozoa and algae found in these water
bodies.
The single cell of the organism is surrounded by a cell membrane. The nucleus, food vacuole,
and contractile vacuole are present in the cytoplasm of the cell.
An amoeba constantly changes its shape to form finger-like projections called pseudopodia.
(amoeba derives its name from the Greek word ‘amoibe’ which means change). Capturing
of food and locomotion are the two main functions of the pseudopodia. The pseudopodia
surround the food particle and engulf it into the body. The food particle is digested with help
of hydrolytic enzymes in the food vacuole and then assimilated. This process of engulfing a
food particle and breaking it down inside a cell is known as phagocytosis. The undigested
food is then excreted out of the cell through the contractile vacuole.
Nucleus
Cell
Contractile vacuole
membrane
(excretes water and
waste)

Pseudopodia

Food being engulfed

by pseudopodia
Cytoplasm Food vacuole
(digests food)
Fig 2.4: Nutrition in amoeba

Check Your Progress

Answer the following.

1. Name the process by which an amoeba engulfs food.
2. Give two examples of organisms on which an amoeba feeds.
3. List the organelles present in the cytoplasm of an amoeba.
4. Two functions of pseudopodia.

Nutrition in Ruminants
Animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes, giraffes and deer feed mainly on grass and
hay. Grass and hay predominantly contain cellulose, a carbohydrate that is difficult to break
down during digestion. Human beings and many other animals cannot digest cellulose. The
stomach of animals that digest cellulose is divided into four chambers – rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum.

20
These animals store the food in the rumen and bring it back again into the mouth for chewing.
Animals that regurgitate the food stored in the rumen are known as ruminants. The process
of storing food in the rumen and regurgitating it to the mouth is known as rumination.
intestine 3 omasum
oesophagus

1 rumen 2 reticulum
4 abomasum

Fig 2.6:Nutrition in Ruminants

A ruminant chews the plant material hurriedly. This food is mixed with saliva for a short time
and then swallowed. It enters the rumen of the stomach where it is stored. Bacteria present in
the rumen secrete digestive enzymes to digest the cellulose.
The rumen and the reticulum cause the food to separate into solid and liquid parts. This
partially digested solid part is known as cud. The cud is sent back to the mouth for chewing,
where it is mixed with saliva and ground into smaller parts. This process can occur several
times.
The food is then passed onto the omasum which is responsible for the absorption of excess
water. The abomasum is the true stomach as it produces various digestive enzymes and
digests the food. It is similar in structure to the stomach of other animals. The digested food
passes into the small intestine where most of the nutrients are absorbed.
The small intestine and the large intestine of a ruminant are connected by a large pouch
known as caecum. The caecum contains many bacteria which can further digest the cellulose.
The undigested food is then excreted along with other waste materials.

Check Your Progress

Answer the following.

1. Name any two ruminants.
2. Name the four chambers of the ruminant stomach.
3. Which part of the ruminant stomach is also known as true stomach?
4. What is cud?

21
Nutrition in human beings
The food that we eat is digested and assimilated by the human digestive system. The human
digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs.

The alimentary canal is also known as the digestive tract. Food passes through the alimentary
canal that begins at the buccal cavity and ends at the anus. The parts of the alimentary canal
are the mouth and buccal cavity, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the small intestine, the large
intestine, and the anus. The accessory digestive organs include the liver, the pancreas and the
salivary glands.

Mouth and buccal cavity

Food is ingested through the mouth. Physical
digestion and chemical digestion both take place
Tongue
in the mouth. The buccal cavity (also known as the Mouth Buccal cavity
Pharynx
mouth cavity or oral cavity) contains the tongue and
Oesophagus
teeth and leads to the pharynx.
Liver
Physical digestion in the mouth and buccal cavity
Stomach
Physical digestion or mechanical digestion is the Pancreas
physical breaking down of food into smaller pieces. Small intestine

Our teeth help in the mechanical digestion of food. Large

Rectum intestine
Mastication is the mechanical grinding of food into Anus
smaller pieces by teeth; it is essentially a technical Fig 2.7: Human digestive system

word for “chewing”. Mastication breaks down food so that it can go through the oesophagus
to the stomach. Breaking down food into smaller pieces also increases its surface area so that
digestive enzymes can continue to break it down more efficiently.

Teeth
Teeth are responsible for breaking down the food into smaller pieces and mixing it with saliva.
Human beings normally have two sets of teeth during their lifetime. The first set of teeth
develop between the ages of six months and three years. They are known as deciduous teeth
or milk teeth and are 20 in number. As the jaws grow and expand, they are replaced one by
one by the permanent teeth which are 32 in number.

22
 Enamel
Structure of a Tooth
Crown Dentine
Each tooth consists of the following parts: Pulp
• Crown - The part of the tooth that is visible above the Gums
gums. Root
canal
Root
• Root - The unseen portion that supports and holds Bone
the tooth in place.
Nerves
• Pulp – The soft core richly supplied with blood vessels and blood
vessels
and nerves. Fig 2.8: Structure of a tooth
A tooth is made up of a bone-like hard structure called dentine. The dentine is covered with
a hard, shiny covering known as the enamel. Enamel is the hardest substance in our body.

Types of Teeth
Incisors
The teeth on one side of the jaw are a mirror
Canine Canine
image of those located on the opposite side.
There are four types of teeth in adult humans: Premolars Premolars
• Incisors: There are eight incisors; four at
the top-center of our mouth and four at Molars Molars
the bottom-center. They are flat, with a
chisel-like sharp edge and help to bite and
cut food into small chewable pieces. Fig 2.9: Types of teeth
• Canines: There are four canines one on each side of the incisors. They are sharp, pointed
and help in tearing the food.
• Premolars: There are eight premolars; two on either side of the canines in each jaw. They
help crush, grind food and move it from the front teeth to the molars for chewing.
• Molars: There are 12 molars, next to the premolars in the upper and lower jaw. They are
broad, flat, strong and chew food into small, easily consumable pieces.

Types of teeth

Incisors Canines Premolars Molars

help to crush,
help to bite and grind and move to chew food
cut food into help in tearing the food from the into small, easily
small chewable food front teeth to consumable
pieces the molars for pieces
chewing
Fig 2.10 Types of teeth

23
Bacteria are naturally present in our mouth. They act on Let’s discuss
the food particles present in the gaps between our teeth It is advised to go for regular
and form a sticky yellowish layer on the teeth known as dental checkups.
plaque.

The sugar and starch in the food items are converted to acids by the plaque. These acids
corrode the enamel and may cause tooth decay and cavities. In order to prevent the formation
of plaque and tooth decay, we must brush our teeth twice a day to remove all residual food
particles. Flossing between the teeth also prevents the formation of plaque. It is important to
visit the dentist for regular checkups.

Activity 1

Aim: To study different types of teeth.

Materials: Mirror
Procedure:
• Wash your hands well and count your teeth while looking into the mirror.
• Write down your observation in the table given below.
• Now run your tongue over each tooth and try to identify the different teeth in your
mouth.
• Record your observation in the table given below.
Observation:

Types of teeth Number of teeth in total Functions

Incisors
Canines
Premolars
Molars
Conclusion: There are in four types of teeth in humans – incisors, canines, premolars
and molars.

Chemical digestion in the mouth and buccal cavity

The breakdown of food into simpler nutrients by the action of enzymes is known as chemical
digestion. Chemical digestion in the mouth takes place due to the action of the enzymes
secreted by the salivary glands.

24
Salivary glands
The salivary glands secrete saliva in the mouth. An enzyme amylase present in the saliva
breaks down the starch present in food into simpler forms. Enzymes are biological catalysts
that speed up chemical reactions in the body. The mucus present in saliva makes food slimy
and slippery so that it can be easily swallowed.

Activity 2

Aim: To study the effect of saliva on food.

Materials: spoon, boiled rice, water, beaker, test tubes (2), iodine solution, marker pen,
two glass rods
Procedure:
• Mark the test tubes as A and B with the help of a marker pen.
• Take one tablespoon of boiled rice in test tube A and add 3-5ml of water to it. Stir
the mixture with a glass rod.
• Take one tablespoon of boiled chewed rice in test tube B and add 3-5ml of water to
it. Stir the mixture with a glass rod.
• Add 2 drops of iodine solution to both the test tubes and observe the colour change.
Observation:

Test Tube Color change

Test tube “A”
Test tube “B”

Conclusion: Saliva breaks down the starch present in food to simple sugars.

Check Your Progress

Answer the following.

1. Which enzyme present in the saliva acts on the starch present in food?
2. Which two types of digestion take place in mouth?
3. Name the four types of teeth in adult humans?
4. What is the number of permanent teeth in adult humans?

Tongue
The tongue is a muscular organ found at the base of the mouth. It is one of the strongest
muscles in our body. The tongue has specialised cells called taste buds which help us to
taste food. The tongue moves the food around the mouth and directs the particles that need

25
further chewing towards the molars. It mixes the food with saliva. Food is converted to a soft
mass called bolus in the buccal cavity which is then swallowed down the food pipe.

Pharynx
The mouth and the nose open into the pharynx. The pharynx is a cone-shaped passageway
for both food and air. The food swallowed by us passes through the pharynx before entering
the food pipe. The air inhaled from the nose also passes through the pharynx and enters the
wind pipe.
A flap of cartilage called the epiglottis prevents the food from entering the wind pipe. When
we breathe, the epiglottis opens up to allow the air to pass into the wind pipe. When we
swallow food, the epiglottis closes to prevent the food from entering the wind pipe.

Oesophagus
It is a 25 cm long muscular tube which runs from the mouth to the stomach. It is also known
as the food pipe. The muscles present in the walls of the oesophagus contract and relax to
produce wave like movements called peristalsis. Peristalsis helps in pushing the food into the
stomach.

Activity 3

Aim: To understand the process of peristalsis.

Materials: Nylon tights/socks, scissors, a soft round object like a ball or balloon that fits
exactly into the sock/tights
Procedure:
• Cut a section of nylon tights or socks such that it
is open at both ends.
• Take the small round object that fits exactly into
the sock/tights.
• Hold the tights/sock with the small round object
at one end in your hand. (the ball/object should fit
exactly into the sock so that it does not fall down
due to gravity)
• With your hands, push the round object through the socks/tights. Note down your
observation.
Observation: The round object has to be pushed down the socks by applying repeated
pressure.
Conclusion: The oesophagus contracts in a similar manner to push the swallowed food
further towards the stomach.

26
Stomach
It is a muscular thick-walled bag that
Did You Know
receives the partially digested food from the
Sphincter is a ring of muscle surrounding
oesophagus. It plays an important role in the
and serving to guard or close an opening
chemical digestion of food. Gastric juices
or a tube, such as the anus or the openings
secreted by the stomach contain hydrochloric
of the stomach. Heartburn can occur
acid and an enzyme called pepsin. Pepsin helps when the lower sphincter fails to close
in the breakdown of proteins into amino acids. completely, allowing stomach acids to
Hydrochloric acid mixes with the partially travel upwards and irritate the tissues in
digested food from the mouth and provides the oesophagus.
the acidic environment necessary for digestion
of food. It also helps to control the bacteria and other microorganisms present in the food.
The mucous lining of the stomach protects it from the corrosive effects of the acids.

The stomach churns the food with the gastric juices and converts the partially digested food
into a thick semi-fluid mass known as chyme.

Bolus of
food Epiglottis up
Tongue Epiglottis
up
Pharynx Glottis down
Glottis
Epiglottis and open
Larynx
Trachea down
Glottis up Relaxed
To lungs To stomach and closed muscles
Oesophagus Contracted
muscles
Relaxed
muscles

Stomach

Fig 2.11 Movement of food from the mouth to the stomach

Liver
The liver is a reddish brown coloured organ situated in the upper part of the abdomen. It is
the largest gland of the body and carries out many functions. It secretes bile which is stored
in the gall bladder before it is released into the small intestine. Bile plays a role in diogestion
by emulsification of fats.

27
Pancreas
The pancreas is a gland located in the abdomen. It secretes the pancreatic juice which contains
enzymes that help in the digestion of food in the small intestine. The enzymes present in the
pancreatic juice mainly help in the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins.

Small intestine
The secretions from the liver, gall bladder and pancreas are released into the small intestine
through a duct known as the common bile duct.
The small intestine is 6-7m long with a diameter of about 3-4 cm and is accommodated inside
the body in a highly coiled manner. It is the longest organ of the digestive tract. It is divided
into three segments- duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
The small intestine is the main organ of the digestive tract where the complete digestion of
food and absorption of nutrients takes place. The chyme from the stomach that enters the
small intestine is mixed with the pancreatic juice secreted by the pancreas, bile secreted by
the liver and the intestinal juice secreted by the small intestine.

Absorption in the small intestine

The mucous lining of the small intestine has millions of finger-like projections known as villi.
The villi are surrounded by blood capillaries. Their main function is to increase the surface area
available for the absorption of nutrients from the digested food.

The simple soluble nutrients obtained from the digestion of food are absorbed by diffusion
from the walls of the small intestine into the blood stream. These nutrients are then carried
to the different parts of the body by the blood. These substances are then absorbed and
assimilated by the body cells and are used to produce energy for various activities. The
undigested food from the small intestine then passes into the large intestine.

Large intestine
The large intestine is a wide tube about
1.5 metres in length. It is divided into three Did You Know
regions - the caecum, the colon and the rectum. The large intestine is actually shorter than
The main function of the large intestine is the the small intestine. The intestines are
absorption of water from the undigested food. named on their width and not their length.
The excess water and salts are absorbed in the The surface area of the small intestine is
large intestine and the remaining undigested actually about the size of a tennis court.
food is stored in the rectum before it is passed
out of the body. The food is stored in the rectum as semi-solid faeces.

28
Anus
It is the opening at the end of the alimentary canal through which the solid waste matter
(faeces) leaves the body.

Mouth / buccal cavity

food is mastictaed by the teeth, the tongue mixes food with saliva and saliva breaks down starch into simple
sugars. Food is converted into a soft mass called bolus.

Pharynx
The food swallowed by us passes through the pharynx before entering the food pipe (oesophagus).

Oesophagus
Peristalsis helps to push the food into the stomach.

Stomach
Food is churned and broken down by the gastric juice to form chyme.

Small intestine
Bile secreted by the liver, pancreatic juice secreted by the pancreas and intestinal juice act on the chyme.
Absorption of nutrients into the blood stream

Large intestine
Absorption of water and salts
Undigested food is stored in the rectum and eventually eliminated out of body through the anus.

Fig 2.12 The Process of digestion

Check Your Progress

Answer the following.

1. Name the parts of the small intestine.
2. What is the function of the epiglottis?
3. What is the function of the villi?
4. Which enzyme helps in the breakdown of proteins into amino acids?

Word Galaxy

Symbiosis: an association between two organisms in which both are

benefitted.
Nutrition: the process of obtaining food and its utilisation by the body

29
 Phagocytosis: the process in which a cell or particle is ingested or engulfed by another
living cell
Pseudopodia: finger-like projections formed by amoeba
Engulf: sweep over (something) so as to surround it or cover it completely
Ruminant: animals that store food in the rumen and bring it back into the mouth for
chewing again
Rumen: the first chamber of the ruminant stomach
Buccal cavity: the mouth cavity or oral cavity that contains the tongue and the teeth and
leads to the pharynx
Enamel: a hard, shiny covering present on the dentine of teeth
Plaque: a sticky yellowish layer formed on the teeth due to the degradation of food
particles by bacteria
Mastication: the mechanical grinding of food into smaller pieces by teeth
Villi: finger like projections that increase the surface area of absorption in the small intestine
Peristalsis: the wave-like movements caused by the involuntary contraction and relaxation
of muscles
Chyme: the semi-solid mass of partially digested food expelled from the stomach

At a Glance

• Nutrition can be defined as the process of obtaining food and its utilisation by the body.
• There are two modes of nutrition – autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition.
• Holozoic nutrition, parasitic nutrition, saprotrophic nutrition and symbiotic nutrition are
the different types of heterotrophic nutrition.
• Holozoic nutrition is a nutrition in which an animal consumes solid or liquid food which is
later broken down or digested by the body into simpler substances. Herbivores, carnivores
and omnivores follow holozoic nutrition.
• There are five steps in nutrition: ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
• Amoebae use pseudopodia for ingestion of food. When an amoeba senses food material,
it surrounds the food particle with its pseudopodia and engulfs the particle.
• Animals that regurgitate food stored in rumen are known as ruminants. The stomachs of
ruminants have four chambers - rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum.
• The human digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive
organs.
• The alimentary canal is made up of the mouth or buccal cavity, the pharynx, the oesphagus
the stomach, the small intestine, the large intestine and the anus.

30
• The accessory digestive organs include the liver, the pancreas and the salivary glands.
• Food is converted into a bolus by mechanical and chemical digestion in the mouth.
• The bolus enters the oesophagus through the pharynx and moves into the stomach by
peristalsis.
• The food is converted into chyme in the stomach by the action of gastric juices.
• The complete digestion of food takes place in the small intestine by the action of bile,
pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.
• The absorption of water and salts take place in the large intestine.
• The undigested food in the form of faeces is stored in the rectum and eliminated through
the anus.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. coverts proteins to amino acids.
i. Nitric acid ii. Amylase
iii. Pepsin iv. Acetic acid
b. The part of the tooth that is visible above the gums is the .
i. pulp ii. root
iii. dentine iv. crown
c. is a special chamber present in animals feeding on cellulose.
i. Rumen ii. Duodenum
iii. Jejunum iv. Rectum
d. In amoeba, the undigested food is excreted out of the cell through ___________.
i. cytoplasm ii. contractile vacuole
iii. pseudopodia iv. food vacuole
2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.
a. are the finger-like projections in amoeba. (Villi/Pseudopodia)
b. acid is secreted in the stomach of human beings. (Hydrochloric
acid/Acetic acid)
c. The soft core of a tooth richly supplied with blood vessels and nerves is known as the
. (pulp/dentine)
d. movement helps in pushing food into the stomach. (phagocytosis/
peristalsis)

31
3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. In ruminants, the omasum is not responsible for the absorption of excess water.
b. Enamel is the hardest substance in our body.
c. The caecum connects the small intestine and the large intestine of a ruminant.
d. Production of bile is one of the important functions of the gall bladder.

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Bile i. peristalsis
b. Oesophagus ii. breakdown of fats
c. Mouth iii. breakdown of proteins to amino acids
d. Stomach iv. salivary amylase

5. Answer the following in one word or one sentence.

a. Which enzyme present in saliva acts on starch?
b. Where is bile stored?
c. Which glands present in the mouth help in the breakdown of food?
d. Which group of animals have a four-chambered stomach?
e. Which finger-like projections are found on the inner lining of the small intestine?

6. Answer the following questions in brief.

a. What is Phagocytosis?
b. What is holozoic nutrition?
c. What are the different chambers of a ruminant’s stomach?
d. Name the glands which help in the digestion of food in the small intestine of humans.
7. Give reason.
a. Hydrochloric acid does not corrode the lining of the stomach.
b. It is advisable to brush our teeth twice a day.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. Explain parasitic nutrition with examples.
b. Write a note on the small intestine and its role in digestion of food.
c. Explain the steps in nutrition.
d. What is the function of the large intestine in the digestion of food in human beings?

32
9. Diagram based question
a. Label the diagram of the human digestive system given below:

b. Complete the given flowchart on the types of permanent teeth, their functions and
total number.
Types of teeth

Incisors

help to bite and

cut food into
small chewable
pieces.

33
10. Practical based question.
Take two test tubes A and B and add a few pieces of potatoes into both the tubes. Add a
few drops of water to each test tube. Now add the digestive enzyme amylase to test tube B.
After 30 mins add iodine solution to both the test tubes. Observe the color change in
both the test tubes and record your observations in the table given below. What can you
conclude from this activity?
Observation:

Test Tube Colour of iodine solution Conclusion

11. Value based question.

Radhika was eating very fast and gobbling her food. Her friend, Anushka asked her to slow
down and chew her food.
Do you agree with Anushka? Justify your answer. What values were shown by Anushka?
12. Life skills.
Visit a nearby dentist and find out the different steps we should follow to maintain oral
hygiene and have healthy teeth. Prepare a presentation on your findings.

13. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

Why is it recommended to include green leafy vegetables and salads in
our diet?

My Project Idea

Make a 3D model of the digestive system using the

materials given below. Arrange the materials as shown in
the figure to create a model of the human digestive system

Materials required – one metal can, empty water bottle,

used fruity tetra pack, two transparent pipes, two used
washing machine pipes, empty tooth paste, empty glue
stick

34
14. Field trip.
Visit a nearby hospital and find out about the work done by a gastroenterologist and a
nutritionist. Prepare a one page report on the diseases cured by them and organs related
to those diseases.

Meet the Scientist

Dr. William Beaumont, born in the year 1785, in Connecticut,

United States of America was a surgeon in the U.S. army.
On June 6, 1822, a man named Alexis St. Martin, was shot
in the stomach from a close range and this injured his ribs
and his stomach. Although St. Martin survived, he developed
a gaping hole in his stomach that never fully healed. Dr.
Beaumont took this unique opportunity to observe the
digestive processes through the hole in St. Martin’s stomach.
Dr. Beaumont began to perform various experiments on
digestion on St. Martin. These experiments led to many important discoveries about
the human digestive system. Dr. Beaumont found that gastric acid and muscular
contractions of stomach digest the food. Owing to the many discoveries made by
Dr. Beaumont, he is considered as the “Father of Gastric Physiology”

WEBLINKS

https://www.livescience.com/40187-digestive-system-surprising-facts.html
https://list25.com/25-fun-facts-about-the-human-digestion-system-you-probably-didnt-
know/
https://www.webmd.com/heartburn-gerd/your-digestive-system#1
https://www.innerbody.com/image/digeov.html

As on 30.04.2019

35
 3 Fibre to Fabric

Let’s Learn

• Animal fibre- wool and silk • Sericulture

• Sources of wool • Lifecycle of a silk moth
• Rearing and breeding of wool • Processing of silk
• Processing of wool • Sources of silk
• Properties of wool • Properties of silk
• History of silk

Tune In
Which of the following will you suggest she should
wear?
1. Raincoat
2. Sweater
3. Short sleeved cotton white T-shirt
Why do you think your suggestion will help her?

Introduction
Clothes that we wear, protect us from heat, wind, cold, rain, dust and ultraviolet rays of the
sun. The choice of clothing generally depends on the climate, occasion and age of a person.
Clothing is one of the most basic needs of human beings. Primitive man lived unprotected in
the open environment. Later they learnt how leaves or barks of trees or skin of animals can be
used to cover themselves. As time passed man learnt to make clothes using fibres obtained
from various sources such as plants, animals and petroleum products.
The material used to make clothes is known as ‘fabric’. Fibres are thin threads which are
strong and flexible when spun into yarn. The yarn is knitted or woven into fabric, which can be
used to make finished products like clothes, bags, etc.
Fibres are classified as natural and synthetic fibres depending on the source of a fibre. Fibres
can be naturally obtained from plants as well as animals.
• Cotton, coir and jute are few examples of fibres obtained from plants. Cotton fibres are
obtained from the fruit of the cotton plant and jute fibre is obtained from the stem of the
jute plants. Natural fibres such as silk and wool are obtained from animals.

36
• Synthetic fibres are manufactured artificially using plant materials, various chemicals,
petrochemical products etc. Nylon, rayon and polyester are produced artificially. Hence,
they are called synthetic fibres or man-made fibres.

Animal fibres – Wool and Silk

Wool
Source of wool
Did You Know
Wool is obtained from the fleece or the body hair of
different animals such as sheep, goats, yaks, camels and An alpaca, belonging to the
rabbits. family of camel produces wool in
more than 22 different colours.
Air is bad conductor of heat. The thick hair on the body
of these animals traps air and protects these animals from the cold. This property of animal
hair makes it a suitable raw material for making winter wear. Animal hair are made up of
proteins called keratin. Several breeds of sheep are found and reared in different parts of
India.

• The Nali breed and the Lohi breed are found in

Rajasthan and Punjab. The wool obtained from
Nali breed is used for making carpets and the
wool obtained from Lohi breed is used for making
winter clothing.

• The wool obtained from the Bakharwal breed

found in Jammu and Kashmir is used to make
woollen shawls. Fig.3.1: Source of wool

• The Marwari and Patanwadi breeds of sheep are found in Gujarat. The Marwari breed
yields coarse wool while the Patanwadi breeds yield soft wool that is used to make hosiery.

Check Your Progress

Complete the following table.

Breed Location Uses

Patanwadi Hosiery

Rajasthan Carpets

Bakharwal Jammu and Kashmir

37
Rearing and breeding of Sheep:
The wool we commonly find in shops is sheep wool. Sheep are reared in herds in different
parts of India by shepherds. Rearing of sheep involves taking care of sheep by providing them
appropriate food, shelter and health care.
The raising of sheep for obtaining wool, meat and milk is known as sheep farming.

What do they eat?

Sheep are herbivores which feed on grass and leaves. They are also fed with a mixture of
pulses, corn, jowar and oil cakes. In winters, sheep are kept indoors and fed on leaves, grains
and dry fodder.

What is selective breeding?

The quality and quantity of wool depends upon the breed of the sheep. Sometimes breeding
is done to obtain animals with desired characters. For breeding, two individuals (a female
sheep and a male sheep) of desired characters are selected and crossed or made to reproduce.
This process is called selective breeding. The new breed of animal thus produced has all the
selected desired characteristics of both parents.
Most of the wool-yielding animals have two kinds of hair on their body, namely, coarse outer
hair (also called kemp) and soft under-hair. The fine and soft under-hair is used to make wool.
For selective breeding, a sheep breed that has only good quality soft under hair and no kemp
may be crossed with a sheep breed that yields wool in large quantities. The new breed thus
formed will show characteristics of both parents. It will yield good quality soft under hair wool
in large quantities and it will have no kemp.
The other characteristics chosen for selective breeding are wool type, general appearance,
resistance to disease and tolerance of climatic conditions.

Processing of wool
The processing of wool from sheep to making fabric it involves the following steps:
Shearing
It is the first step in wool production. The process of
removing the fleece or the body hair of the sheep is
called shearing.
Shearing does not hurt the sheep. It is similar to us
getting a haircut. The uppermost layer of our skin
is dead. Hence, it does not hurt to shave or cut the
hair. The hair is rooted deep into the skin beneath
Fig.3.2: Shearing of sheep

38
the dead layer. Hence, it hurts if hair is pulled but not if it is cut. In India, the best seasons for
shearing are autumn and spring. The fur is removed from the animal using special clippers or
a large razor or with an automatic shearing machine.

Scouring
The sheared fleece of sheep contains dirt, dust, dried sweat, grease and other organic matter.
The sheared fleece is washed with hot, soapy water in big tanks to remove this unwanted
matter. This process is called scouring.

The wool is then dried. Scouring can also be done with the help of machines.

Sorting
After scouring, sorting is done. The process
of separating the woollen fibres into separate
groups depending upon factors such as length
and texture of the fibre and the ability of the
fibre to take up dyes is called sorting.

However, the sorter’s job can be dangerous. A

sorter can get infected by a bacterium called
anthrax, which is found in the fleece of some
Fig.3.3: Scouring of wool
sheep. The anthrax bacteria cause a fatal blood
disease known as the sorter’s disease.

Carding
In this process, the wool is passed through a series of metal teeth to straighten them. This
process is called carding and it is similar to combing our hair. Combing removes knots in our
hair and makes it smooth. Similarly, carding the wool straightens the fibres. It also removes
any unwanted matter such as twigs, dirt and dust.

Removal of burrs
The fibres are scoured again and dried after sorting to remove fluffy fibres called burrs.

Dying
After sorting and removing of burrs, the fibres now obtained are dyed in various desired
colours. As the natural hair of sheep is generally white, black or brown, the wool fibres are
dyed in different colours.

39
Spinning
The woollen fibres thus obtained are rolled into
a yarn. The fibres are twisted around each other
like a rope. This is known as a sliver. The sliver is
stretched further and twisted to form a yarn.
After spinning, the woollen yarn is either woven
or knitted. The longer fibres are converted to
Fig.3.4: Rolling of yarn
woollen yarns used for knitting sweaters and
other garments. The shorter fibres are used for making yarns which can be spun or woven
into a cloth.
In India, many people earn their livelihood from the wool industry.

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:

1. fibres such as silk and wool are obtained from animals.

2. is a method to remove unwanted matter and straighten the fibres.

3. The wool obtained from breed found in Jammu and Kashmir is

used to make woollen shawls.

4. is obtained from the fleece of sheep.

Properties of wool
Wool has the following properties:
• Wool fibres are soft and fluffy to touch.
Let’s discuss
• Wool fibres have an outer layer of scales that reduce What is the difference between
the ability of dirt and dust to penetrate the fibre. wool and cashmilon fabric?
Thus, the woollen fibres are dust resistant.
• Wool fibres can retain heat as they have the ability to trap air. The trapped air in woollen
garments does not allow the body heat of the wearer to escape. Thus, woollen garments
keep the wearer warm in cold weather.
As the woollen fibres do not allow the heat to pass through them due to the trapped air,
it acts as a perfect insulator.
• Wool absorbs more water than most of the other fibres. It absorbs upto one-third of its

40
 weight in water. However, the outer layer of each fibre repels liquids.
• It does not catch fire easily. When subjected to flames, pure wool burns with a sooty flame
and emits an odour of burning hair.
• It can be dyed easily.
• It has a very high tensile strength. It can bear a great pull without breaking.
• It can be bleached without loss of strength.

The quality of wool is judged on the basis of the following

Did You Know
criteria:
The diameter of wool is
• The wool length, diameter, elasticity, strength and
measured in microns.
durability
1 micron = 0.001 mm.
• Effectiveness as an insulator
• The thinner the fibre, the better is the wool
• Its ability to take up colouring dyes

Silk
Did You Know
Silk fibres are also animal fibres. Silk is called the ‘Queen of
textiles’ due to its beautiful sheen and texture. It is produced There is another but much
by silkworms. Silk fibres are composed of two types of proteins rarer silk cloth known as
‘sea silk’ which is obtained
namely fibroin and sericin.
from a sea creature.
History of silk
As per an ancient Chinese legend, Empress Si Lung Chi, wife of Emperor Huang Ti was the first
person to accidentally discover silk. China is credited with the first production of silk around
3000 B.C. Today, India is the second largest silk producer after China.

Sericulture
Silk is an animal fibre but it is not obtained from the hair of an animal. The silkworm spins the
silk fibres around itself. The cultivation of silkworms for the production of silk is known as
sericulture. Let us understand how the silkworm spins the silk fibre.

Life cycle of a silk

moth 1st Stage – Egg: In summer
Silk moth is a white the female silk moth lays
coloured insect. The 400-500 tiny eggs in
life cycle of a silkworm clusters on mulberry leaves.
has four distinct stages The warmth of summer
as shown in the figure: season stimulates the eggs
to hatch.
Fig.3.5: mulberry silkworm and its eggs

41
 2nd Stage – Larva: 4th Stage – Silk
The eggs hatch moth: The larva
into silkworms or inside the cocoon
caterpillars which feed metamorphoses into a
on mulberry leaves. silk moth that emerges
This stage lasts upto from the cocoon by
27 days. The larvae breaking it. The silk
moult their skin four moth secretes a fluid
times. to dissolve the silk
and thus escapes from
the cocoon with ease.
The adult moths mate
3rd Stage – Pupa: The caterpillar spins
with each other and
a fine silk filament around it in layers to
the female adults lay
form a cocoon. The cocoon is formed of
eggs, and the cycle
a single long continuous thread. It takes
continues.
about 3 days to prepare the cocoon. Silk
threads are obtained from the cocoon.

Fig.3.6: Life cycle of a silk moth

The term ‘silkworm’ refers to the larva or caterpillar of various species of silk producing moths.
The most important silkworm that is reared for commercial purposes is Bombyx mori. It is
commonly known as mulberry silkworm as it solely feeds on leaves of mulberry leaves. The
silk produced by this silkworm is strong, lustrous and soft.
For large scale silk production:
• Tiny eggs of a female mulberry silkworm are incubated until they hatch as silkworm larvae
(or caterpillars). The tiny caterpillars are then transferred into rearing trays made up of
wood or bamboo.
• The caterpillars are fed with mulberry leaves for 4-5 weeks and they keep growing in size.
The caterpillars shed their skin four times as they grow. The process of shedding the skin
is known as moulting.
• When the caterpillars have grown enough and are ready to go to the next stage of their
life cycle known as pupa, they stop eating and start weaving a net around themselves. The
caterpillar moves its head from one side to another, making a figure like 8. During these
movements, the caterpillar secretes a fibre made of protein, which solidifies and hardens
when exposed to air for some time. This is the silk fibre. Caterpillars continue to spin silk

42
 fibre till they completely get covered by these fibres. This silk covering in which a silkworm
covers itself is known as a cocoon.
• Further development of the silkworm takes place inside the cocoon. The larva inside the
cocoon metamorphoses into a silk moth that emerges from the cocoon by breaking it.
It takes about 2-3 weeks for the pupa to metamorphose into an adult moth inside the
cocoon. The whole process thus continues and is known as the life cycle of a silkworm.
• As, the raw silk fibres are collected from cocoons, the cocoons are obtained before the
larvae mature.
Processing of silk
The silk fibre is obtained from the cocoons by using the following steps:

Reeling
The process of unwinding the filament from the cocoons after boiling them is called reeling.
As the filament from a single cocoon is too fine for use, hence filaments from 4-10 cocoons
are joined and twisted to produce a strand.

Throwing
Reeled silk is transformed into silk yarn by the process of throwing. Desired strength and
quality of the silk thread is obtained by twisting the silk strands.

Spinning
Spinning of silk is done in silk mills. In the spinning of raw silk the single strands of continuous
filament are twisted upto eighty turns per inch. The correct amount of twist is achieved by
causing the spindle and flyer to rotate at faster speeds.

Weaving
Silk yarn is weaved into fabric on a weaving machine. The silk obtained is dyed, used for
embroidery or it is weaved to produce fabrics.
Sources of Silk
Silk is most commonly obtained from the mulberry silk moth. There are many varieties of silk
moths which prepare different types of silk fibres. These silk fibres differ in colour and texture.
Some commonly found types of silk and their sources are listed below.

Type of silk Appearance Silkworm Feeds on

Tussar Dull gold, short fibres Tassar silkworm Arjun leaves
Muga Lustrous, golden Muga silkworm found only Som tree leaves
yellow fibres in Assam
Kosa Dull gold Indian silkworm mainly Arjun leaves, som or
found in Chattisgarh sal leaves
Eri Creamy white and Eri silkworm found in India Castor leaves
less lustrous and China

43
Properties of Silk
Silk has the following properties:
Did You Know
• It is the strongest of all natural fibres.
• It is soft and smooth to touch. A silk yarn is as strong as a
comparable steel thread.
• It readily absorbs moisture.
• It can be easily dyed.
• It is cool to wear in summer and warm to use in winter.
• Silk is lustrous and has a sheen and luminosity that makes it look luxurious.

Check Your Progress

Complete the analogies:

1. Silk : Silkworm : : : Fleece of sheep
2. Wool : Keratin : : : Fibroin
3. Silk : Natural fibre : : Rayon :
4. Rearing : Bringing up or raising up : : : Removal of fleece

Word Galaxy

Primitive: the character of an early stage in evolution or history

Ultraviolet: a wavelength shorter than that of the visible light
Yarn: spun thread used for knitting
Coir: fibre from the outer husk of the coconut
Resistance: the refusal to accept
Durability: the ability to withstand wear, pressure or damage
Tensile: relating to tension
Lustrous: shining
Luminosity: reflecting bright light
Sheen: a soft lustre on a surface
Spindle: a rod used on a spinning wheel to twist and wind the thread.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. Which of these is NOT a natural fibre?
i. Silk ii. Wool
iii. Polyester iv. Jute

44
 b. The cultivation of silkworms for the production of silk is called:
i. Sericulture ii. Apiculture
iii. Pisciculture iv. Agriculture

c. Which of the following does NOT yield wool?

i. Yak ii. Camel
iii. Polar bear iv. Goat

d. Silk threads are obtained from:

i. caterpillar ii. mulberry leaves
iii. silk moth iv. cocoon

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. is credited with the first production of silk. (China/India)
b. is cool to wear in summer and warm to use in winter. (Silk/wool)
c. Silkworm feeds on leaves. (mulberry/raspberry)
d. Wool absorbs upto of its weight in water. (one-third/one-fourth)
e. is a process of unwinding the filament from the boiled cocoons.
(Reeling/Carding)

3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. Silk is also known as the queen of fibres.
b. The life cycle of a silkworm consists of four stages. 
c. In India, generally sheep are shorn in the month of autumn and spring. 
d. Silk does not absorb moisture.
e. Silk fibres are delicate and weak. 

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. wool i. fibres strongest of all natural fibre
b. plant fibre ii. fleece
c. silk iii. cotton

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. Name the stage of silk moth, from which silk is obtained.
b. Give two examples of wool yielding animals.
c. List the steps followed for obtaining silk from cocoon.

45
 d. What is sheep farming?
e. What is sericulture?
6. Answer the following questions in short.
a. What is a cocoon? What type of silk is obtained from the cocoon of Bombyx mori?
b. Differentiate between wool and silk.
7. Give reason.
a. Wool is used to make warm clothes.
b. Rayon is called a synthetic fibre.
8. Answer the following questions in detail.
a. State any four properties of wool.
b. What is selective breeding?
c. Given below is a sequence of steps in the processing of wool. Write the terms used for
the missing steps and explain them.

_________, Scouring, _________, Carding, Removal of burrs, Dying, Spinning.

9. Diagram/Picture based questions:

a. Label the different stages of the silkworm life cycle in the given diagram.

b. Observe the pictures and state the sheep breed used in the making of these products.

Woollen shawl Woollen carpet

10. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

How would you know whether a silk saree purchased by your mother is
made from pure silk or artificial silk?

46
11. Life skills.
a. How have sericulture practices affected the lives of many people in India?
(hint- source of employment, social development, self dependence)
b. Find out why terry wool is more durable than ordinary wool.
My Project Idea

Collect different swatches of fabrics from a textile shop. Paste them on a chart paper
and mention the details such as the kind of fabric, origin (plant/animal), their uses etc.

12. Field trip

Visit a nearby textile mill and observe the process of designing, production and distribution
of yarn, cloth and clothing. Make a brief report and share it in the class.

Meet the Scientist

Chandrakant T. Patel a cotton scientist was born in Sarsa in

the Kaira District of Gujarat. He is known as Father of hybrid
cotton.
He obtained his M.Sc. degree in plant breeding and genetics
from Bombay University in 1954. He worked at Surat
Agricultural University and after two decades of continuous
research efforts, successfully developed an intraspecific
hybrid by crossing Gujarat-67 X American Nectariless variety.
This produced about 80 to 100 quintals of cotton. The fibre
showed excellent properties and adaptability; hence it is popular even today. He
also devised many innovative methods in plant breeding. The Sardar Patel University
in Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, bestowed an honorary D.Sc. (Doctorate in Science)
degree on him in 1978.

WEBLINKS

https://texeresilk.com/article/history_of_silk
https://www.sheepusa.org/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/specialty-hair-fiber
https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/animals/power-of-the-silk-what-makes-spider-silk-so-
special.html
https://texeresilk.com/article/silk_making_how_to_make_silk

As on 30.04.2019

47
 4 Heat and its transfer

Let’s Learn

• Heat • Mode of heat transfer:

• Temperature conduction, convection
• Unit conversion of temperature and radiation

• Difference between heat and • Thermometers:

temperature Clinical thermometer, laboratory
thermometer and Six’s thermometer
• Flow of heat

Tune In
Why do people sit in front of a bonfire during the winter season? Discuss.

In our day-to-day life we encounter the term ‘heat’ several times. It is an extremely useful
factor in our life because of its various applications. Heat not only provides comfort to living
organisms in the cold, but it is also used to cook food. It forces hard materials like metals,
plastics etc. to be moulded into appropriate shapes and sizes.

Heat
Heat is something which produces a sensation in our
Let’s discuss
body by way of which we make out whether a body is
What are the various sources
cold, warm or hot. A hot body has more heat than a cold
of heat?
body.
Heat is energy. Heat has different forms. The unit of measurement of heat is the same as that
of energy. The SI unit of heat is joule (J) and the CGS unit is erg.
We will learn more about heat in this chapter.

48
 Activity 1

Carry out the following activities.

1. Rub your palms and put them on your cheeks. Palms get warm.

2. Stand under the Sun for a few minutes. It feels hot.

3. Hammer a nail, both the hammer and the nail get heated.

Heat energy has different forms. It comes from the Sun, flame, rubbing, etc.

Concept of Temperature

Activity 2

Take three vessels. Mark them as A, B and C. Fill the vessel marked as A with ice cold
water, the one marked as B with tap water and the third marked as C with warm water
that has been heated for 1-2 minutes.

Dip your left hand in cold water and your right hand in hot water for about half a
minute. Now take out both hands and simultaneously dip them in tap water.

Is there a difference in the sensation of heat in your left hand and right hand? Does the
tap water feel warm to the left hand and cold to the right hand?

The tap water will feel cold to your right hand and warm to your left hand.

Thus we observe that the sensation of touch is relative. The words cold, cool, warm and hot
are relative terms. We cannot use these terms to describe how hot or cold an object is.

If you touch a hot object and a cold object with your hand, you can feel the difference.
However, you can only say that one object is hotter than the other. You cannot say by how
much. We therefore, need to know the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The degree
of hotness or coldness of a body is called its temperature.

Temperature can also be defined as the quantity by which we can compare hotness or coldness
of bodies. The hotter the substance is, the higher is its temperature.

Temperature is measured with the help of various units, but the SI unit of temperature is kelvin
(K). Kelvin is used for scientific experiments. The commonly used units are degree celsius (°C)
and degree fahrenheit (°F).

49
Unit conversion of temperature
The relation between the three units of temperature can be shown with the help of the
following formulae.
F − 32 C
=
9 5 ---------- (1)
K= C + 273.15 ---------- (2)
Some important measurements of temperature are given in the following table.

Descriptions Degree celsius (°C) kelvin (K) Degree fahrenheit (°F )

Room temperature 23 296 72
Freezing point of water 0 273.15 32
Boiling point of water 100 373.15 212

Solved examples
1. If an object has a temperature of 480 kelvin, then what is the temperature of that object
in degree celsius and degree fahrenheit?
Ans.:
Given: Temperature of an object = 480 kelvin
Find out: Temperature in degree celsius (°C)
Temperature in degree fahrenheit (°F)
Solution: According to formula (2), we get
K = C +273.15
Substituting the given value in the above formula,
∴ 480 = C+ 273.15
∴ C = 480 - 273.15 = 206.85 degree celsius
According to formula (1), we get
F − 32 C
=
9 5
9C
∴F = + 32
5

Substituting the given value in the above formula,

9 × 206.85
∴F
= + 32
5

∴ F = 404.33 degree Fahrenheit

Thus, temperature in degree celsius is 206.85 and in degree fahrenheit is 404.33.

50
 Check Your Progress

Answer the following.

1. State whether True or False: 23°C is equivalent to 73.4 °F.
2. What is the boiling point of water in °C?
3. Fill in the blanks.
a. __________ is the total sum of the thermal energy possessed by all the molecules
of a body.
b. The SI unit of heat is __________.

Thermometer
A thermometer is a device which
Did You Know
measures the temperature. It works on
the principle of exchange of heat. It can Before the advent of a thermometer, there was a
measure the temperature of a solid like device called the thermoscope for the purpose
a metal, a liquid like water and a gas of temperature determination. A thermoscope
like air. Thermometers also have various could only explain the temperature difference
applications in different fields like health of an object, such as whether an object was
care, cooking, industries, etc. getting hotter or not.
Depending upon the uses of It was not able to provide any temperature
thermometers, different types of reading in terms of numbers like what we get
thermometers are available. The two today in degree celsius using a thermometer.
commonly used thermometers are Thus a thermoscope is a thermometer without a
clinical thermometer and laboratory scale. However, it was helpful in many scientific
thermometer. experiments and other purposes.

Clinical Thermometer:

Fig. 4.1: Clinical thermometer

A clinical thermometer is a type of thermometer which is used to measure the temperature

of the human body. It is made by a long thin narrow glass tube with a bulb at one end. This
glass tube is called capillary tube. This tube is filled with liquid mercury which is a metal. The
scale of a clinical thermometer is marked on the capillary tube from 95°F to 110°F or from
35°C to 42°C.

51
When the thermometer comes in contact with a hot body, the mercury absorbs heat and
expands quickly. As a result, there is an upward movement of mercury along the capillary
tube. The clinical thermometer contains a constriction in the capillary tube just above the bulb.
The constriction prevents the mercury from moving down once it has risen due to increase in
temperature. In order to bring down the level of mercury in the bulb, hold the thermometer
firmly and give a few jerks.

Advantages of using mercury in a thermometer:

• Being a metal, mercury is a good conductor of heat and needs very little heat to expand.

• It spreads evenly as the temperature rises.

• Its readings are legible because of its silvery shine appearance.

• It does not stick to the walls of the capillary of a thermometer.

• It maintains its liquid form over a wide range of temperature. Its boiling point is at 356.73°C
and freezing point is at -38.87°C.

Disadvantages of using mercury in the thermometer:

• One can get exposed to mercury while using a
mercury thermometer which is a health hazard.

• Mercury based thermometers cannot be used in

very cold regions like the North Pole as mercury
turns into a solid at -38.87°C. Fig.4.2: Digital Thermometer

To overcome these disadvantages, one can use a digital thermometer.

How to read the scale on a clinical thermometer?

Bigger marks

Fig. 4.3: Reading a thermometer

52
• First, note the temperature difference between two bigger marks (longer vertical lines) on
the scale of a thermometer.
• Then note the number of divisions (shown by small vertical lines) between two bigger
marks.
• The bigger marks have the temperature indicated as shown in the illustration.
• Between these bigger marks there are ten small divisions.
• One small division reads 0.1°C. For example, in fig 4.3, the temperature is 38.4°C

Precautions to be taken while using a thermometer:

• Handle the thermometer gently as it is a delicate device. Breaking the thermometer while
in use could be dangerous.
• Always wash a thermometer with an antiseptic before and after use.
• Ensure that the mercury level is below 35°C before use.
• Do not hold the thermometer by its bulb.
• Hold the thermometer straight along the line of sight while reading it.

Check Your Progress

Answer the following.

1. Which device is used to measure temperature?
2. A digital thermometer shows the temperature on a scale. (True/false)
3. Read the value of the temperature in following diagram.

4. Do not hold the thermometer by its ________________.

Laboratory Thermometer:
A laboratory thermometer is used in laboratories to measure the temperature of chemicals with
high accuracy. It is used in laboratories to measure the temperature of different substances
and the environment around us. It is also used to find the boiling and melting points of various
substances. It is usually longer than the clinical thermometer. The capillary tube is protected
by a thick tube called the stem. When thermometer comes in contact with a hot body, the
mercury in it expands and rises up in the capillary. When the thermometer is in contact with a
cold body, the mercury in the capillary contracts and falls down.

53
The temperature range of the laboratory thermometer varies. It has two standard marking
points on its glass tube called the ‘lower fixed point’ and the ‘upper fixed point’. The lower
fixed point refers to the freezing point of water. It gives the value of 0°C. The upper fixed
point refers to the boiling point of water which is 100°C.
Unlike the clinical thermometer, laboratory thermometers do not have a constriction. As a
result the mercury comes down rapidly as soon as it is not in contact with the object or the
body. Thus, one has to take the measurement when the thermometer is in contact with the
object whose temperature is to be measured.
Liquid mercury or coloured alcohol is used in the laboratory thermometer. Alcohol is useful in
measuring the lower temperatures as its freezing point is low. For example, the freezing point
of the commonly used ethanol is -115°C. It has another advantage of being less hazardous
in comparison to mercury. However, the alcohol thermometer cannot be used for measuring
high temperatures as its boiling point is low. The boiling point of ethanol is 78°C.

Reading a laboratory thermometer

To read the temperature on the thermometer scale, your eye should be at the level of the
liquid in the thermometer. Read the thermometer against the appropriate number of the
significant digits using the big marks as you did for the clinical thermometer. For example, a
thermometer in which the heavy or extended lines are marked as 10, 20, 30 etc.

Fig. 4.4: Reading a Laboratory Thermometer

Each subdivision for such a thermometer is indicated by small lines between the extended or
heavy marks. If there are ten such divisions then each division marks 1°C. For example, if a
reading falls exactly on the third fine line above 50, it would be read as 53°C.

Activity 3

By using a laboratory thermometer find the temperatures inside and outside your home
at specific time as given in the table. Use °C to define the temperature.

Indoor Temperature Time Outdoor Temperature

7 am
12 pm
5 pm
9 pm

54
 Activity 4

Aim: To measure the boiling point of water.

Required materials: A laboratory thermometer, a round bottom flask, water, Bunsen
burner, a stand to hold the flask, a rubber cork with two openings (one for inserting the
thermometer and the other for the outlet)
Procedure: Thermometer

• Arrange the apparatus as shown in fig 4.5.

• Immerse the thermometer in the water and note its
temperature. Read the thermometer by adjusting
your position or the stand such that the level of Flask
mercury is in your straight line of sight.
Water
• Now, adjust the thermometer by using the knob on
the stand such that the glass bulb is just above the
surface of the water.
• Switch on the burner and heat the water. Allow the
air to escape.
Fig. 4.5: Experimental set
• Continue heating the water until a continuous rapid up for finding the boiling
point of water
stream of bubbles emerges along with a continuous
stream of water vapour from the outlet.
• Remove the heat source and record the temperature immediately.
Observation: You will observe that the temperature reaches 100°C when a continuous
rapid stream of water vapour flows out from the outlet.
Conclusion: Continuous stream of water vapour (gas) shows that the boiling point of
water is 100°C.

Six’s Thermometer:
We normally use a laboratory thermometer if we want to find the maximum
and minimum temperature in a day. We have to keep the record of all the
readings of the thermometer for the entire day which is a very inconvenient
way of finding the maximum and minimum temperature. On the other
hand, we cannot keep the records of the temperature every minute or
second. To tackle this problem, a British scientist named James Six invented
a special U shaped thermometer which can easily measure both minimum
and maximum temperatures in a day. Hence this thermometer is named
after him.

Fig. 4.6: Six's

Thermometer

55
This thermometer does not work like a normal thermometer.
Float
This type of thermometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube. Maximum
The top of the arm that records the minimum temperature temperature

contains alcohol; the top of the arm that records the maximum
Float
temperature contains a vacuum or low-pressure alcohol vapour.
Minimum
Each limb is provided with a scale to measure the temperature. temperature
The bend of the U contains a thread of mercury. Resting on
each of the surfaces are smaller floats which are provided with
Fig. 4.7: Reading of Six's
light springs to hold them in position on the stem. thermometer

The alcohol expands in response to temperature changes. It causes a movement of the mercury
thread which eventually leads to the movement of the floats. The lower end of the float on
the left indicates the minimum temperature and that on the right indicates the maximum
temperature attained.

Flow of heat energy

When you place ice on your palm it melts. This happens because the heat from your palm
flows to the ice and the ice melts. Since your palm is losing heat to ice you feel cold on your
palm. Heat flows from a hot body to a cold body.

Difference between heat and temperature Did You Know

The concept of temperature and heat are
We have seen that a thermometer is a device
dealt together in science because they are
to measure the temperature of a system of
closely associated with each other. Usually,
a body. Similarly, is there any device which
people get confused with these two terms,
measures the heat of a body? Yes, there is. It
because they are often used interchangeably
is called a calorimeter. Using this device, one
in our day to day life. They are somewhat
can measure the heat produced or observed
similar but not alike. Heat is the total
in any chemical and physical process.
energy of the molecular motion, whereas
temperature is the average energy of the molecular motion. Study the following table for
some differentiating points between the two.

Heat Temperature
It is the amount of energy present in the It is the measure of heat energy present in
body. the body.
It is the total kinetic energy of molecules in It is the average kinetic energy of the
the body. molecules in the body.
Heat flows from a hot body to a cold body. The temperature of the body rises when the
heat of the body increases.
The SI unit of heat is joule (J). The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).

56
 Check Your Progress

1. State whether the following sentences are True or False.

a. Temperature flows from a cold body to a hot body.
b. Heat and temperature are different names of the same thing.
2. Fill in the blanks.
a. When a hot body loses its heat slowly, then the temperature of that body
_______________.
b. The lower fixed point of a laboratory thermometer refers to the ___________ of
water.

Flow of heat
Heat always flows from a body with high temperature to a body with a lower temperature and
not the other way around. It is similar to the flow of water from a height to the ground.

The flow of heat does not stop between two bodies until both the bodies acquire the same
temperature. For example, take a cup containing some cold tea and immerse ¾ of the cup
into a hot water bath. Hold the cup in that position for three to four minutes using a holder.
Remove the cup from the water bath and feel the temperature of the tea. The tea in the cup
will become warmer. This shows that heat flows from a region of high temperature i.e. hot
water bath, to a region of low temperature, i.e. the cup of tea.

Modes of transfer of heat

In the above example, heat transfers from the hot water to the cup containing cold tea. From
this example we also know that heat can be transferred from one place to another, when there
is a temperature difference between two or more objects. In case of the hot water and the
cup, they are in direct contact with each other. However in nature, there are different ways by
which heat gets transferred from one place to another without any contact. Do you know such
processes of heat transfer? How about the heat transfer from the Sun to the Earth?

There are three ways by which heat gets transferred from one object to another:
• conduction
• convection
• radiation
Let us study each of these modes in detail.

57
Conduction:
Conduction occurs when two bodies of different
temperatures are in contact with each other. Heat
flows from a hot body to a cold body until the
bodies attain the same temperature. Conduction
usually takes place in solid objects. Conduction
Fig.4.8: Conduction Cooking
cooking is a good example of conduction. It is a
process by which an electrical burner on a stove conducts heat onto the base of a pan sitting
on top of the burner. This heat is then, finally conducted into the food contained in the pan.
Basically, conduction takes place at the atomic and molecular level. Atoms or molecules
in a body have high energy level when they are subjected to heat. Due to this, atoms or
molecules vibrate faster which makes the thermal energy pass to the neighbouring atoms
or molecules by collision. At places when two objects touch each other, the faster vibrating
atoms or molecules of the hotter object collide with the slower vibrating atoms or molecules
of the cold object. When they collide, the faster vibrating molecules lose some part of their
energy to the slower vibrating molecules. In this way, slower vibrating molecules gain thermal
energy and collide with other molecules of the colder object. This process continues until
the thermal energy is completely gained by the cold object. Thus, conduction takes place
between objects at different temperatures.
In the process of conduction, heat is transferred in a substance without the displacement of
any molecules from their positions.
Let us see this through the following activity.

Activity 5

Aim: To demonstrate the process of heat transfer through conduction in a substance.

Required materials: A metal rod and a round disk of the same metal, board pins,
molten candle wax, candle to heat, a marker
Procedure:
• Take a rod and fix the board pins at regular intervals
on the entire length of the rod using some wax.
• Heat the rod from one end as shown in the diagram.
• Observe the order in which the pins fall off from the
rod.
Observation: You will observe that the pins fall in the
order beginning with the one nearest to the flame to
the farthest. Fig.4.9: Conduction of Heat
Conclusion: Due to conduction, heat spreads gradually across the rod from the point
where it is heated to the cold region of the rod.

58
Conductors and insulators
Why does a pressure cooker have a bakelite handle and why do we prefer a wooden ladle in
comparison to a metal one for serving? This is because bakelite and wood are poor conductors
of heat and hence can be held easily with bare hands. The process of conduction of heat is
based on the ability of a substance to allow heat to pass through it. Therefore, there are
substances which conduct heat more easily than others. Based on this, substances can be
categorised into conductors and insulators.

• Conductors are substances which allow the heat to pass through them easily. All metals
like aluminium, iron, copper, etc. are good conductors of heat.

• Insulators are substances which do not allow the heat to pass through them easily. Various
materials which we encounter in our day to day life, like wool, plastic, air, water, etc. are
poor conductors or insulators.

Check Your Progress

1. What is meant by the heat transfer process?

2. Why do people wear furry sweaters during winter?
3. The conduction of heat takes place in solids. (True/false)
4. Conductors does not allow heat to flow thought them. (True/false)

Convection
Convection is the most efficient way of transferring heat mainly
in liquids and gases. Convection is the process of heat transfer in Cold

which particles change their positions by constantly moving from

the hotter region of a liquid or a gas to the cooler region.
Hot
For example, when a vessel containing water is heated from the
bottom, then water at the top also gets heated. How does this
happen? Water molecules closest to the source of heat gain heat
and expand. As a result, they become lighter and move upwards.
Their place is taken by water molecules from the top, which are
comparatively less warm, thereby heating the entire liquid. This
movement of the liquid in a loop pattern gives rise to a convection Fig. 4. 10: Convection
current through which heat energy flows and the entire liquid or in the liquid

gas gets heated.

59
 Activity 6

Aim: To demonstrate heat transfer in liquids by convection.

Required materials: Wire gauze, glass beaker or
flask
flask, tap water, burner and crystals of potassium
water
permanganate.
Procedure:
potassium
• Fill half the beaker or flask with water and add a few permanganate
crystals
crystals of potassium permanganate. The crystals
burner
will settle at the bottom.
• Keep the beaker on the tripod stand.
Fig. 4.11: Activity set-
• Heat it using a burner and observe. up for convection
Observation: Pink currents of potassium permanganate rise from the place where it
is heated.The pink colour first moves upwards and then spreads. Then, it slowly starts
coming down from the sides forming a loop.
Conclusion: Heat is transferred through convection in water.

Sea and land breeze:

Convection current explains the natural rising air helps cooler air
sinks
phenomenon of sea and land breeze. These occur form clouds

in coastal regions near large water bodies. The sea breeze

warm air rises

heating abilities of water and land are different.
sinking air spreads
along surface

Water requires a long time period to warm up,

whereas land warms up comparatively faster. land heats up
ocean is cooler compared to land
(cold source, heat sink)
(heat source)
However in comparison to land, water retains
heat for longer period of time.
Fig. 4.12: Sea Breeze
In the day time, the land warms faster than water
rising air helps
under the sun. Due to this, air over the land gets cooler air
sinks
form clouds

heated up faster than the air above the water.

sinking air spreads
This heated air over the land gets lighter and along surface
land breeze warm air rises
rises up allowing the cool air from above the sea
to move towards the land and fill up the empty ocean is warmer compared to
land (heat source)
space created by the moving hot air. This flow of land cools down
(heat sink)
cool air from the sea towards the land is called
sea breeze. Fig. 4.13: Land Breeze

60
At night the process gets reversed, the land cools faster than the water of the sea. As a result,
the warmer and lighter air above the sea rises up allowing the cool air from the land to move
towards the sea and fill up the space created there. This flow of cool air from the land towards
the sea is called land breeze.
In a similar manner, convection current helps the Earth to remain warm. Air from the warmer
regions circulates the heat in the colder regions.

Applications of convection:
Convection has numerous applications in daily life. Some of them are listed below.

• Room heaters are placed near the floor because when the air molecules close to the floor
get heated, they rise upwards and the cool air from the top sinks towards the floor. This
increases the effectiveness and speed of heating the room.

• Air conditioners are fitted at the top because the air at the top gets cooler and thus sinks
towards the floor and warmer air from the bottom rises up. This increases the effectiveness
and speed of cooling the room.

• Exhaust fans are fitted at the top near the ceiling. As a result the hot air in the top layer
escapes.
• In a hot air balloon, the heater heats the air in the balloon. Subsequently, the hot air starts
rising up. This causes the balloon to move up in the sky and maintain its height because
hot air remains trapped inside the balloon. In order to come down to the Earth, it is
required to release some amount of hot air from the balloon.

Check Your Progress

1. Convection occurs in solids. (True/False)

2. Conduction is the most efficient way of transferring heat in liquids. (True/False)
3. In convection, particles move from a cold region to a hot region. (True/False)
4. In land breeze, cold air moves from _____________ to ______________.

Radiation
Radiation is a process of heat transfer by which heat travels from a hot body to a cold body
through empty space. Radiation does not require any contact between a hot body and a
cold body as do the other processes of heat transfer. Radiation is the transfer of energy by
waves that can travel through empty space. It means that radiation can take place, whether a
medium is present or not. In the process of radiation, the heat travels in a straight line from a
hot body to a cold body through the vacuum. This heat is called radiant heat.

61
All objects, including our body radiate thermal energy. Radiant heat travels in the same way
as light. When radiant energy falls on an object, a part of the incident heat gets absorbed
and the rest gets reflected. The temperature of the object increases due to the absorption of
heat. The amount of heat absorbed or radiated depends upon the nature and the colour of
the object.
Dark and dull surfaces are better absorbers of heat and are also good emitters of radiant heat.
On the other hand, light colours and shiny surfaces are poor absorbers of heat and are also
poor emitters of radiant heat. Dark surfaces are poor reflectors of radiant heat as compared
to light coloured surfaces.
We encounter numerous natural radiation processes in day-to-day life. For example, the Sun
is situated nearly 150 million km away from the Earth. However, all the living organisms feel
the heat of the Sun. Leaving apart the few kilometres of the atmosphere surrounding the
Earth, most of the space between the Earth and the Sun is virtually empty, and i.e. there is no
material medium present in the space. Therefore, the heat from the Sun reaching the Earth
cannot be through conduction or convection because we know that both conduction and
convection require some medium for the transfer of energy. Then, how does heat from the
Sun reach the Earth? This happens through radiation.
Applications of radiation:
Radiation has numerous applications in daily life, some of which are listed below.
• Light coloured clothes are used during summer season because they are poor absorbers
of heat, whereas in winter, dark coloured clothes are preferred as they are better absorbers
of heat.
• We know that shiny surfaces are poor emitters of heat. Thus, in order to prevent heat
emissions from teapots to keep tea hot for a long period, teapots have shiny surfaces.
• In cold regions, people paint their rooftops with dark colours to keep the houses warm.
• Firemen wear highly polished and shiny suits. This ensures maximum reflection of the heat
of the fire such that they do not feel too hot.
• Room heaters have a shiny reflector to reflect the maximum amount of heat into the room.

Check Your Progress

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Like radiation, convection does not require a medium for heat transfer.
2. Amount of heat transferred by radiation is very small as compared to conduction
and convection.
3. Dark and dull surfaces conduct heat.
4. Heat of the Sun reaches the Earth due to convection.

62
Preventing the loss of heat
Some of the food items taste well only when we eat them
hot or cold. For example, ice cream is always preferred cold, plastic stopper
whereas tea and coffee are usually preferred as hot drinks.
However these food items cannot maintain their hotness
and coolness for a long period of time by themselves. They trapped air
attain room temperature rapidly because of heat transfer
with the surroundings. In this case, what one can do to
hot liquid
maintain the hotness of tea or coffee for a few hours?
The answer is quite simple; it can be stored in a special vacuum
container called a thermos flask. double-walled
glass bottle
A thermos flask maintains the temperature of the food
outer case
which is stored inside it. It keeps hot things hot and
cold things cold for a few hours. A thermos flask neither cork to
transfers heat to the surroundings nor receives heat from hold flask
Fig. 4.14: Thermos Flask
the surroundings. Thus, it maintains the temperature of
the food stored in it.

A thermos flask is made of double walled glass container. A vacuum is maintained between
the glass walls. Both the glass walls are polished with silver. The outer case and the plastic
stopper are made of heat insulating material.

This type of a design of a thermos flask maintains the temperature by controlling all the modes
of heat transfer. Heat loss by conduction is minimised due to the glass and insulating material
of the casing because both are poor conductors of heat. Vacuum maintained between the
glass walls reduces the heat loss by convection. The shiny silver inner surface of the walls of a
thermos flask reduces the heat loss by radiation.

Check Your Progress

1. A thermos flask only maintains the temperature of hot things. (True/False)

2. A thermos flask does not transfer heat to the surroundings but receives heat from
it. (True/False)
3. Name the process by which heat is moved from one body to another in the
absence of any medium.
4. The outer case and the plastic stopper of a thermos flask are made of heat
____________ material.

63
 Word Galaxy

Conduction: transfer of heat without the actual movement of particles of

the medium
Convection: transfer of heat due to actual movement of the particles of the medium
Radiation: transfer of heat from one body to the other body without a medium
Temperature: the degree of hotness or coldness in a body
Thermometer: a device used for measuring temperature

At a Glance

• Heat is a form of energy.

• Temperature is the measure of coldness or hotness of a body.

• Heat always flows from a hot body to a cold body.

• Temperature can be measured in degree Celsius (°C), degree Fahrenheit (°F) or kelvin (K).

• Heat is the total kinetic energy of all molecules in the body, whereas temperature is the
average kinetic energy of the molecules in the body.

• Heat raises the temperature of a body.

• Heat can get transferred from one body to another body by three ways: conduction,
convection and radiation.

• In conduction, vibrating molecules transfer heat energy to the neighbouring molecules.

• In convection, heat is transferred in a liquid or a gas by the motion of molecules.

• In radiation, heat is transferred without any medium.

• The thermos flask is used to maintain the temperature of a substance.

• Thermometer is a temperature measuring device.

• A clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body.

• A laboratory thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the physical and chemical
process in the laboratory.

• Six’s thermometers are used to measure the minimum and maximum temperature of the
surroundings.

64
 Let’s Exercise

1. Tick (√) the correct option.

a. The SI unit of heat is:
i. kelvin ii. erg
iii. joule iv. fahrenheit
b. When you iron your clothes, then heat flows from the:
i. the hand to the iron to the clothes ii. iron to the clothes
iii. clothes to the iron iv. hand to the iron
c. The mercury in a thermometer turns into vapours when the temperature reaches the:
i. melting point ii. boiling point
iii. freezing point iv. condensation

d. The surface of a teapot is made shiny to keep the stored liquid hot because it is a:
i. bad conductor of heat ii. good reflector of heat
iii. bad emitter of heat iv. good absorber of heat

e. This is an example of convection where heat is transferred from:

i. a tea cup to its handle ii. a room heater to the room
iii. the sun to the earth iv. an iron to the clothes

f. The molecules show no motion in the following heat transfer.

i. Conduction ii. Convection
iii. Radiation iv. None of these

g. The range of a clinical thermometer is from:

i. 68°F to 104°C ii. 95°F to 110°F
iii. 147°F to 176°F iv. 0°C to 100°C

h. The heating abilities of water and land are:

i. different ii. same
iii. zero iv. None of these

2. Fill in the blanks.

a. Light colours are absorbers of heat.
b. The constriction prevents the mercury from moving down in a
thermometer.
c. When cool air moves from land to sea, it is called .
d. The heat energy transferred through radiation is called .

65
3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. The total kinetic energy of molecules in the substance is a measure of the heat
of the substance.
b. A clinical thermometer can be used to measure the melting point of water.
c. Six’s thermometer is made by a thin straight glass tube called the capillary
tube.
d. Actual movements of molecules take place in the process of conduction.

e. Heat is transferred through vibrating molecules in the process of convection.

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Clinical thermometer i. flows
b. Heat ii. wave
c. Laboratory thermometer iii. health care
d. Radiation iv. 0°C to 100°C

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. What are the different modes of heat transfer?
b. What is the use of a Six’s thermometer?
c. What is an insulator?
d. Convert -26°C temperature into kelvin.
e. Give two examples of conductors of heat.
6. Answer the following questions in short.
a. What are the disadvantages of mercury thermometers?
b. How do woollen clothes keep us warm in cold weather?
c. Define radiation and give one example.
d. Write the relation between degree Celsius and degree Fahrenheit in the form of a
formula and convert 98°C into Fahrenheit.

7. Give reason.
a. Hot objects lose heat faster than cold objects.
b. People avoid wearing dark coloured clothes during summers.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. What are the precautions one must take while using a clinical thermometer?
b. Explain the various daily life applications of radiation in detail.
c. Differenciate between heat and temperature.

66
9. Diagram/Picture based questions:
a. Identify the device and explain its construction.

b. Observe the following illustration. Identify and explain the process shown below.

10. Practical based questions.

a. What will you observe, when water reaches 100°C during heating?
b. When heat is supplied to one end of a long metal rod, then heat spreads at once in
the entire rod. Is this true? If not, justify your answer.

11. Life skills (Group Discussion, talk to the class-presentation)

a. Make a PPT presentation on convection current in the atmosphere and discuss it in
the class.
b. Make a PPT presentation on the working of a thermoscope and have a group discussion
on its applications in the class.

12. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

a. Why do people live in a house made of ice (called igloo) in extremely
cold regions?

My Project Idea

Make your own thermos flask using different insulating material. You can choose your
own design and procedure. One example is given here for reference.
• Take two bottles such that one fits into the other.
• Wrap an aluminium foil on the inner surface of the smaller bottle and the outer
surface of the bigger bottle.
• The inner foil will reflect the heat back inside the container, thus preventing the loss
of heat.

67
 • The foil outside will reflect back the heat falling on the bottle from outside, thus
preventing the gain of heat.
• Now, fill up the space between the bottles with an insulating material like sand or
foam beads.
• Then fill a hot liquid in the inner bottle and measure the temperature of the liquid
at intervals of 10 minutes for two hours.
• Repeat the experiment by:
• Using different type of bottles such as glass, metal containers, wooden containers
or combination of any two.
• Using different types of insulators such as rubber, glass (glass beads) etc.

13. Field trip.

Visit a workshop of blacksmiths, where they make different metal tools and artefacts.
Observe the different processes of heat transfer used to craft an artefact or a tool.

Meet the Scientist

James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) was an English physicist.

He was the first scientist to show that the kinetic energy of
tiny particles of matter is heat energy. He conducted several
experiments to understand the relation between heat and
mechanical energy and their conversion. From that we come
to know that energy can be converted from one form to
another. Conversion of heat energy to work gives the first
law of thermodynamics. The unit of heat is called joule (J)
after him.

WEBLINKS

https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-conduction-convection-and-radiation.html
http://www.differencebetween.net/technology/difference-between-laboratory-
thermometer-and-clinical-thermometer/
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/thermalP/Lesson-1/What-is-Heat

As on 30.04.2019

68
 5 Acids, Bases and Salts

Let’s Learn

• Acids • Neutralisation
• Bases 9 Uses of salts
• Indicators 9 Neutralisation in
9 Natural and Synthetic indicators everyday life

Tune In
One summer afternoon, Riya was preparing refreshing lemonade. During the process some
lemon juice fell on the marble floor of the kitchen. The marble floor turned white immediately.
Why did the marble turn white?

A wide range of substances in our everyday life have different properties like color, smell, taste
etc. Tongue, our sensory organ helps us to distinguish a variety of tastes. Some substances
can be categorised on the basis of their taste as sweet, sour, bitter or salty. It is however, not
possible to distinguish all the substances on the basis of taste. Substances are classified into
acids, bases and salts on the basis of their properties.

Activity 1

Aim: To understand that different substances have different tastes.

Materials: Slice of orange, slice of amla, salt water, soft drink, baking soda
(Precaution: This activity should not carried out with all substances, only commonly
known food items can safely be used for this activity.)
Procedure:
• Taste each given food item.
• Write down your observations and complete the table given below.
Observations:
Food item Sour Bitter Salty Sweet
Orange
Amla
Salt water
Soft drink
Baking soda

Conclusion: Some substances are sour, bitter, sweet or salty in taste.

69
Acids
Substances like lemon juice, curd, tamarind
Did You Know
are sour because they contain chemicals
known as acids. The term acid comes from Aqua regia is very powerful acid. Its name
the Latin word ‘acere’ which means sour. is derived from Latin and it means royal
water. It can dissolve many metals including
Acids are found in the chemistry laboratory,
gold. It is made of one part of concentrated
in large number of fruits and few vegetables,
nitric acid and three parts of concentrated
in factories and inside our body too.
hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is present in our stomach.
Its main function is to help in the process of digestion. Substances that contain acids are said
to be acidic.
On the basis of their sources, acids are classified into two groups:
Acids

Organic acids/ Natural acids Inorganic/ Mineral acids

Organic compounds that have Acids that are derived from
acidic properties inorganic compounds
Produced by plants and
animals Example: Hydrochloric acid,
Nitric acid, Sulfuric acid
Example : Ethanoic acid,
Citric acid, Lactic acid

Fig 5.1 Types of Acids

Natural acids Sources

Acetic acid Vinegar

Citric acid Citrus fruits – lemon, orange, sweet lime

Amino acids Nuts, eggs, fish, pulses, cheese, milk

Lactic acid Curd, butter milk

Tartaric acid Tamarind, unripe mango, grapes

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Amla, citrus fruits

Table 5.1: Natural Acids

70
 Fig 5.2 Tamarind Fig 5.3 Lemon Fig 5.4 Buttermilk

Properties of Acids
• They have a sour taste.

• They dissolve in water.

• Acids are corrosive. They corrode most metals, living Let’s discuss
tissues, cloth, wood and limestone. Do we use acids and bases at
home? Name some commonly
• Acids can be strong or weak: An acid dissolves in found in households and their
water and dissociates to form hydrogen ions (H+). applications.
Strong acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) dissociate completely whereas weak acids like formic
acid (HCOOH) and acetic acid (CH3COOH) dissociate partially.

Acids Uses

Sulphuric acid Car batteries, production of fertilisers

Carbonic acid Preparation of carbonated beverages

Acetic acid Food additive, flavoring and preservative

Nitric acid Fertilisers, explosives

Tartaric acid Food additive, silvering of mirrors, tanning of leather

Water purification systems to remove the taste, smell and color

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
of iodine in sterilised water.

Table 5.2: Uses of Acids

Bases
Substances which are bitter in taste and soapy to touch are known as bases.
Baking soda, also known as sodium bicarbonate is an example of a base. Substances containing
bases are said to be basic in nature.

71
Properties of bases
• A base is bitter to taste and soapy to touch.
• Some bases dissolve in water. The bases that
dissolve in water are known as alkalis. Washing
soda (sodium carbonate) is an example of an
alkali. Fig 5.5 Soap
• Bases can be strong or weak: A base dissociates in water to form hydroxide ions (OH–)
. Weak bases only partially dissociate to give ions in solution while strong bases fully
dissociate to give ions in solution.
• Some bases are corrosive. Strong bases such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are corrosive
in action and can harm the skin.

Bases Used in /as

Sodium hydroxide Drain cleaners
Potassium hydroxide Soft soaps used for bathing
Magnesium hydroxide Antacids
Ammonia Manufacturing of nitric acid
and fertilisers
Fig 5.6 Baking soda powder
Table 5.3 Uses of bases

Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. The ions formed when an acid dissociates in water.
2. Bases that are soluble in water.
3. An organic acid which is a vitamin.

Indicators
Acids and bases can be hazardous and corrosive in nature. It is therefore necessary to handle
all laboratory chemicals carefully. We cannot have a system of testing acids and bases by just
tasting. Also, most acids and bases are colourless and hence it is difficult to identify them by
looking at them.
Is there any method that can be used to identify the acidic or basic nature of substance without
touching, looking at them or tasting them? Fortunately, the answer to the above question is
yes. The acidic and basic nature of a substance can be tested with the help of indicators.

72
Indicators are special types of substances that change their properties according to the acidic
or basic environment. They can therefore be used to test whether a substance is acidic or
basic.
Indicators are of two types – natural indicators and synthetic indicators.
Indicators

Natural Synthetic

Litmus, turmeric, phenolphthalein,

red cabbage, China rose methyl orange

Fig 5.7 Types of indicators

Natural Indicators
Indicators that are prepared from natural substances are known as natural indicators. These
are dyes present in naturally occurring substances like fruits, vegetables and flowers. Turmeric,
litmus, China rose and red cabbage are some examples of natural indicators.

Turmeric
Turmeric is a classic example of a natural indicator. It is a
yellow coloured powder. It turns reddish to brick red in a
basic solution such as a soap solution. The colour of turmeric
remains unchanged in acids such as vinegar.

Litmus Fig 5.8 Turmeric

Litmus is one of the most commonly used natural indicators in laboratories. A dye extracted
from lichens is used to make litmus papers. Litmus paper is a strip of absorbent paper treated
with litmus solution. It is available as red litmus paper and blue litmus paper. The colour
changes seen on bringing red and blue litmus papers in contact with acidic, basic and neutral
solutions are summarised in Table 5.4.

Substance Red Litmus Blue litmus

Paper Paper
Acid No change Red
Base Blue No change
Neutral No change No change
Table 5.4 – Colour changes with litmus paper Fig 5.9 Litmus Paper

73
 Activity 2

Aim: To test whether a substance is acidic, basic or neutral using the litmus paper test.
Materials: Vinegar, tamarind pulp, distilled water, soapy water, butter milk, dilute
hydrochloric acid, dropper, blue and red litmus paper
Procedure:
• With a dropper, put a drop of vinegar on the blue litmus paper.
• Observe the color change if any and write down your observations.
• Now put a drop of vinegar on the red litmus paper.
• Observe the color change if any and write down your observations.
• Repeat the same with all the samples and record your observations in the given
table.
Observations:

Substances Color of blue litmus paper Color of red litmus paper

Vinegar Red No change
Tamarind pulp
Distilled water
Soap water
Buttermilk
Dilute hydrochloric acid

Conclusion: Acidic and basic substances can be identified using the litmus paper test.

China Rose
We can use the extract of China rose (Hibiscus) as a natural
indicator. The indicator can be prepared by adding 10-12
China rose petals to warm water. Leave the petals in the
warm water for some time till the water becomes coloured.
Filter and use the extract as an indicator. When the China
rose, indicator is added to an acidic solution, its color will
change to dark pink. When the China rose indicator is added
Fig 5.10 China rose
to a basic solution, its color will change to green.

Red Cabbage
Red cabbage juice can also be used as an indicator. Crushed red cabbage is boiled in water
and the juice is prepared. Red cabbage paper can also be prepared in a manner similar to

74
the making of litmus paper. The red cabbage indicator is purple in colour. Its colour remains
unchanged in a neutral solution. It changes to pink/red in an acidic solution and it changes
to green in a basic solution.

Activity 3

Aim: To test whether a substance is acidic, basic or neutral using the red cabbage
indicator.
Materials: chopped red cabbage, strainer, vinegar, distilled water, baking soda, 3
beakers, boiling water, container, marker
Procedure:
• Put the chopped red cabbage leaves into 800 ml boiling water.
• Let the mixture cool and then filter it with the help of the strainer into a container.
This is used as the red cabbage indicator.
• Label the beakers as A, B and C. Take 100 ml of vinegar in beaker A and 100 ml of
distilled water in beaker B.
• Dissolve three tablespoons of baking soda in 100 ml water in beaker C.
• Pour 50 ml of the prepared red cabbage indicator into each of the beakers. Record
the colour change in the table given below.
Observations:

Substance Color change

Vinegar Pink/red
Baking soda Green
Distilled water No change (remains purple)

Conclusion: Vinegar is acidic as it turns pink/red in the red cabbage indicator.

Baking soda is basic as it turns green in the red cabbage indicator. Distilled water is
neutral as it does not change colour in the red cabbage indicator.

Baking soda Distilled water Vinegar

Fig 5.11 Colour change with red cabbage indicator

75
Synthetic indicators
Synthetic indicators- Indicators that are prepared from artificial or man-made substances are
known as synthetic indicators. Methyl orange, phenolphthalein and the universal indicator
are some examples of synthetic indicators.

Methyl orange
Methyl orange is red to orange in colour in acidic solutions. It changes to yellow in neutral
and basic solutions.

In acidic solutions In neutral and basic solutions

Fig 5.12 Methyl orange

Phenolphthalein
A colorless and dilute solution of phenolphthalein is prepared in alcohol. It turns pink in basic
solutions while it remains colorless in acidic and neutral solutions.

In acidic and In basic solutions

neutral solutions

Fig 5.13 Phenolphthalein

Universal indicator
Universal indicator is a solution of many compounds. It shows a series of color changes which
are useful in finding out the strength of acids and bases. This is measured using the pH scale.
A pH scale is from pH 0 to pH 14. pH indicates whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral.
Acidic solutions have a pH less than 7, a neutral solution has a pH of 7 and basic solutions
have a pH more than 7. The colour changes with the universal indicator are shown in Fig 5.14

76
 Lower pH more acidic Higher pH more alkaline
Neutral

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
hydrochloric acid

vinegar

tomato

banana

potato

distilled water

egg

bicarb soda

handwash

detergent
lemon

ammonia

bleach

sodium hydroxide
Fig 5.14 Colour Changes with Universal Indicator

The color of the solution to be tested can be matched with the

standard color chart.

The colors from yellow to red indicate that a solution is acidic, red
being the strongest acid.

The colors from light blue to dark blue indicate that a solution is
basic, dark blue being the strongest base

Green color indicates that the solution is neutral.

Fig 5.15 Universal Indicator

Check Your Progress

Answer the following.

1. What is the color of methyl orange in an acidic solution?
2. Give one example of a natural indicator.
3. Give one example of a synthetic indicator.

Neutralisation
Substances which are neither acidic nor basic are known as neutral substances. An acid reacts
with a base to form salt and water. Salts are neutral substances as they do not have acidic or
basic properties. The reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water is known as
a neutralisation reaction. For neutralisation to take place, the acid and base have to react in

77
suitable quantities. Heat is evolved in neutralisation reactions. A neutralisation reaction can be
represented by the following equation:
Acid + Base Salt + Water (Heat is evolved)
The reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride and water
is an example of a neutralisation reaction. This reaction can be depicted by the following
equation:
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride + Water

Activity 4

Aim: To study neutralisation reactions.

Materials: conical flask, dropper, dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hydroxide,
phenolphthalein indicator
Procedure:
• Take 15 ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution in a conical flask.
• Add 3-4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to it.
• Observe if there is any color change.
Addition of HCl

Addition of
Phenolphthalein

Dil NaOH solution NaOH + Phenolphthalein NaOH + Phenolphthalein + HCl

• Now add a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid to the conical flask with the help of a
dropper. Swirl the solution in the flask.
• Keep on adding the dilute hydrochloric acid solution to the conical flask with a
dropper, till the colour in the conical flask changes.
• Note your observations.

78
 Observations:
• The colour of sodium hydroxide in the conical flask changes to pink when
phenolphthalein indicator is added to it.
• The pink colour in the conical flask disappears (the solution becomes colourless) as
we continue to add hydrochloric acid to the sodium hydroxide.

Conclusion:
When dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide are mixed in the right quantities,
they neutralise each other.

Uses of salts - Salts formed by neutralisation reactions are generally named after the acids
used in the reaction. A few examples of commonly found salts and their usage are summarised
in Table 5.5.

Name of the Name of Example Uses

acid the salt
Sulphuric acid Sulphates Ammonium sulphate As a fertiliser
Hydrochloric Chlorides Sodium chloride (common To enhance the taste of the
acid salt) food, and as a preservative
Nitric acid Nitrates Potassium nitrate Manufacturing of gun powder
and fireworks, as a fertiliser
Table 5.5 – Uses of salt

Neutralisation in everyday life

In agriculture
Plant growth is affected if the soil is too acidic or too alkaline. Soil becomes acidic due to the
excess use of fertilisers and due to acid rain.
Acidic soil is neutralised by treating it with bases like calcium oxide (quicklime) or calcium
hydroxide (slaked lime). On the other hand, if the soil is too basic it is neutralised with organic
manure which is rich in acids. Did You Know

Preventing tooth decay Fruit salts are used to relieve acidity. They
Toothpastes are basic in nature and help to are effervescent compounds made up of a
prevent tooth decay by neutralising the acids mixture of organic acids such as citric acid
produced by action of bacteria on the various or tartaric acid and salts such as sodium
food items that we eat. bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, or sodium
bitartrate with added flavouring and sugar.

79
Treating indigestion and acidity
Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid that helps in the digestion of food. Excess acid in
the stomach cause heartburn and indigestion. This condition is called acidity. An antacid
is a base that is used to relieve stomach acidity. It neutralises the acids in the stomach.
Aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) are bases commonly used
as antacids.

Treatment of ant and bee stings

An ant or bee sting contains formic acid. It can be treated by using a base that will neutralise
the formic acid. A paste of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), calamine lotion (contains
zinc carbonate) or soap can be used to neutralise the sting.

Treatment of wasp’s stings

A wasp’s sting is basic in nature and hence can be neutralised with vinegar as it contains
acetic acid.
In treating waste
Several industries produce waste which contains strong acids. If these wastes are directly
allowed to flow into rivers, they will adversely affect aquatic life. To avoid this, wastes are first
treated with bases like calcium oxide or magnesium oxide to neutralise the harmful effects of
the acids.

Treatment of acid burns

Acid burns are severe and painful. They are first washed with plenty of water and then treated with
a dilute solution or a paste of baking soda. The baking soda neutralises the effect of the acid.

Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. The acid present in an ant sting.

2. The reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water.
3. A base used to treat acid burns.
4. Substances used to neutralise basic soil.

Word Galaxy

acid: substance that dissolves in water and dissociates to form hydrogen

ions
organic compounds: compounds that contain carbon

80
 inorganic compounds: compounds that do not contain carbon
indicators: are special types of substances that can be used to test whether a substance
is acidic or basic.
lichens: an organism formed by an association between an algae and fungi where both
are benefitted.
neutralisation: the reaction between acid and base to form salt and water
antacid: a base used to neutralise stomach acidity and relieve heartburn and indigestion
acid rain: rain that is unusually acidic and has harmful effects

At a Glance

• Acids are sour in taste and corrosive in action. They dissociate to form hydrogen ions.
• Substances which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching are known as bases. They
dissociate to form hydroxide ions.
• A base that dissolves in water is known as an alkali.
• Indicators are substances used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic.
• There are two types of indicators: natural indicators and synthetic indicators.
• Natural indicators are prepared from natural substances. Turmeric, litmus, China rose and
red cabbage are natural indicators.
• Synthetic indicators are made from artificial or man-made substances. Methyl orange,
phenolphthalein and universal indicator are synthetic indicators.
• The reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water is called a neutralisation
reaction.
• Neutralisation has wide application in our day to day life. It is useful in agriculture, in
preventing tooth decay, in treatment of acidity, in treatment of ant, bee and wasp stings,
in treating wastes, in treatment of acid burns.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick (√) the correct option.

a. The color of the China rose solution turns green when it is added to
solution.
i. water ii. salt solution
iii. soap solution iv. vinegar

81
 b. is a natural indicator.
i. Turmeric ii. Methyl orange
iii. Water iv. Phenolphthalein
c. plays an important role in the process of digestion.
i. Tartaric acid ii. Sulphuric acid
iii. Hydrochloric acid iv. Nitric acid

d. is also known as milk of magnesia.

i. Calcium hydroxide ii. Magnesium hydroxide
iii. Sodium hydroxide iv. Potassium hydroxide

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. Red litmus paper turns blue in (acidic/basic) solutions.
b. (Citric/Tartaric) acid is used for silvering mirrors.
c. (Sodium chloride/Sodium nitrate) salt is formed by the reaction of
hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide.

3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. Grape juice is basic in nature.
b. Sodium bicarbonate is acidic in nature.
c. All bases dissolve in water. 
d. Methyl orange is a synthetic indicator.

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Tartaric acid i. Explosives
b. Nitric acid ii. Beverages
c. Carbonic acid iii. Water purification
d. Ascorbic acid iv. Tanning of leather

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. Which acid is present in lemon?
b. Which indicator is extracted from lichens?
c. Which acid is used as a food preservative?
d. Which substances give a soapy feeling when rubbed between the fingers?

82
6. Answer the following questions in short.
a. What are synthetic indicators?
b. What happens when an acid reacts with a base?
c. Name any two salts and state their uses.
d. How are acid burns treated?

7. Give reason.
a. It is a common practice to apply a paste of baking soda on a bee sting.
b. Factory waste must be treated before discarding it in river water.
c. Toothpastes play a very important role in preventing tooth decay.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. What is a neutralisation reaction? Explain with the help of an example.
b. Complete the following table.

Properties Example with Uses

Acids

Bases

9. Diagram based question

a. Observe the diagrams and complete the table.

Nature of the substance

(acidic/basic)
Change in colour of red
litmus paper
Change in colour of blue
litmus paper

10. Practical based question

An experiment was performed where 15 ml of dilute solution of sodium hydroxide is

83
 taken in a conical flask. Hydrochloric acid is then added to the sodium hydroxide solution.
Phenolphthalein is used as an indicator during the experiment.
a. Complete the following observation table
Solution Color of the solution
Sodium hydroxide solution in the
conical flask
Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric
acid solution in the conical flask
+ indicator (at the end of the
reaction)
b. Write the chemical equation of the reaction.
11. Value based question
Ankush and his friend were playing in the garden. Ankush’s friend was in extreme pain
as he was stung by a bee. Ankush immediately applied a paste of baking soda on the
affected area.
a. What does a bee’s sting contain?
b. Why did Ankush apply a paste of baking soda on the affected area?
c. What values were displayed by Ankush?

12. Life skills

Visit a nearby chemist and find out about the antacids available in market. Find out the
mode of action and use of each antacid. Prepare a presentation on your findings.

13. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

The working tables in a chemistry laboratory are generally covered with
tiles instead of wood or metal. Why?

My Project Idea

Project report on Acid rain

Prepare a project report on acid rain and its effects. The following points should be
covered in your project report:
• Meaning of acid rain
• Formation of acid rain
• Causes of acid rain
• Effects of acid rain
• Impact of acid rain on the Environment
• Methods to control and prevent acid rain

84
 Meet the Scientist

Johann Rudolph Glauber (1604-1670) was a German-

Dutch chemist who began his career as a pharmacist.
However, he soon changed his line of work and became an
alchemist. Glauber conducted many experiments concerning
acids and alkalis at a time when acids and bases were not
distinctly defined.
A few significant discoveries Glauber made include industrial
production of hydrochloric acid. Glauber was the first to
produce concentrated amounts of sulphuric acid and nitric
acid. From his experiments involving the three acids, Glauber noticed that some
chemicals reacted violently with one another.
In 1658, he described these violent reactions as being a ‘battle’ which was later
identified as acid-base neutralisation reactions.
In 1658, Glauber noted that when an acid and an alkali react with each other, they
produce a new kind of compound called a salt. This observation that an acid and alkali
react to yield a salt was a huge advancement in acid-base chemistry. From one of his
experiments, Glauber found that sulphuric acid reacted with common salt to form a
new salt, sodium sulphate. This salt was named as ‘sal mirabilis’ (the wonderful salt)
by Glauber. It was later named as Glauber’s salt. With the discoveries presented by
Glauber, the world of chemistry added another terminology and categorised various
chemical compounds as acids, bases and salts.

WEBLINKS

https://www.sciencekiddo.com/red-cabbage-ph-indicator/
https://www.didyouknow-facts.com/science-facts/10-acid-facts.html
http://acidsandbases-101.weebly.com/fun-facts.html
http://www.chem4kids.com/files/react_acidbase.html

As on 30.04.2019

85
 6 Physical and chemical change

Let’s Learn

• Physical and chemical properties • Characteristics of a

• Physical changes chemical change
9 Characteristics of a physical • Chemical reactions
change • Some important reactions
9 Physical changes around us 9 Neutralisation

9 Crystallisation 9 Rusting of iron

• Chemical changes 9 Displacement reactions

Tune In
You experience changes all around you at every moment of time. Even while reading this
chapter, changes are going on around you. These changes may be slow or fast, reversible
or irreversible, desirable or undesirable.
List the changes around you and classify them in the table given below:
Changes Slow Fast Reversible Irreversible Desirable Undesirable
breaking a
  
pencil

Introduction
Different types of changes take place in our surroundings. The growing of trees, the changing
shape of the moon, the burning of wood, the ripening of fruits and the breaking of glass are
some examples of changes around us.
Changes can be classified as slow and fast changes, desirable and undesirable changes,
reversible and irreversible changes, man-made and natural changes. Changes are also classified
as physical and chemical changes depending on the change in the properties of a substance.

86
Physical and chemical properties
Physical and chemical properties are characteristics of substances that are used to identify
them.
A physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its
chemical composition. Examples of physical properties include physical state, size, shape,
color, density, hardness, electrical conductivity, melting and boiling points.
A chemical property of a substance is a property that is observed during a reaction in which
the chemical composition or identity of the substance is changed. Combustibility, reactivity,
flammability are few examples of chemical properties.

Physical changes
A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties without the
formation of a new substance is called a physical change. Melting of ice, dissolving sugar in
water, chopping of wood are some examples of physical changes.

Dissolving sugar Shredding paper Chopping wood

in water
Fig 6.1 Physical changes

Characteristics of a physical change

• A new substance is not formed.
• Only the physical properties of a substance change, the chemical properties remain the
same. The identity of the substance does not change.
• Physical changes can be reversible or
irreversible. Most physical changes are
Heat
reversible. For example: An ice-cream melts
into a liquid if it is kept at room temperature.
Cool
If we place it again in the refrigerator, it
solidifies. This is an example of a reversible Fig 6.2 Reversible physical change
physical change. Shredding of paper and
cutting of wood are examples of irreversible physical changes.

87
• Heat may or may not be absorbed or evolved during a physical change.

Physical changes around us

Melting- Melting of butter, melting of ice-cream
Boiling- Boiling of water
Did You Know
Freezing- Freezing of water to form ice
Physical changes are as important as chemical
Evaporation- Evaporation of water from
changes. It is physical changes that make the
clothes, evaporation of sweat from the
water cycle happen. The recycling of water
skin, evaporation of water from ponds
during the water cycle gives us one of the most
Condensation- Condensation of water important resources needed for survival.
vapour in air leads to the formation of
water droplets
Mixing- Mixing of salt in water, mixing of metals to form alloys
Cutting/shredding- Cutting hair, shredding wood.

Crystallisation
Crystallisation is a physical change. Crystals are solids in their purest form with definite
geometric shapes. Large crystals of pure substances can be formed from their solutions. The
process of formation of crystals from their solution is known as crystallisation. Crystals of pure
sugar, urea, table salt and copper sulphate are formed by the process of crystallisation.

Activity 1

Aim: To demonstrate the process of crystallisation.

Materials: Copper sulphate powder, water, beaker, glass rod, burner, tripod stand, wire
gauze

Procedure:
• Take some water in a beaker and add copper sulphate powder to it. Stir the powder
into the water with a glass rod to form a solution.
• Keep on adding the copper sulphate powder, till it stops dissolving in the water i.e.
the solution gets saturated.
• Each time you add the powder, stir the solution with the glass rod.
• Heat the solution gently and add more powder with constant stirring till it reaches
the stage of saturation again.
• Filter the solution in another beaker and allow the filtrate to cool.

88
 Observation: Regular crystals of copper sulphate are observed in the saturated solution
on cooling.
Conclusion: Well defined geometrical shaped blue crystals of copper sulphate are
formed by the process of crystallisation.

Saturated solution Filtration Copper sulphate

Heating of copper sulphate
of copper sulphate crystals
solution to reach saturation

Check Your Progress

State whether following statements are true or false.

1. Change in physical state is a physical change.
2. A physical change can produce an entirely new substance.
3. Dissolution of salt in water is an irreversible physical change.
4. Crystallisation is a physical change.

Chemical changes
You must have noticed how milk sometimes goes sour or fruits get spoiled. In both these
cases, the substance we get has different properties from the original substance. Also, the
original substance cannot be got back.
A change in which a new substance or substances are formed with different physical and
chemical properties from the original substance is known as a chemical change.

89
 Fig 6.3 Chemical changes

Chemical changes have great importance in our lives. New substances around us are formed
as a result of chemical changes. The production of food by plants, the cooking of food and
the digestion of food in our body are examples of chemical changes. Plastics, detergents and
other useful new materials are produced by a series of chemical changes.

Characteristics of a chemical change

• One or more new substances are formed.

• The new substance formed has properties different from the original one.

• Most chemical changes are irreversible.

• Heat is evolved or absorbed in chemical changes.

• Chemical changes are also called chemical reactions and are represented in the form of an
equation known as a chemical equation.

Chemical Reactions
The original substances that take part in a chemical reaction and change into new substances
are known as reactants.

The new substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction are known as products.

Some examples of common chemical reactions and their equations are:

• Reaction of oxygen and hydrogen to produce water
Oxygen + Hydrogen Water
(Reactants) (Product)
• Reaction of sodium metal with water to produce sodium hydroxide.
Sodium + Water Sodium hydroxide
(Reactants) (Product)
• Burning of magnesium in oxygen to produce magnesium oxide.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
(Reactants) (Product)

90
• Reaction of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride and
water.
Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride + Water
(Reactants) (Products)
A chemical reaction is often accompanied by some observable changes, such as

Evolution of a gas
In some reactions, two substances react and produce a gas as one of the products. The
occurrence of the reaction is evidenced by the evolution of a gas. For example: When baking
soda is added to vinegar a colourless gas (carbon dioxide) evolves, indicating that a chemical
reaction has taken place.

Change of colour
In some chemical reactions, a change in colour indicates the occurrence of a chemical reaction.
For example: Cut fruits and vegetables get blackened when they are left exposed to air. The
chemicals present in the fruits and vegetables undergo a chemical change as they react with
the oxygen present in the air.

Formation of precipitate
When tow soultions containing soulble salts are combined togetehr, an insoluble salt is formed
which settles at the bottom of the container. The insoluble salt that settles down is known as
the precipitate and the reaction is called as precipitation. The formation of a precipitate is
the indication of a chemical reaction. For example: The reaction between sodium chloride and
silver nitrate produces the white precipitate of silver chloride.

Generation of sound
Some chemical reactions are accompanied by a distinct sound. For example: The bursting of
fire crackers produces a distinct sound and evolution of gas which indicates that a chemical
reaction has taken place.

Production of a characteristic smell

In some chemical changes, the product formed is identified by its characteristic smell. For
example: The spoilage of fruits is a chemical change identified by a characteristic smell.

Absorption or release of heat

Some reactions are accompanied by absorption or Let’s discuss
release of heat. For example: The burning of fuels such as Discuss the different types of
wood or coal releases heat and light. On the other hand, physical and chemical changes
when a cake is baked it absorbs heat. around us.

91
 Check Your Progress

Classify the following changes as physical and chemical changes.

1. Boiling of water
2. Squeezing of an orange
3. Dissolution of sugar in milk
4. Burning of paper
5. Boiling of an egg
6. Bursting of fire crackers
7. Formation of curd

Some important chemical reactions

Chemical reactions are of different types. Neutralisation, rusting of iron and displacement
reactions are some important chemical reactions.

Neutralisation: A reaction in which an acid and a base react to form salt and water is called
a neutralisation reaction.

Acid + Base Salt + Water

Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride + Water

(Acid) (Base) (Salt)

Application of neutralisation reactions in everyday life

Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid for the digestion of food. Sometimes the acids are
produced in excess and they cause acidity. Doctors
Did You Know
give antacids to treat acidity. Antacids are weak
Bee sting is acidic in nature and can be
bases which neutralise the hydrochloric acid and
neutralised by a weak base like baking
the person gets relief from acidity.
soda. However, wasp sting is alkaline
Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), in nature and can be neutralised by a
aluminium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and weak acid like vinegar.
calcium carbonate are common bases used as
antacids.

Rusting of iron
A reddish-brown layer of iron oxide forms on iron articles which are exposed to air and

92
moisture for a period of time. This reddish-brown layer is known as rust. The process of
formation of rust is known as rusting.
The process of rusting is represented by the following chemical equation:
Iron + Water + Air (oxygen) Iron oxide (rust)

Activity 2

Aim: To demonstrate the neutralisation reaction between vinegar and baking soda.

Materials: Two test tubes with one-holed stoppers, test tube stand, marker, vinegar,
baking soda, delivery tube, lime water

Procedure:

• Mark the test tubes as A and B. Fill half of test tube

A with vinegar and fix it to the test tube stand. Close
the mouth of the test tube with a one-holed stopper.

• Take lime water in test tube B. Close the mouth of

the test tube with a one-holed stopper.
B
• Insert one end of a delivery tube into the test tube A
(A) containing vinegar and the other end of the
delivery tube into the test tube (B) containing lime
vinegar + lime water
water.
baking soda
• Open the stopper and add a pinch of baking soda to
the vinegar in test tube A. Quickly close the mouth of the test tube with the stopper.

• Observe the changes in the lime water.

Observation:

• Colourless vapours are evolved with a hissing sound when baking soda is added to
the vinegar.

• The lime water turns milky when these vapours pass through it.

Conclusion:

Vinegar is an acid which reacts with baking soda a base in a neutralisation reaction
forming salt and water. Carbon dioxide gas released during this reaction turns lime
water milky.

Word equation: Vinegar + Baking soda Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

93
 Activity 3

Aim: To demonstrate that rusting of iron requires both moisture and oxygen.

Materials: Clean iron nails (three), test tubes with stoppers (three), marker, boiled or
distilled water, tap water, calcium chloride (anhydrous), vegetable oil

Procedure:

• Take three test tubes and

label them as A, B and C.

• Take some tap water in

test tube A and place one iron Air Oil Dry air
nail in it. Close the mouth of
the test tube with a stopper.
Distilled
Tap
water
• Take some distilled water in water
test tube B and then add a
Anhydrous
layer of oil over the distilled Rusted CaCl2
water. Now place one iron nail

nail in test tube B. Close the Tube A Tube B Tube C

mouth of the test tube with a stopper.

• Take some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and place one iron nail in it.
Close the mouth of the test tube with a stopper.

• Observe the changes in all the three test tubes over 3-4 days.

Observation:

• The iron nail in test tube A rusts.

• The iron nails in test tubes B and C do not rust.

Conclusion:
• The nail in test tube A gets both water and air so it rusts.
• In test tube B, due to the layer of oil on the surface of water, the iron nail does not
get air. Hence the nail in test tube B does not rust.
• In test tube C, the calcium chloride absorbs the moisture present in the test tube.
Hence the iron nail gets air but does not get moisture and hence does not rust.
• Thus, it can be concluded that the rusting of iron needs both air and moisture.

94
Rusting is a chemical change which slowly destroys iron articles. The monetary loss due to
rusting is huge as iron is used in making bridges, ships, cars, truck bodies and many other
articles. It is therefore very important to prevent the rusting of iron.
Air and moisture are both necessary for rusting. Limiting the exposure of iron to moisture and
air prevents rusting. This can be achieved by coating the iron surface with another metal or
substance which does not react with moisture and air.
The following methods can be used to prevent rusting:
i. Galvanisation
The process of coating iron articles with zinc is known as galvanisation. This prevents the
direct exposure of iron to moisture and air and thus prevents rusting.
ii. Application of oil, grease or paint
Rusting can also be prevented by applying oil, grease or paint on the iron surface.
iii. Alloying
Painting and galvanisation are sometimes not enough to prevent rusting. For example, if the
iron articles such as a ship are exposed to moisture or kept under water for a long period of
time. In such cases, alloys are used. Iron is mixed with other metals or non-metals to form
alloys. Stainless steel is an alloy of iron made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like
chromium, nickel, and manganese.

Displacement reactions:
All metals do not have the same reactivity. The more reactive metals can replace the less
reactive metals in chemical reactions. The reaction in which a more reactive element displaces
a less reactive element from its solution is known as a displacement reaction. Reactivity
series is a table which shows the arrangement of metals on the basis of their reactivity. The
most reactive metal is placed at the top of the series.

Activity 4

Aim: To demonstrate the displacement reaction between copper sulphate and iron.

Materials: Clean iron nail, a test tube, copper sulphate solution

Procedure:
• Fill half the test tube with copper sulphate solution.

• Place a clean iron nail in the test tube.

• Observe the changes in the test tube over the next 2-3 days.

95
 Observation:
Iron nail
• The colour of the solution changes from blue to green.

• The iron nail gets coated with a reddish-brown deposit.

Green iron
sulphate solution
Conclusion:

Iron is more reactive than copper and hence displaces Blue copper
copper from the copper sulphate solution to form green sulphate solution
Copper metal
coloured iron sulphate solution. The copper gets deposited on iron
on the nail. Before After

This displacement reaction can be represented as:

Iron + Copper sulphate Iron sulphate + Copper

Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. Acid produced in the stomach for digestion of food.
2. The chemical name of rust.
3. The metal used in the galvanisation of iron.
4. The tabular arrangement of metals on the basis of their reactivity.

Word Galaxy

Anhydrous: a substance that is free from water

Displacement: the action of moving something from its place or position
Neutralisation: a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react with each other to
form salt and water
Reactivity: it is the tendency of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction, either by itself
or with other materials

At a Glance

• A physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its
chemical composition.
• A chemical property of a substance is the property that is observed during a reaction in
which the chemical composition or identity of the substance is changed.

96
• A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties without the
formation of a new substance is called a physical change.
• A change in which a new substance or substances are formed with different physical and
chemical properties from the original substance is known as a chemical change.
• Chemical changes are also called chemical reactions and are represented in the form of an
equation known as a chemical equation.
• The original substances that take part in a chemical reaction and change into new
substances are known as reactants.
• The new substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction are known as products.
• A chemical reaction is often accompanied by some observable changes, such as; evolution
of a gas, change of colour, formation of precipitate, generation of sound, production of a
characteristic smell, absorption or release of heat.
• A reaction in which an acid and a base react to form salt and water is called a neutralisation
reaction.
• The process of formation of crystals from its solution is known as crystallisation.
• Rust a reddish-brown layer of iron oxide forms on iron articles which are exposed to air
and moisture for a period of time.
• The process of formation of rust is known as rusting.
• Galvanisation, application of oil, grease or paint, alloying are some methods that can be
used to prevent rusting.
• The reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its
solution is known as a displacement reaction.
• The table that shows the arrangement of metals on the basis of their reactivity is known
as the reactivity series.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick (√) the correct option.

a. Change in state of a matter is a _______ change.
i. physical ii. reversible
iii. both i and ii iv. Neither i nor ii
b. The reaction between iron and copper sulphate to produce iron sulphate and copper
is a ______________reaction.
i. displacement ii. neutralisation
iii. crystallisation iv. rusting

97
 c. Which of the following is not a physical change?
i. cooking ii. crystallisation
iii. melting iv. freezing

d. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

i. Most chemical changes are irreversible.
ii. The identity of a substance remains unchanged in physical changes.
iii. The identity of a substance changes in chemical changes.
iv. Most physical changes are irreversible.

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. Rusting of iron is a change. (physical/chemical)
b. In a reaction salt and water is produced.(displacement/
neutralisation)
c. Excess of acid in the stomach leads to acidity. (hydrochloric/nitric)
d. The process of coating iron articles with is known as galvanisation.
(zinc/copper)

3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).

a. Rusting of iron can be prevented by galvanisation.

b. Vinegar is acidic in nature.

c. In a displacement reaction, the less reactive metal replaces the more reactive
metal.
d. Magnesium hydroxide is an antacid.

e. Iron and rust are the same substances.

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Burning of paper i. Reversible physical change
b. Formation of manure from leaves ii. Fast chemical change
c. Melting of ice iii. Irreversible physical change
d. Shredding of paper iv. Slow chemical change

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

98
 a. What is rust?
b. State the conditions necessary for rusting of iron.
c. Give two examples of antacids.
d. Give one example of a chemical change in which a change in colour is observed.

6. Answer the following questions in brief.

a. Distinguish between physical and chemical changes.
b. Define the following.
i. Chemical equations
ii. Reactants
iii. Crystallisation
c. Give reasons.
i. Boiling of water is a physical change whereas the boiling of an egg is a chemical
change.
ii. Iron coated with paint or grease does not rust.

7. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. Explain the process of neutralisation with an example.
b. What are physical and chemical properties?
c. Explain the function of antacids.
Copper sulphate
8. Diagram based question.
a. What colour change will you observe in the beaker shown in the
diagram when an iron nail is placed in it?
b. What type of reaction takes place in the beaker when the iron nail is
placed in it?
9. Practical Based Question.
a. Why are bubbles formed when lemon is added to baking soda? Identify the type of
reaction.
10. Value based question.
Rahul ate spicy food for dinner. At midnight he started complaining of severe stomach
pain. His mother gave him some antacids. After some time, Rahul started feeling better.
a. Why did Rahul start feeling better after taking the antacids?
b. What values were shown by Rahul’s mother?

99
 11. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)
a. Do physical and chemical changes take place simultaneously? Justify
your answer with an example.
b. What will you observe when a copper wire is placed in an iron sulphate solution? Why?
12. Life skills
We always experience different types of changes around us. Many of these changes are
natural changes. List and collect information on natural changes around us. Classify them
as useful or harmful changes. Give reasons for your classification. Discuss the collected
information in a group discussion in class.

My Project Idea

Make the reactivity series table of metals on a chart paper. Highlight the most reactive
and the least reactive metals in this table. Mention the care that should be taken while
handling the most reactive metals.

13. Field trip

Visit a place where work like powder coating or spray painting is done. Observe and note
the process, precautions taken during the process and the need of the process. Prepare a
field report and discuss it in the classroom.

Meet the Scientist

Svante August Arrhenius was born on February 19, 1859.

One of the founding fathers of physical chemistry, Arrhenius
also presented a revolutionary model of the greenhouse effect.
In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. He was
a Swedish physicist and physical chemist who formulated the
theory of electrolytic dissociation, for which he was awarded
the 1903 Nobel Prize.
The Swedish chemist published his theory of acids and bases in 1887. According
to his theory, a substance which dissolves in water to produce a hydrogen ion is
considered as an acid whereas a substance which dissolves in water to produce
hydroxide ions is considered as a base.

WEBLINKS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x49BtB5dOwg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8tYmGPdPzY
https://www.learncbse.in/ncert-solutions-class-7-science-chapter-6-physical-and-chemical-
changes/
As on 30.04.2019
100
 7 Weather, Climate and Adaptations of
Animals to Climate

Let’s Learn

• Weather • Adaptations in animals of

• Climate polar regions
• Adaptations • Adaptations in animals of
tropical rainforests

Tune In
You must have heard about cricket matches getting delayed or being suddenly stopped
due to rain. The departure and arrival of trains and flights are often delayed due to fog. Have
you ever tried to analyse the reason behind these happenings? These things happen due to
a change in weather. Which report in the newspapers explains conditions of temperature,
humidity and rainfall?

Introduction
We often hear people discussing that it is windy today or there are high chances of heavy
rainfall tomorrow. What are they discussing and how do they get this information? They are
discussing the weather. Newspapers, radio channels, TV news channels and the internet give
us information on the weather.
Which factors are generally mentioned in a weather forecast/report? Observe the given picture
and identify the different factors of a weather report.

Mumbai, Maharashtra 400012

Friday, 10.00 am
Precipitation: 0%
28°c l °F Humidity: 41%
Wind: 11 km/h
Temperature Precipitation Wind

29 29 29
28 28 27
26 24 24

30° 24° 31° 24° 32° 24° 30° 23° 31° 24° 30° 24° 31° 25° 33° 24°
Fig 7.1 Weather report

101
 Weather
Weather is the atmospheric condition of a particular place over a short period of time.
Weather encompasses the natural events happening in the atmosphere each day. It is about
the changes that take place in the atmosphere at a given place and time.

A weather report, gives us information about the temperature, humidity and rainfall of a place
during the past 24 hours. It also predicts the weather for the day and sometimes even for
the next few days. Nowadays there are a number of weather forecast apps that give regular
updates about weather conditions.

Elements of weather
The different factors such as temperature, humidity, rainfall, snow, cloud cover, speed and
direction of wind that are mentioned in a weather report are known as elements of weather.

The study of weather is called meteorology, and the scientists studying weather are known
as meteorologists. Meteorologists prepare weather reports that inform us about the daily
weather in different parts of the world. This information can also be used to predict the
weather of forthcoming days or weather forecasting.

Measuring elements of weather

We use a ruler or a measuring tape to measure the length of an object. Similarly, we use
various devices to measure the different elements of weather. Let us understand these devices
better. Measurement of the elements of weather gives us an overall idea of the weather.

Elements of weather Instrument used Unit of measurement

Maximum and minimum

Temperature °C (Degree Celsius)
thermometer

Rainfall Rain gauge mm (millimeter)

kPa (kilopascals) or mmHg

Atmospheric Pressure Barometer
(millimeters of mercury)

Humidity Hygrometer % (percentage)

Wind speed Anemometer km/hr (kilometer/hour)

Table 7.1 Measuring elements of weather

102
Reasons for changes in weather

NP 1°
23 12°N 66 2 N
Summer in the northern
0° 21 March Spring equinox
hemisphere

s
Axi
1°
66 2 S
SP Tropic of cancer NP
NP
Tropic of cancer Equator
s
Axi

s
Axi
Equator Tropic of
capricorn
SP Tropic of capricorn
21 June NP SP 22 December
Summer solstice Winter solstice

s
Summer in the southern

Axi
hemisphere

SP 23 September Autumnal
equinox

Fig 7.2 Changes in Weather

The changes in weather are caused by the amount of heat and light of the Sun received on the
Earth. The revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth’s axis cause change
of seasons. Different places on the Earth receive different amount of the Sun’s rays. Thus,
places near the equator receive more heat from the Sun as compared to the North and South
Poles. Land heats up as well as cools down faster than water bodies such as oceans and seas.
This uneven heating and cooling of landmasses and water bodies cause winds. When the air
in a region gets heated, it expands and holds more moisture. Hence, the regions with higher
temperature have more humidity than cooler regions. Clouds are formed when the moisture
rises to the cooler layers in the atmosphere and condenses on dust particles. This moisture
returns to the Earth as precipitation in the form of rain or snow. The weather, thus, changes
according to the primary source of energy, that is, the Sun.

Climate
The average weather pattern of a place over a long period of time is called the climate of the
place. The basic difference between weather and climate pertains to time. Weather refers to
the atmospheric conditions over a day whereas climate refers to the atmospheric conditions
over a long period of time. The elements of weather can be used to analyse the climate of a
place. The climate of a place also depends on the altitude of the place above sea level. The
altitude or height of a place above sea level affects its climate. Coastal regions with a low
altitude have a moderate climate whereas mountain regions with a high altitude have a cold
climate.

103
 Major climatic regions of the world
Different parts of the world can be divided into various regions based on their climate. Regions
of the world that are hot and rainy throughout the year have a wet tropical climate. Regions
that are cold and snow-covered most of the year have a polar climate. Between the icy poles
and the steamy tropics are many other climatic regions. The major climatic regions of the
world are summarised in the table given below:

Category Climate Countries

Equatorial region Hot and wet Malaysia, Indonesia, Amazon
basin in South America

Desert region Hot and dry Sahara desert, Thar desert,

Australian desert, Kalahari
desert

Tropical monsoon region Cool and dry in winters, hot India, Myanmar, Bangladesh,
and dry in summers, hot and South China
wet in rainy season

Mediterranean type of Hot and dry in summers, cool Central California, South-
regions and wet in winters West Africa, Central Chile,
Southern Australia

Cool temperate region Cold and dry with four clear North America, Great Britain,
seasons: spring, summer, Australia, New Zealand
autumn, winter

Polar region Extremely cold throughout North Pole and South Pole
the year

Table 7.2 Climatic regions of the Earth

Check Your Progress

Identify elements of weather that can be measured by :

1. Maximum and minimum thermometer
2. Rain gauge
3. Hygrometer
4. Anemometer

104
 Activity 1

Aim: To plot a graph of the daily change in temperature and humidity.

Required materials: graph papers, temperature and humidity data from local
newspapers or a weather app or from the internet
Procedure:
• Analyse the weather report of a place for 10 days and record the information in the
observation table.
• On a graph paper, plot the dates on the x-axis and corresponding minimum
temperatures on the y-axis.
• Join these points to get the minimum temperature graph.
• Similarly plot the maximum temperature graph using the maximum temperatures.
• For humidity, note the humidity content in the observation table given below.
• Take one more graph paper and plot dates on the x-axis and the humidity on the
y-axis.
• Note down the trends you observe from the graphs. What can you conclude from
these trends?
Observation

Temperature (°C)
Date Humidity
Minimum Maximum

Adaptations
Plants and animals live and grow in different types of climate across the world. They develop
characteristics that help them to adjust to the surroundings. The changes in the body and
behavior of organisms that enable them to survive in their environment are known as
adaptations.

105
 An adaptation can be of two types:

Structural Adaptations:
Adaptations in the structural or physical features of an organism are known as structural
adaptations. For example, the presence of fur on a bear to protect it against the cold.

Behavioral Adaptations:
Behavioral adaptation is a change in the way an organism behaves or acts. Animal migration
is an example of behavioural adaptation. Grey whales migrate to the warm water off the coast
of Mexico from the cold Artic Ocean thousands of miles away every year.
Let us understand the adaptations in the animals of the polar regions and the animals of the
tropical rainforests.

Adaptation in Animals of Polar Regions

Polar regions are very cold, windy with a lot of snow and ice. During winter, the temperature in
the polar regions can go as low as -50°C. The animals found in the polar regions have adapted
themselves to withstand the extreme cold. The polar region around the North Pole is called
the Arctic, and the polar region around the South Pole is called the Antarctic. Polar bears,
seals, whales, penguins, arctic fox, reindeer, caribou are animals found in the Polar regions.

Adaptations in Polar Bears

Polar bears are found in the Artic region. The
following are the adaptive features of polar
bears that help them to survive the cold climate.
• The body is covered with thick two layers of
white fur to keep them warm. The colour of
the fur helps them to camouflage themselves
in the snow and thus protects them from
predators and also helps them to catch their
prey. Fig 7.3 Polar Bears
• The polar bear has a thick layer (about 10 cm thick) of fat under its skin known as blubber.
This acts as an insulator protecting the bear from the extreme cold. In order to avoid
getting overheated due to the two thick layers of fur and the blubber they move slowly
and rest often.
• The paws are covered with soft outgrowths called papillae. The papillae allow the polar
bear to walk on ice and snow without slipping.
• The polar bear carries out physical activities like swimming in order to keep themselves
warm.

106
• The polar bear is carnivorous and feeds mainly on seals as they have a lot of fat in their
body. It can also eat walruses and fishes. A strong sense of smell helps them to catch the
prey.

Adaptations in Penguins
Penguins are mainly found in the Antarctic
region. Some of the adaptative features of
penguins that help them to survive in the cold
climate are:
• Penguins are flightless birds that have long
and flat flippers. Flippers are penguin wings
that are modified for underwater swimming.
• They have a black and white coloured
plumage or feathers. This type of colouration Fig 7.4 Penguins
allows the penguin to camouflage itself while swimming underwater.
• They have webbed feet and a streamlined body which makes them good swimmers.
• Penguins have thick skin and a layer of fat or blubber under the skin to insulate and
protect them from the cold.
• When it gets too cold, they huddle together in groups to keep themselves warm.

Other animals of Polar Regions

Seals, whales, arctic fox, reindeer, caribou, variety of fish and
birds are some other animals found in the polar regions.
Fish stay underwater for a long time and survive the cold.
As most birds are not adapted to the harsh cold, they
migrate to warmer regions during the winters. On the
return of favourable conditions, they fly back home. The
regular seasonal movement of animals from one place to
another is called migration. Fig 7.5 Siberian crane
Birds that migrate seasonally are called
migratory birds. Migratory birds store extra fat
which acts as a source of energy helping them
to fly long distances. The Arctic tern and the
Siberian crane are examples of migratory birds.
The Siberian crane migrates to Bharatpur in
Rajasthan and Sultanpur in Haryana.

Fig 7.6 Arctic tern

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 Did You Know

Due to the tilting of the Earth’s axis, the Arctic and Antarctic receive 24 hours of sunlight
each summer, but 24 hours of darkness each winter.
Midnight Sun is a name given to the sun when it can be seen at midnight during the Arctic
or Antarctic summer.

Check Your Progress

Name the following:

1. Any two migratory birds.
2. Extremely cold regions in which the temperature can go as low as -50°C.
3. Modified wings of penguins.
4. Any two animals eaten by the polar bears.

Adaptation in Animals of Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests are found near the Earth’s equator. They receive heavy rainfall and
plenty of sunlight. Although rainforests cover less than two percent of the Earth’s surface,
they are home to about 50 to 70 percent of all life forms on our planet. Rainforests are the
most productive and most complex ecosystems on Earth. Tropical rainforests are found in
Central America in the Amazon River basin, Western Ghats and Assam in India, Central Africa,
and South East Asia.

Layers of Tropical Rainforests

A typical tropical rainforest consists of four layers as listed below:

Emergent layer
Sunlight is plentiful in this layer. It is made up of the tallest trees growing approximately to
a height of 45.7-76.2 meters (150-250 ft.). Most of the trees are broad-leaved and hardwood
evergreens. Eagles, monkeys, bats, birds and butterflies are commonly found in this layer

Canopy
The canopy layer is made up of branches and leaves of trees between 30 to 45 meters tall
(100 and 150 ft.). Food is plentiful in this layer hence more plant and animal species are found
here than in any other layer. Toucans, tree frogs, coati, sloths and snakes are commonly found
here.

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Understorey layer
This layer is made up of plants adapted to
Did You Know
grow in low sunlight. Red-eyed tree frogs,
jaguars, leopards, fruit cats, boa constrictors are Tropical rainforests are disappearing at
commonly found in the understorey layer. These an alarming rate due to deforestation.
animals camouflage and disguise themselves. We are rapidly losing plant, animal and
Mosquito and other insects also breed and thrive insect species every day. Between 1990
and 2016, the world lost 502,000 square
in this layer due to the humid conditions.
miles (1.3 million square kilometers) of
Forest Floor forests, according to the World Bank—
It is the darkest and most humid layer of a tropical an area larger than South Africa.
rainforest that receives very little sunlight. It is
made up of fallen leaves, twigs, branches, fruits, and seeds from the three layers above it.
Anteaters, snakes, insects and mice are found in this layer.

Let us understand the adaptations seen in some animals commonly found in tropical rainforests.

Adaptations in red-eyed tree frogs

Red-eyed tree frogs have bright, leaf-green bodies, with yellow and blue stripes running down
their sides. The following adaptations are seen in these frogs:

• Big, red, forward-facing eyes dominate their

head. They have orange or red feet and blue
inner thighs.

• They have sticky pads on their fingers and

toes to grip the branches of trees and climb.

• The green colour helps them to hide in the

leaves from both their prey and predators.

• They use the bright colours as a defence Fig 7.7 Red-eyed tree frog
mechanism. If they are disturbed, they
open their bright red-eyes and display their bright colours. Potential predators may be
momentarily disturbed, confused, or frightened by the sudden appearance of these bright
colours, giving the frog time to hop away.

Adaptations in iion-tailed macaques

• The lion-tailed macaque lives in the Western Ghats of south-west India.
• Its tail is shaped like that of a lion with a tuft at the end.

109
 • It is called the `bearded ape’ as it has a large
silver mane around its face. The mane keeps
the rain out of the macaque’s face, and allows
it to search for food easily.
• The macaque spends most of its time on tree
tops. It feeds on fruits, nuts, seeds, flowers
and leaves. The macaque also eats insects.
• The lion-tailed macaque, like other monkeys,
has strong arms and a muscular tail which Fig 7.8 Lion-tailed macaque
allow it to swing from the branches of trees.

Adaptations in Toucans
• Toucans live mainly in the tropical rainforests
of South and Central America.
• They have a colorful beak with serrated
edges.
• Toucans feed on fruits, insects, young birds,
eggs or lizards.
• The rough and sharp edges of the beak help
the toucan to skin fruit and crack nuts and
Fig 7.9 Toucan
berries.
• They also use their beaks to reach into cracks and holes in trees.
• The bright colours of the bird help it to camouflage in the rainforest canopy.

Adaptations in Elephants
• Asian elephants are herbivorous animals
mainly found in the warm tropical areas of
Southeast Asia.
• The trunk is formed by the fusion of the nose
and the upper lip of the elephant. They use
the trunk to feed themselves, to spray water
and to combat other animals.
• They have big fan shaped ears that help
them to hear very soft sounds. They keep Fig 7.10 Elephant

themselves cool by flapping the ears.

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• Elephants have huge modified teeth known as tusks which help them to tear the barks of
the trees, dig waterholes, uproot trees and in combat.
• The feet of the elephant are flat which helps them to walk on the damp and soft rainforest
floor.

Check Your Progress

Name the following:

1. The number of layers in a tropical rainforest.
2. The food of the lion.
3. The regions where toucans mainly live.
4. The adaptive feature that keeps elephants cool.

Word Galaxy

Weather: the atmospheric condition of a particular place over a short period

of time
Climate: the average weather pattern of a place over a long period of time
Adaptation: the changes in the body and behaviour of an organism, that enable it to
survive in its environment
Structural Adaptations: adaptations in the structural physical features of an organism
Behavioral Adaptation: a change in the way an organism behaves or acts
Migration: the regular seasonal movement of animals from one place to another
Blubber: thick deposits of fat under the skin of animals of the polar regions
Camouflage: an adaptation in animals that helps them to hide or disguise their presence

At a Glance

• Weather is the atmospheric condition of a particular place over a short period of time.
• Temperature, humidity, rainfall, snow, cloud cover, speed and direction of wind are known
as elements of weather.
• The study of weather is called meteorology, and the scientists studying the weather are
known as meteorologists.
• The average weather pattern taken over a long time is called the climate of the place.
• The changes in the body and behavior of organisms that enable them to survive in their
environment are known as adaptations.

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 • Adaptation is of two types - structural or behavioral.
• Polar bears, seals, whales, penguins, arctic fox, reindeer, caribou are animals found in the
polar regions. These animals have adapted to the cold climate.
• Emergent, canopy, understorey and forest layer are the four layers of tropical rainforests.
• Red-eyed tree frogs, lion-tailed macaque, toucans and elephants are some animals found
in tropical rainforests. These animals have adapted to the conditions in the rainforests.

Let’s Exercise

1. Choose the correct option.

a. Birds living in artic regions migrate to .
i. humid places in winter ii. dry places in winter
iii. warmer places in winter iv. cool places in summer
b. Rainfall is measured by a/an .
i. hygrometer ii. rain gauge
iii. anemometer iv. thermometer
c. Atmospheric pressure is measured in .
i. °C (Degree Celsius) ii. mm (millimeter)
iii. % (percentage) iv. kPa (kilopascals)

d. have sticky pads on their fingers and toes to grip the branches of
trees and climb.
i. Lion-tailed macaques ii. Red eyed frogs
iii. Toucans iv. Penguins

e. Climate changes:
i. every day ii. every week
iii. over a long period of time iv. every month

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. Elephants have modified teeth known as . (tusks/mane)
b. The wing of a penguin is modified into a . (flipper/ blubber)
c. Humidity is a measure of the amount of in the surrounding air.
(water vapour/heat)
d. prepare weather reports which inform us about the daily weather
in different parts of the world. (Meteorologists/Radiologists).

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3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).

a. A polar bear has two layers of white fur.

b. The forest floor receives very little sunlight.

c. Climate is a complex phenomenon that changes over a short period of time.
d. The northern polar region is called Antarctica.

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Humidity i. The topmost layer of tropical forests
b. Canopy ii. Anemometer
c. Arctic tern iii. Toucan
d. Wind speed iv. Hygrometer
e. Emergent v. Rain gauge
vi. Polar region

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. What do we call the thick layer of fat below the skin of a polar bear?
b. Which layer of a tropical rainforest has trees between 30 to 45 meters tall ?
c. What are the soft outgrowths on the paws of a polar bear known as?
d. Which region has cool and dry winters, hot and dry summers, hot and wet rainy season?

6. Answer the following questions in short.

a. What is climate?
b. Define the term weather.
c. How does blubber help a polar bear?
d. How many layers are tropical rainforests composed of? Name the layers.
7. Give reason.
a. Polar bears have a strong sense of smell.
b. Siberian crane and Artic tern are known as migratory birds.
c. Red-eyed frogs, open their eyes and display their bright colours when they are
disturbed.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. Describe the adaptations seen in red-eyed tree frogs.
b. Explain the term adaptation. Name and explain the two types of adaptations.
c. Describe how polar bears adapt to the polar regions.

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 9. Diagram/Picture based questions:
a. Identify the animals and name the habitats to which they belong. Discuss the adaptive
features of each animal.

A B

10. Life skills

Visit the site : http://www.imd.gov.in/Welcome%20To%20IMD/Welcome.php.

Collect information on the Indian Meteorological Department from the website and make
a presentation.

11. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

Do you agree that rainforests plays an important role in the prevention of
soil erosion and regulation of water flow? Give reasons for your answer.

My Project Idea

Observe the intensity of the wind with this windsock.

Materials required: One large blue recyclable
bag, one empty plastic container such as a yoghurt
or a sour cream tub, clear packing tape, string or
yarn, ribbons or streamers to decorate, punching
machine
Procedure:
• Cut the rim off of the plastic container.
• Then wrap the edge of the bag around the rim and secure it with tape.
• Using a punching machine make a hole in the bag just below the plastic ring. If you
don’t have a hole punch, you can use a pencil.
• Tie a string through the hole and attach to a post or high railing.
• Now use your own windsock to observe the intensity of wind in your area.

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 Meet the Scientist

Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist

and biologist, best known for his contribution to the science
of evolution. In the year 1831, he embarked on a five year
long expedition on the survey ship HMS Beagle. On his
voyage, Darwin visited four continents and spent most of his
time in collecting specimens and investigating local geology
along with visiting the Galapagos Island where he studied a
rich variety of animal life. His observations and studies led to
the development of the book on the “Origin of Species” with
the help of phenomenon of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races
in the Struggle for Life. During the trip, Darwin also suffered terrible sea-sickness –
the start of a life bogged by illness.
In his book, Darwin proposed that animals or plants best suited to their environment
are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on the characteristics which helped
them survive, to their offspring. Gradually, the species change over time. Thus,
Darwin put forth the theory that evolution leads to adaptation which further leads
to development of closely related yet different species.

WEBLINKS

https://www.new-learn.info/packages/clear/thermal/climate/diversity/world.html
https://tropical-rainforest-facts.com/Tropical-Rainforest-Layer-Facts/Tropical-Rainforest-
Layer-Facts.shtml
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/various-tropical-rainforest-facts.php
https://www.reference.com/science/weather-change-3f6efd625ba896a8

As on 30.04.2019

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 8 Soil

Let’s Learn

• Formation of soil • Soil and crops

• Composition of soil • Soil erosion
• Soil profile • Soil pollution
• Types of soil • Conservation of soil
• Properties of soil

Tune In
Complete the following paragraph and identify the natural resource described in it.
___________ serves as a medium of growth for all plants. It provides a ____________ for animals
that live underground. It helps in the recycling of ______________ so that living things can use
them over and over again.

Introduction
Soil is one of the Earth’s most important natural resources that help support life. It forms the
topmost layer of the earth’s crust. It is made up of a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases,
moisture and organisms. The basic survival needs of humans such as food, water, shelter and
clothing depend on the soil. We eat food obtained from plants that grow in soil. The water we
drink is filtered through the soil before being stored as groundwater. The houses we live in
are built upon soil. Besides us, innumerable microorganisms, insects, fungi, algae, plants and
animals also get food and shelter from the soil. Thus, the soil is a living, breathing world that
supports nearly all terrestrial life forms.

Formation of soil
Rocks are the parent material from which soil is formed. Initially when the Earth was formed, it
had only solid rocks. These solid rocks were then broken down by living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) factors such as temperature, wind, water, frost, plants and animals. It took thousands
of years to form a few centimetres thick layer of soil from the breaking of rocks. Rocks are
broken down by the process of weathering. Weathering is the process of weakening and
breaking down of rocks by both living and non-living factors. Rocks present near the surface of
the Earth tend to weather faster than those underground. There are three types of weathering
namely - physical weathering, chemical weathering and biological weathering.

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Physical weathering or mechanical weathering
In this process, rocks are broken down into smaller pieces but there is no change in the
original characteristics of the rock. It is caused by factors such as freezing and thawing of
water, temperature differences, wind etc. Water seeps into the cracks of the rocks and freezes.
The frozen water expands, this widens the cracks. When the ice thaws, the water contracts
and gets deeper into the widened crack. Repeated freezing and thawing causes further cracks
which eventually break the rock apart.
Water freezes and Ice thaws, contracts Repeated expansion and
Water collects expands, forcing and water gets deeper contraction causes further
in rock cracks the crack to widen into cracks again cracks till the rock splits

Fig 8.1 Physical weathering

Chemical weathering
In chemical weathering, the existing minerals of the parent rock are broken down due to gradual
and ongoing chemical reactions forming new mineral components. Thus, the chemical nature
of the resulting rock pieces differ considerably from the parent rock. Chemical transformations
often occur due to the reactions of water and oxygen with the minerals of the rock.

Biological weathering or organic weathering

Organic weathering is the process of breaking down
of rocks due to the action of living organisms. The
growing roots of the plants penetrate deep into the
soil in search of water and nutrients. This exerts
pressure on the rocks and breaks them down.
Similarly, microorganisms like bacteria, algae, lichens
etc. grow on the surface of the rocks and produce
certain chemicals that bring about the weathering of
rocks. Burrowing animals like moles, rabbits and
earthworms also speed up the process of weathering. Fig 8.2 Biological weathering

The process of soil formation is affected

Did You Know
by five important interacting factors
namely climate, parent rock material, The outermost layer of the Earth i.e. the soil is also
geography and topography of the land, known as pedosphere. The study of soils in their
organisms and time. As these factors natural environment is called pedology and the
vary considerably in different parts of scientists that study soils are called pedologists.

117
 the Earth, several types of soils are found across the surface of the globe.

Check Your Progress

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Burrowing animals like moles, rabbits and earthworms speed up the process of
weathering.
2. Rocks present near the surface of the Earth tend to weather faster than those
underground.
3. Biological weathering is due to the action of living organisms.
4. Soil formation is a relatively fast process.

Composition of soil
The soil composition refers to the variety of substances present in the soil. There are four
basic categories of substances present in the soil: water, air, organic matter and minerals.
The proportion of these four components varies greatly in different types of soils. Apart from
these, many living organisms such as microbes, insects such as ants, centipedes, worms and
plants form an important part of soil.

Water
The soil acts as a reservoir of water for the growth of plants. Water is found in the pores or
spaces between the soil particles.

Air
The spaces between soil particles are also filled with air. The presence of air in the soil is vital
for the respiration of plants through their roots. The air and water content of the soil changes
according to the season, rainfall and the type of soil.

Organic matter
The microorganisms present in the soil cause decomposition of dead plants and animals to
form a nutrient rich organic compound known as humus. Humus provides the plants with
essential nutrients. It also helps in the retention of moisture in the soil and loosens the soil
allowing better aeration.

Minerals
Depending on the parent rock material, the soils may contain minerals such as nitrates,
sulphates and phosphates. These minerals get dissolved in the soil water and are made
available to the plants.

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Size of the soil particles
Soil particles vary in size. They are classified as clay, silt, sand and gravel depending on their
size.
Gravel

Sand

Silt
Clay

0 mm 1 2 3 4 5
Fig 8.3 Size of soil particles

Soil particle Diameter Properties

Clay Less than 0.002 mm Feels soft to touch due to small size
Silt 0.002 to 0.05 mm Coarse to touch
Sand 0.05 to 2 mm Coarse particles, each can be seen separately
Gravel more than 2 mm Includes rock fragments such as small stones,
pebbles, cobbles and boulders

Table 8.1: Composition of soil

Soil profile
A vertical section of the soil from the surface downwards to the parent rock is known as soil
profile. There are different layers of soil in the soil profile. These layers are formed as each
step in soil formation is accompanied by different physical and chemical changes. These layers
of soil are called horizons. Soil horizons differ in properties such as colour and texture of the
soil as well as structure and thickness of the horizon. There are five different types of horizons
generally found in a soil profile. These are named using letters O, A, E, B, C and R.

O – horizon (Organic)
It is a layer of decomposing organic material on the surface of the soil. This layer is prominently
found in areas where there is an accumulation of plant residues. The O-horizon is thick in some
soils, thin in others and completely missing from some others. This layer contains humus and
is dominantly seen in forest areas.

A – horizon (Topsoil)
It is the surface horizon. It is dark in colour due to the presence of humus which makes it

119
 fertile. The soil particles of the topsoil
are finest as compared to other layers of
the soil profile and largely comprise of
O - Organic matter
sand, silt and clay. Many decomposers
like bacteria and fungi are present in O A - Mineral matter
mixed with some
this layer. The action of decomposers A
humus (topsoil)
makes this layer porous and soft. This E E - Light coloured
layer has more water holding capacity B B - Mixture of sand, silt
and supports most plants. This horizon and clay (subsoil)
C C - Partially weathered
is predominant in the surface layer of
parent rock material
soils in grasslands and agricultural (substratum)
fields. R R - Unweathered parent
material (bedrock)

E – horizon
It is a subsurface horizon which is found
Fig 8.4 Soil profile
between the horizons A and B. It is
usually devoid of nutrients and consists mainly of sand and silt particles. It is typically light in
colour. This layer is missing in some soils but is often found in older soils and forest soils.

B – horizon (Subsoil)
It is present below the topsoil. It is light in colour as it does not contain much humus. The
water seeping through the upper horizons carry soluble minerals and nutrients to this layer.
Since it is rich in nutrients roots of many plants can generally grow till this layer.

C – horizon (Parent rock material/ substratum)

This is a layer of loosely packed parent material that consists of large pieces of broken rocks
and gravel. It is the least weathered horizon. This horizon is devoid of any nutrients as well
as organic matter. Roots of plants cannot penetrate this layer. The rain water percolating
through the above layers gets collected in this layer to form groundwater.

R – horizon (Bedrock)
This layer is situated below the C-horizon. It is mainly
Did You Know
composed of unweathered hard rocks. This layer does
It takes more than 500 years to
not allow percolation of water and thus the water gets
produce just one inch of topsoil.
collected above it. Weathering causes the original
bedrock to break down to form the different horizons of soil over time. Thus, bedrock is the
parent material of the soil.

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 Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. The soil horizon that is mainly composed of unweathered hard rocks.

2. A vertical section of the soil from the surface downwards to the parent rock.

3. The soil horizon that is dark in colour due to the presence of humus.

4. Soil particles having diameter less than 0.002 mm.

Types of soil
Soil can be divided into different types depending on the proportion of the differently sized
particles (sand, clay and silt) present in it. Sandy soil, clayey soil and loamy soil are the three
types of soil depending on the components.

Sandy soil
This type of soil contains a large amount of sand particles
(about 60%) and very small amounts of silt and clay. It
has the largest particle size and there are huge spaces
between the particles. The water percolates fast through
these spaces and carries the nutrients and minerals with
Fig 8.5 Sandy soil
it. Hence, sandy soil cannot hold much water. Plants
growing in this soil do not receive the required nutrients and water, hence sandy soil is not
useful for agriculture. As this soil does not get sticky and has a light and loose structure it is
used in construction along with cementing materials.

Clayey soil
This type of soil contains more than 60% clay. It has the
smallest particle size among the three types of soil. The
water holding capacity of the soil increases due to the
small spaces between the particles. The absorbed water
does not drain out of the soil easily and hence it is not
Fig 8.6 Clayey soil
suitable for agriculture. The amount of air that the soil
can trap is also less due to the small spaces. Therefore, the roots of the plants growing in such
soils do not have enough air for breathing. Clayey soil is used for pottery and for baking bricks
as it naturally forms lumps with water and can be moulded easily.

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 Loamy soil
It contains a balance of all the three types of soil
particles- sand, silt and clay. This makes the soil smooth
as well as gritty to touch. It also contains humus which
increases the amount of nutrients present in the soil.
The space between the particles of the loamy soil is just
enough to hold both air and water. It is thus considered
the best soil for agriculture and gardening. Fig 8.7 Loamy soil

Sandy Clayey Loamy

Particle Size Largest particle size Smallest particle Particle size is smaller
size than sandy soils but larger
than clayey soils
Composition It contains about It contains about It contains a balance of
60% of sand 60% of clay all the three types of soil
particles particles particles i.e. sand, silt and
clay.

Spaces between There are huge The spaces between The spaces between the
the particles spaces between the the particles are particles are larger than
particles. very small. clayey soil and smaller
than sandy soil
Water holding It does hold much It can hold the It can hold more water
capacity water. maximum amount than sandy soil but lesser
of water. than clayey soil.

Uses Used in construction Used in pottery and Used for agriculture

brick making
Table 8.2 Differences between Sandy, Clayey and Loamy soils

Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. The type of soil that contains a balance of sand, silt and clay.
2. The type of soil used for pottery and baking bricks.
3. The type of soil used in construction along with cementing materials.

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 Activity 1

Aim: To study soil texture.

Materials: Soil samples (from park, field, school ground, a beach) in separate bowls,
water, marker
Procedure:
• Take the soil samples in separate bowls and label them as A, B, C and D.
• Remove big stones and twigs if any.
• Feel each soil sample separately by rubbing between two fingers.
• Add some water to all the soil samples and try to roll them into balls and observe.
Observation:

Soil Sample Texture on Touching Texture on addition of water Type of soil

A
B
C
D

Conclusion:
Sandy soil is gritty to touch and does not form balls easily with water.
Clayey soil is sticky to touch and forms balls easily with water.
Loamy soil is smooth, sticky to touch and forms balls more easily than sandy soil and
less easily than clayey soil.

Properties of soil
The soil texture, percolation rate and water absorption capacity are some important properties
of soil.
• Soil texture depends on the type of particles present in the soil. For example, sandy soil
is gritty and loose, loamy soil is smooth while clayey soil is smooth and sticky in nature.
• Percolation of water - The process of water seeping or moving through the soil is called
percolation. Percolation rate is the time taken by water to pass through the soil. It varies
with the type of soil and mainly depends on the texture of the soil. The rate of percolation
is higher for the soil containing larger particles and hence there are larger spaces between
them. Thus, the percolation rate is the highest for sandy soil, followed by loamy soil and
is the lowest for clayey soil.

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 • Absorption capacity - The ability of soil to retain water is Let’s discuss
known as absorption capacity or retention capacity of Is soil and dirt the same?
the soil. It also depends on the texture of the soil and the
size of the soil particles. Sandy soil allows the water to percolate quickly and hence it
cannot retain water. The water absorption capacity is therefore minimum for sandy soil,
mediocre for loamy soil and the highest for clayey soil.

Activity 2

Aim: To determine the moisture content of different soils.

Materials: Soil samples (sandy, loamy and clayey), water, three evaporating dishes,
weighing balance, filter papers, burner
Procedure:
• Collect samples of sandy, clayey and loamy soils.
• Weigh each of the samples accurately and note down the initial weight of all the
three samples.
• Place each sample in an evaporating dish and heat it for 15 minutes.
• Place the contents on three different pieces of filter paper and allow it to cool.
• Weigh each sample separately again and note down the final weight.
• Weigh the samples two more times at an interval of 15 minutes till a constant
reading for the final weight is obtained.
• Calculate the moisture content of the soil using the following formula,
 Initial weight of sample − Final weight of sample 
Moisture content of the soil (%) =   X 100

 Initial weight of sample 


Moisture content of soil (g) = Initial weight of the sample – Final weight of the sample
Observation:

Sample Initial weight (g) Final weight (g) Moisture content (%)
Sandy soil
Clayey soil
Loamy soil

Conclusion:
Moisture content of different soils was determined.

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 Activity 3

Aim: To determine the rate of percolation and absorption capacity of soil.

Materials: 100 gm each of sandy, loamy and clayey soils, three 100 ml measuring
cylinders, three glass funnels, filter papers, timer

Procedure:

• Take 100 gm each of sandy, clayey and loamy soil.

• Take three 100 ml measuring
cylinders and place a glass
funnel on each of them.
• Line the funnels with filter
paper and moisten them
with water.
• Place the soil samples in
each of the funnels.
• Label the measuring
sandy loamy clayey
cylinders as sandy, clayey
and loamy as per the soil samples in them.
• Pour 50 ml of water over the first soil sample.
• Let the water percolate through each soil sample and get collected in the cylinder below.
• Note the amount of water percolated through the soil sample and time required
for it to percolate. (Note the observations only when no more water is coming out
of the funnel.)
• Repeat the procedure with the remaining two samples.
Observation:

Type of soil Amount of water Time taken to Amount of water collected in

added percolate the measuring cylinder
Sandy 50 ml
Clayey 50 ml
Loamy 50 ml

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 • Calculate the percolation rate of each type of soil using the following formula
Amount of water percolated (ml )
Percolation rate (ml / min) =
Time taken (min)

• Calculate the absorption capacity of each type of soil using the following formula
Amount of water added – Amount of water collected � x 100
Water absorption capacity (%)= �
Amount of soil taken

Conclusion:
The rate of absorption and percolation capacity of the given soil samples was calculated.

Soil and crops

Depending on the soil texture and type, different plants grow in different soils. Very few crops
can be cultivated in sandy soils as it does not retain moisture. Crops can be grown in sandy
soil when it is used in combination with other soil types. Clayey soil is poorly aerated and gets
waterlogged easily. It is good for growing crops that need lots of water such as paddy. Loamy
soil is the best soil for agriculture as it has good aeration, good water absorption capacity and
is rich in nutrients. Table 9.2 shows some of the crops that are grown in different types of soils
in India.

Crops Soil type

Rice Clayey as the paddy crop needs plenty of water
Wheat Combination of clayey and loamy
Grams, lentils Loamy
Cotton Black soil, a combination of clayey and sandy soil as cotton does not
require a large amount of water
Sugarcane Combination of sandy and loamy soils

Table 9.2 Soil types and crops

Plant growth is also affected by the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. Certain crops such as
potatoes, cabbage, radishes, carrots and cucumbers grow well in acidic soils whereas plants
such as onions and spinach grow well in alkaline soils.

Soil erosion
The gradual removal of the topsoil by the action of wind, waves, rain, flowing water etc. is
called soil erosion. It occurs when the topsoil is removed at a rate greater than it is formed.
Soil erosion leads to poor quality of soil in that particular area which affects plant growth. Soil

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erosion is also a major cause of desertification or the gradual transformation of habitable land
into deserts.
In nature, soil erosion is a relatively slow process however human activities have tremendously
increased the speed of soil erosion. Some of the common causes of soil erosion are –
• Excess watering or irrigation causes excess water to run off with the topsoil and important
nutrients.
• Excess rain as well as flooding in areas where the soil is not protected by a cover of
vegetation cause erosion of the surface soil.
• High winds may contribute to soil erosion by picking up the loose soil particles and
carrying them to faraway lands.
• Overgrazing, deforestation, urbanisation have led to reduced ground cover which
ultimately results in soil erosion.

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks.

1. Soil texture depends on the type of ____________ present in the soil.
2. The absorption capacity of __________ soil is the highest.
3. ______________ is the time taken by water to pass through the soil.
4. Grams and lentils grow best in ____________ soils.

Soil pollution
The soil acts as a natural sink for pollutants, as it accumulates Let’s discuss
pollutants from various sources. Soil pollution refers to the What are the different ways
presence of unwanted and potentially harmful substances in to reduce soil pollution?
soil, in quantities that pose a risk to humans and other living
organisms of the ecosystem. Excessive use of chemical fertilisers leads to soil pollution and
degrades the quality of soil. Other sources of soil pollution include pesticides, insecticides,
industrial and plastic wastes. Plastic waste is non-degradable and persists in soil year after year
causing pollution. The productivity of polluted soil reduces over time and it cannot sustain
any life forms thereby becoming useless.

Soil conservation
Soil degradation is a loss of soil quality and fertility. Indiscriminate cutting of trees and

127
 excessive grazing lead to soil degradation. Soil
Did You Know
erosion and soil pollution are the root causes
The Food and Agriculture Organization
of soil degradation. Soils should be protected
of the United Nations (FAO) has
from all factors that make them unproductive.
estimated that 33% of soil is moderately
Protection of soil against erosion, pollution and to highly degraded through erosion,
degradation is called soil conservation. It is acidification, chemical pollution and
extremely necessary to conserve the soil as it nutrient depletion, hampering soils’
serves as home to plants, insects and animals. The function and affecting food production.

following measures can be taken to conserve the

soil:

• Cover crops such as grasses should be planted on uncultivated land. Trees should be
planted along hill slopes. This prevents soil erosion.

• Excessive tillage should be avoided. Crop rotation techniques should be implemented to

preserve the nutrients in the soil.

• Terrace farming is the practice of creating steps on a slope and planting crops therein.
This creates level land for cultivation and prevents water runoff from the slopes.

• Planting trees or plant hedges in the direction of the wind can prevent soil erosion
occurring by flowing winds.

• Controlling overgrazing and deforestation will keep a check on soil erosion.

• River banks are often damaged during floods. Constructing walls along the banks or
planting useful trees will help prevent the damage.

• Rows of tall trees can be planted in dense Did You Know

patterns around the farmland to prevent soil
In order to stress the importance of
erosion of that land. environmental and soil protection,
• Excessive use of synthetic fertilisers should the United Nations celebrate this
indispensable natural resource every
be avoided, instead organic manures can be
year with World Soil Day, on 5th
used which will increase the fertility of soil
December.
without causing any harm.

Soil is as essential to all life forms as air and water. There can be no life without soil. Conservation
of soil is essentially conservation of life.

128
 Check Your Progress

State whether the following statements are true or false.

1. Soil pollution is not of great concern.
2. Soil conservation includes the protection of soil against erosion, pollution and
degradation.
3. Synthetic fertilisers should be used instead of manures to increase the fertility of soil.
4. Soil pollution affects the quality of soil.

Word Galaxy

Weathering: the process of weakening and breaking down of rocks by both

living and non-living factors
Topography: the shape and physical features of land surfaces
Organic: compounds containing carbon
Humus: an organic component of soil formed by decomposition of plants and animals, it
is rich in nutrients and makes the soil fertile
Gritty: rough to touch
Percolation: seeping of water through the soil

At a Glance

• Soil forms the topmost layer of the Earth’s crust.

• Rocks are the parent material from which soil is formed by a slow and stepwise process
known as weathering.
• Weathering is a process of weakening and breaking down of rocks by both living (biotic)
and non-living (abiotic) factors.
• There are three types of weathering namely physical weathering, chemical weathering and
biological weathering.
• The factors that affect the process of soil formation are climate, parent rock material,
geography of the land, organisms and time.
• A vertical section of the soil from the surface downwards to the parent rock is known as
soil profile.
• The solid particles of soil vary in size and are classified as clay, silt, sand and gravel based
on their size.
• The layers in a soil profile are called soil horizons. There are five different types of horizons
generally found in a soil profile namely horizon O, A, E, B, C and R.

129
 • Soil can be of three types namely sandy soil, clayey soil and loamy soil depending on the
constituent soil particles.
• The process of water seeping or moving through the soil is called percolation. Percolation
rate is the time taken by water to pass through the soil.
• The ability of soil to retain water is known as absorption capacity or retention capacity of
the soil.
• Gradual removal of the topsoil by the action of wind, waves, rain, flowing water etc. is
called soil erosion.
• Protection of soil against erosion, pollution and degradation is called soil conservation.
• The presence of unwanted and potentially harmful substances in soil, in high quantities to
pose a risk to humans and other living things of the ecosystem is termed as soil pollution.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick (√) the correct option.

a. Which of the following is known as topsoil?
i. O-horizon ii. A-horizon
iii. R-horizon iv. B-horizon
b. has the lowest percolation rate.
i. Sandy soil ii. Loamy soil
iii. Clayey soil iv. Topsoil
c. is also known as mechanical weathering.
i. Physical weathering ii. Chemical weathering
iii. Organic weathering iv. Biological weathering
d. present in the soil contributes to the fertility of the soil.
i. Silt ii. Clay
iii. Sand iv. Humus
e. The smallest particles of soil are called .
i. Sand ii. Clay
iii. Gravel iv. Pebble

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. is the process of breakdown of rocks due to the action of living
organisms. (Organic weathering/Mechanical weathering)
b. Weathering of rocks is a very process. (slow/fast)

130
 c. is smaller than sand and larger than clay. (Pebble/Silt)
d. The R-horizon is also known as . (bedrock/stratum)
e. Excessive should be avoided in order to conserve the soil. (farming/
tillage)

3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. Sandy soil is best suited for agriculture.
b. Topsoil is rich in nutrients. 
c. Excessive use of chemical fertilisers leads to soil pollution.
d. Substratum contains a lot of humus.
e. Loamy soil is poorly aerated and gets waterlogged easily.

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. O-horizon i. Loosely packed parent material
b. C-horizon ii. Subsoil
c. E-horizon iii. Decomposing organic matter
d. B-horizon iv. Light in colour and devoid of nutrients

5. Name the following.

a. A vertical section of the soil.
b. The gradual removal of the topsoil by the action of wind, waves, rain or flowing water.
c. The process of water seeping through the soil.
6. Answer the following questions in short.
a. List the different types of weathering.
b. What are the basic components of the soil?
c. Name the types of soil based on the size of soil particles.
d. Define humus.

7. Give reasons.
a. The absorption capacity of sandy soil is the minimum.
b. Clayey soil is good for growing crops like paddy.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. What are the common causes of soil erosion?
b. Explain the C-horizon of the soil profile.
c. List any three measures that can be implemented in order to conserve soil.

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 9. Diagram based question
a. Label 1 to 6 in the diagram.
b. In which layer does groundwater get collected? 1
2
c. Name the layer that is missing in some soils but is often 3

found in older soils and forest soils. 4

5
10. Practical based question.
6
Smita carried out an experiment to find out which soil has a higher
moisture content. Following are the readings of her experiment.

Sample Initial weight Final weight

A 50 g 38.3 g
B 50 g 42.5 g

Can you help Smita find the percentage moisture content of both the samples? Also
predict the type of soil in each case.
11. Value based question
Radha and her friends visited her grandparent’s village during the summer holidays.
One day, while walking, they overheard the farmers discussing how the soil has become
unfertile in spite of spraying fertilisers on the fields. One of the farmers suggested that
they use more fertilisers to increase crop production. On hearing this, Radha and her
friends were worried and they convinced the farmers against the usage of more fertilisers.
a. What can the farmers use instead of fertilisers?
b. Why were the friends worried about the excess use of fertilisers?
c. What values can be learnt from the actions of Radha and her friends?

12. Life skills

Conduct a group discussion on `Humans are responsible for soil erosion more than natural
factors.’
13. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)
a. Why does the water level in a well rise during the rainy season even if
the well is covered?
b. Construction of cement and tar roads has led to a decrease in groundwater. Do you
agree? Why or why not?

My Project Idea

Gather information about different types of soils found in India. Present the information
on a chart along with appropriate images. Display it in the class.

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 Let’s Create
Create a soil profile of your own!
• Take a glass bottle or a transparent plastic bottle.
• Fill it with water and add a handful of soil into it.
• Shake the bottle well and allow it to settle for some time.
• After the particles settle down, you will be able to see distinct layers of differently
sized soil particles.

14. Field trip

Visit a park near your house. Observe the type of soil used for gardening there. Gather the
following information by talking to the gardener.
• Which type of soil do they use for gardening?
• Which factors are considered while choosing the soil?
Prepare a field report and present it in class.

Meet the Scientist

Hans Jenny (1899 – 1992) was born in Basel, Switzerland. He

earned a diploma in agriculture from the Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in 1922. He was a famous soil scientist and expert on
pedology, especially the processes of soil formation. He served as
the President of the Soil Science Society of America in 1949. One
of his notable studies includes the study of Mendocino pygmy
forest. The pygmy forest has coniferous plants with stunted
growth and grotesquely twisted structures revealing their long and tortured struggle
for survival. The University of California’s Jenny Pygmy Forest Reserve is named in his
honor. One of his famous sayings is “I am arguing against indiscriminate conversion of
biomass and organic wastes to fuels. The humus capital, which is substantial, deserves
being maintained because good soils are a national asset.”

WEBLINKS

https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/soil-explained/forms
https://www.audubon.org/news/10-incredible-facts-about-dirt
https://californiathroughmylens.com/pygmy-forest-van-damme-state-park

As on 30.04.2019

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 9 Respiration in Organisms

Let’s Learn

• Introduction to respiration • Respiration in other animals

• Respiration in human beings • Respiration in plants
• Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Tune In
Preeti was watching the school athletic race.
She observed that the athletes were breathing heavily
on completing the race. She wondered why running
made athletes breathe heavily.
• Why were the athletes breathing heavily?

• Which body system helps us breathe?

• From where do the athletes get the energy to run?

Introduction
Living things require energy for different life processes. This energy is obtained from the food
we eat. The energy stored in food is released by the oxidation of food during respiration. The
oxygen necessary for oxidation comes from the air we breathe in.

Respiration
Respiration is the biochemical process in which the cells of an organism obtain energy by
breaking down glucose in the presence of oxygen, resulting in the release of carbon dioxide,
water, and ATP which is the energy currency of cells. The energy released during respiration is
utilised by the body for various metabolic activities. We use the word respiration to define the
entire process of taking in air, exchanging the much needed gases with waste gases, and then
using the needed gases. Therefore, all living things respire to get energy from food. However,
they differ in the organs used in the exchange of gases as well as how they are transported to
and from the cells of their bodies.

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Respiration in Human beings
Respiration in human beings takes place in three stages:
• Breathing or External respiration
• Internal respiration
• Cellular respiration

Breathing or External respiration

Breathing is the first stage of respiration and involves the simple exchange of gases. It involves
two processes- inhalation and exhalation. The intake of air rich in oxygen into the body is
called inhalation and the giving out of air rich in carbon dioxide and water vapour is called
exhalation. The processes of inhalation and exhalation occur alternately and continuously all
the time. One breath thus means one inhalation and one exhalation. The number of times a
person breathes in a minute is called the breathing rate.

Activity 1

Aim: To study the changes in breathing rate under different conditions.

Procedure:
• Measure the breathing rate of your partner in school by counting the number of
breaths in a minute. Repeat the procedure thrice and take an average of the three
counts. This represents their breathing rate under normal conditions.
• Ask your partner to do the following activities and find their breathing rate after
each activity.
• Walk briskly for 10 minutes
• Run 50 metres as fast as possible
• Sit idle or in a sleeping position.
• Note down the observations in the table given below.
• Discuss your observations with the teacher in the class.
Observation:
Breathing rate
Participant Normal After a brisk walk After running fast At rest or while
for 10 minutes for 50 meters sleeping
Partner

Based on your observations conclude whether different activities have any effect on the
breathing rate.

135
 Human Respiratory System
In humans, the organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi and the lungs.
Nostrils

Nasal cavity
Nasal cavity
Nostrils
Pharynx Pharynx

Larynx Larynx
Trachea
Trachea
Right main
bronchus Left main
bronchus Bronchus
Left lung
Right lung Bronchiole

Diaphragm Alveolus

Fig 9.1 Human respiratory system Path of air in the human respiratory system

Nose
When we breathe, air enters our body through a pair of openings called nostrils. A nasal
septum separates the two nostrils. The nostrils are lined with hair like cilia and lead to the
nasal cavity. The nasal cavity is lined with a mucous membrane. The cilia and the mucous
membrane help in filtering and trapping any pollutants, dust particles or germs that enter
along with the inhaled air. Filtered and warm air from the nasal cavity passes through the
pharynx to the larynx.

Pharynx
Larynx
The pharynx is a common passage for food and air. It transfers Tracheal
cartilages
air from the nose into the trachea (windpipe) and food from the
Trachea Primary
mouth into the oesophagus (food pipe). Air from the pharynx bronchi
first enters the voice box or the larynx situated in the neck region
to reach the tracheal tube or the windpipe.

Larynx
The larynx or voice box lies just below the pharynx and holds
Right lung Left lung
the two vocal cords responsible for producing sound. Air from Secondary bronchi
the pharynx, first enters the larynx through an opening called Fig 9.2 Larynx, Trachea and
Lungs
the glottis. A special tissue called epiglottis guards the opening
of the glottis. The epiglottis prevents food particles from entering into the trachea.

136
Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is a 12 cm long tube that lies in front of the oesophagus and extends
downward into the neck. The inside of the trachea has C-shaped incomplete cartilaginous
rings. These rings strengthen and prevent the trachea from collapsing. If by accident, food
enters the trachea, the reflex action of coughing expels the food.

Bronchi
Two primary bronchi branch out from the trachea. One primary bronchus enters the right
lung and the second primary bronchus enters the left lung. Each bronchus divides inside the
lungs into smaller branches called the bronchioles (secondary bronchi). The bronchioles are
thin-walled and each bronchiole ends in a balloon-like alveolus.

Lungs
The lungs are the main organs of respiration. They are
a pair of spongy elastic organs that are located in the
thoracic cavity and are protected by the rib cage. The
left lung is two lobed and smaller in size than the right
lung which is divided into three lobes. Each lung is
Alveolus
covered by a double layered membrane called the
pleura and the space between the two pleural
membranes is filled with a fluid called the pleural fluid.
The pleural fluid lubricates the lungs for their smooth Alveolar sac
Capillaries
and easy movement during breathing. There are
Fig 9.3 Alveolus
millions of alveoli present in each lung. These alveoli
make the lungs spongy and elastic. The walls of each alveolus have many blood capillaries.

The exchange of gases oxygen and

Did You Know
carbon dioxide in the lungs takes place
in the alveoli. Many of us have experienced hiccups. Hiccups
occur when the diaphragm gets irritated and
Diaphragm contracts repeatedly and quickly. Air is suddenly
The lungs rest on a dome shaped pulled into the pharynx. The epiglottis may close
muscle called the diaphragm. The the larynx leading to a hiccup. There are many
diaphragm separates the chest cavity reasons for the diaphragm to get irritated. One
from the abdomen. The contraction and common reason is when we eat or drink too
expansion of the diaphragm play an much or too quickly.
important role in breathing.

137
 Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:

1. Respiration is the process in which the cells of an organism obtain

energy by breaking down glucose in the presence of oxygen.

2. Taking in air rich in oxygen into the body is called .

3. The is a common passage for food and air.

4. The lungs rest on the dome shaped .

Mechanism of Breathing
When we breathe in, we feel our chest cavity expanding and when we exhale, we feel our chest
cavity contracting. This rhythmic movement of the chest cavity occurs due to the contraction
and expansion of the lungs.
Breathing involves the movement of the diaphragm and the rib cage. The external intercostal
muscles which are present between the ribs control their upward and outward movement.

Inhalation
During inhalation, the intercostal muscles contract, this moves the rib cage upwards and
outwards. At the same time, the diaphragm contracts and becomes almost flat. Both these
movements increase the volume of the thoracic cavity due to which the pressure within the
cavity decreases. Oxygen-rich air from the environment rushes into the lungs due to the low
pressure and the lungs expand.

Inhalation Exhalation

trachea trachea

lungs
contract

lungs
expand intercostal intercostal
muscles muscles
contract relax

diaphragm contracts and flattens diaphragm relaxes and moves up

Fig 9.4 Mechanism of breathing

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Exhalation
During exhalation, the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm relax and return to their original
position. This causes the rib cage to move down and outwards. These movements decrease
the volume of the thoracic cavity due to which the lungs contract. This increases the pressure
within the lungs causing carbon dioxide-rich air to be expelled out of the lungs through the
nostrils.

Activity 2

Aim: To demonstrate the mechanism of breathing.

Materials required: Plastic bottle, 3 balloons, Y shaped tube, thread
Procedure: expiration inspiration
Y tube
• Take a plastic bottle and cut off its base. (trachea and
This bottle represents the chest cavity. bronchi)
bell jar
• Take a balloon made of thick rubber, (chest cavity)
cut off its base.
• Knot the narrow part of the balloon and
attach it to the open base of the bottle volume
balloon
as shown in the picture. (lung) increases
pressure
• The joint should be air tight. This sheath decreases
represents the diaphragm. volume
decreases sheath
• Take a Y-shaped tube. On each arm of pressure (diaphragm)
increases
the Y tube, fix two small balloons made
of thin rubber. These balloons represent
the lungs.
• Insert this Y-shaped tube through a hole in the cap of the bottle. Close the bottle
with the cap. Raise the sheath up and then pull the sheath down as shown.
Observation:
On pulling the sheath down, the balloon inflates. On raising the sheath up, the balloon
returns to its original position.

Exchange of gases in the alveolus

Blood capillary
Oxygen-rich air which enters the body through inhalation reaches
Alveolus
the air sacs or alveoli. Each alveolus is surrounded by a number of O2 in
CO2 out
blood vessels. The oxygen diffuses through the thin membrane of the
alveolus into the blood capillaries and then into the blood cells. Red
blood cells contain a pigment called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin
Fig 9.5 Exchange of
gases in the alveoli

139
 combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. Meanwhile, the carbon dioxide in the blood
moves in the opposite direction into the alveoli through diffusion. It is then released into the
environment through exhalation.

Internal respiration
Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between Let’s discuss
the blood and the body cells. During this stage, oxygen Why do we feel hungry after a
moves from the blood into the cells and carbon dioxide physical activity?
from the cells moves into the blood.

Cellular respiration
It is the final stage of respiration. The breakdown of food (glucose) in the presence of oxygen
to release energy is called cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide, water and energy are the
products of cellular respiration. The energy released in this process is utilised by the body
cells for various life processes. The carbon dioxide is a waste product and is exhaled out of
the body via the lungs. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells into the blood stream. Some
of the carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin to form a complex which is then carried
to the lungs. At the lungs, the carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the walls of the
alveoli and then into the air in the lungs. It is then removed from the body during exhalation.
The exhaled air also contains water vapour in large amounts.

Activity 3

Aim: To show that the air we breathe out has carbon dioxide.
Materials required: Two test tubes containing lime water, two one-holed rubber corks
fitting the mouth of the test tube, two straws
Procedure:
• Take two glass tubes containing lime water and label them as A and B.
• Close the mouth of each test tube with a one-holed cork.
• Introduce a straw through the cork in test tube A.
• Blow air that you exhale through the straw in test tube A gently.
• Leave the other tube as it is and note your observations.
Observation: You will observe that the lime water in test tube A turns milky while the
lime water in test tube B remains as it is.
Conclusion: Carbon dioxide exhaled reacts with the calcium hydroxide (lime water) to
produce insoluble milky calcium carbonate. This shows that the air we breathe out is
rich in carbon dioxide.

140
 Check Your Progress

State whether the following statements are true or false:

1. During exhalation, the intercostal muscles contract which moves the rib cage
upwards and outwards.

2. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.

3. Internal respiration is the final stage of respiration.

4. During cellular respiration, oxygen moves from the blood into the cells.

Types of respiration
Depending on the utilisation of oxygen, respiration is of two types:
• Aerobic respiration
• Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is defined as the release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells
by the breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen. Most living organisms such
as humans, animals, plants and fungi show aerobic mode of respiration. The number of ATP
molecules released in aerobic respiration is 38.
Aerobic respiration is represented by the following equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water Energy
dioxide

Anaerobic respiration
Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen. Anaerobic
respiration is defined as the release of a relatively small amount of energy in cells by the
breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration takes place
in some plant cells and some microorganisms. The number of ATP molecules released in
anaerobic respiration is 2. The end products of anaerobic respiration differ in various organisms.
In yeast, glucose is broken down into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Anaerobic respiration is represented by the following equation:
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH+ 2CO 2 + ATP
Glucose Ethanol Carbon Energy
dioxide

141
 Anaerobic respiration in yeast is used in brewing and Let’s discuss
bread-making. Ethanol is the alcohol found in alcoholic Why do we get cramps?
drinks like beer and wine. In bread-making, bubbles of
carbon dioxide gas expand the dough and help the bread rise.
Sometimes after cycling, playing outdoor games such as badminton or cricket, climbing a
mountain, running, walking for long time or lifting heavy weights, we may get muscle cramps.
Do you wonder why this happens? Our body needs energy to do work. During heavy physical
work, the demand for energy is high and the supply of oxygen is limited. When this happens,
our muscle cells respire anaerobically. The glucose is broken down partially into lactic acid
and carbon dioxide to meet the demand of energy. The accumulation of lactic acid so formed
leads to muscle cramps. This is a temporary process and occurs only when there is a limited
supply of oxygen. Deep breathing, bathing in hot water or a massage can help during cramps.
This improves blood circulation and increases the supply of oxygen.
The table summarises the differences between the aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Oxygen Needed Not needed
Glucose breakdown Complete Incomplete
End product(s) Carbon dioxide and water Animal cells: lactic acid.
Plant cells and yeast: carbon
dioxide and ethanol
Energy released 38 ATP molecules 2 ATP molecules

Table 10.1 : Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Check Your Progress

Answer the following questions in one sentence:

1. What is aerobic respiration?
2. What is the number of ATP molecules released in aerobic respiration?
3. How can we get relief from cramps?
4. What are the end products of anaerobic respiration in yeast?

Respiration in other living organisms

The basic process of respiration is similar in all plants and animals which results in the release
of energy. However, different organisms adopt different methods for the exchange of gases
with the surroundings. In unicellular organisms like amoeba, oxygen diffuses into the body

142
and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body. In higher organisms, there are special organs
that help in the exchange of gases.

Through Skin
Exchange of gases in animals like earthworms, Carbon dioxide Lungs
Oxygen Nostril
leeches takes place through the moist and slimy
surface of the skin. These animals have tiny blood
vessels or capillaries that lie close to their skin
Mouth cavity
surface. These tiny vessels transport oxygen to
various tissues and carry carbon dioxide to the
outer skin layer.
Amphibians such as frogs use more than one organ Fig 9.6 Respiratory system of a frog
of respiration during their life. They breathe through
their gills while they are tadpoles. Mature frogs breathe through their skin (when in water or
while hibernating) and through the lungs (when on land).

Through air holes or tracheal system

Insects such as cockroaches and grasshoppers Air sacs

have a high requirement for oxygen because of

their active life. Gaseous exchange in such insects
takes place by special type of fine tubes called
Tracheae Spiracles
tracheae. Air containing oxygen enters through
small openings called spiracles into the tracheal Fig 9.7 Respiratory system of a grasshopper
tubes. It then diffuses into the body tissue and reaches every cell in the body. Carbon dioxide
released from the cells goes into the tracheal tubes and comes out through spiracles.

Through Gills Did You Know

Aquatic animals use oxygen dissolved in water A cockroach when suspended half in
for breathing. They are equipped with special water will not die because it breathes
structures called gills which help them use the through its spiracles which are present
oxygen dissolved in water. Gills are made of all along the body.
filaments which look like teeth of a comb. They are
Gill arch
richly supplied with blood capillaries and are highly
folded to increase the surface area for gaseous
exchange. A hard and bony operculum or gill cover
protects the gills. The fish takes in a small amount of
water through the mouth at regular intervals. Then
it draws the sides of its throat together, forcing the Water flow Operculum
into mouth
9.8 Respiratory system of a fish

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 water through the gill openings. The water passes over the gills to the outside. The gases are
exchanged during the process and the absorbed oxygen is sent to other parts of the body
through the blood.

Through Lungs
Amphibians, mammals, and birds exchange gases through lungs. Lungs are air-filled sac-like
structures in the chest cavity. They are connected to the outside by a series of tubes and a
small opening. Dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, monkeys, etc. are examples of animals
which breathe through their lungs.

Respiration in plants
Plants photosynthesise only in the presence of light.
However, like animals they respire all the time. Plants
take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide during
respiration. The rate of respiration in plants is much
lower than in animals. Plants do not have special
breathing organs. The exchange of gases in plants
takes place through special pores. The pores in the
leaves are called the stomata, while the pores in stems Fig 9.9 Stomata and lenticels
are called lenticels. The exchange of gases takes place through diffusion. Roots of plants also
exchange gases through the root hair. Therefore, farmers turn the soil at regular intervals and
make the soil loose. This allows the roots to take in the oxygen present in the soil by diffusion.

Word Galaxy

Hibernating: to spend the winter months in a sleep like state

Biochemical: chemical processes that occur in living beings
Cartilaginous: made of cartilage (it is a firm tissue that is softer and more flexible than the
bone)

At a Glance

• Respiration is the biochemical process in which the cells of an organism obtain energy by
breaking down glucose in the presence of oxygen. Carbon dioxide, water, and ATP which
is the energy currency of cells are released during the process of respiration.
• Breathing is the first stage of the process of respiration and involves only the exchange of
gases.
• Taking in air rich in oxygen into the body is called inhalation and giving out air rich in
carbon dioxide and water vapour is called exhalation.

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• The number of times a person breathes in a minute is called the breathing rate.

• In humans, the organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi and the lungs.

• Cilia and the mucus membrane act as filters and trap any pollutants, dust particles or
germs entering along with the inhaled air into the nasal cavity.

• Breathing involves the movement of the diaphragm and the rib cage. The external
intercostal muscles which are present between the ribs control the upward and outward
movement of the ribs.

• Red blood cells contain a pigment called haemoglobin that combines with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin.

• Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells. During
this stage, oxygen moves from the blood into the cells and carbon dioxide from the cells
moves into the blood.

• The final stage of respiration is cellular respiration. The oxygen taken up by the cell is used
in breaking down food to release energy.

• Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen and it releases of a relatively
large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of food substances in the presence of
oxygen.

• Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen and it releases of a relatively small amount
of energy in cells by the breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen.

• Different organisms adopt different methods for the intake of oxygen. In unicellular
organisms, oxygen enters the cells and carbon dioxide leaves the cells by diffusion. In
higher organisms, there are special organs like skin, air holes, gills and lungs that help in
respiration.

• The exchange of gases in plants takes place through special pores. The pores in the leaves
are called the stomata, while the pores in stems are called lenticels.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick (√) the correct option.

a. The number of ATP molecules released in aerobic respiration is .
i. 38 ii. 39
iii. 40 iv. 41

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 b. A breathes through its skin.
i. fish ii. cat
iii. leech iv. cockroach
c. Which of the following does not take part in gaseous exchange in plants?
i. Leaves ii. Stem
iii. Flowers iv. Roots

d. in fish are highly folded to increase the surface area for gaseous
exchange.
i. Teeth ii. Fins
iii. Gills iv. Scales

e. When we get cramps, the glucose is broken down partially into

and carbon dioxide to meet the demand for energy.
i. ethanol ii. ethyl alcohol
iii. lactic acid iv. acetic acid

2. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Nose i. Windpipe
b. Pharynx ii. Separates the chest cavity from the
abdomen
c. Trachea iii. Mucous membrane
d. Diaphragm iv. Common passage for food and air

3. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. (Breathing/Internal respiration) is the first stage of the process of
respiration.

b. Each nostril is lined with hair-like (mucous membrane/cilia).

c. The larynx contains two (vocal cords/epiglottis) responsible for

producing sound.

d. The inside of the trachea has C-shaped incomplete (intercostal/

cartilaginous) rings.

e. Each lung is covered by a double layered membrane called the

(pleura/skin).

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4. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. Oxygen-rich air from the environment rushes into the lungs due to the low pressure
and the lungs expand. 
b. Each alveolus in the lungs is surrounded by a number of blood vessels.
c. The energy released during respiration is utilised by the body for various metabolic
activities. 
d. Giving out air rich in carbon dioxide and water vapour is called inhalation. 

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. What is breathing rate?
b. What is the function of the pleural fluid?
c. What happens when food enters the trachea accidently?
d. What are spiracles?

6. Give reasons.
a. A special tissue called epiglottis guards the opening of the glottis.
b. The inside of the trachea has C-shaped incomplete cartilaginous rings.

7. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. Under what conditions do our muscles breathe anaerobically? How can we get relief
from cramps?
b. How does gaseous exchange take place in fish?
c. How do a cockroach and a grasshopper breathe?
d. What is cellular respiration?

8. Diagram based questions.

a. Label the given diagram using the words given below.
oxygen, trachea, larynx, bronchioles, alveoli, carbon dioxide, capillaries

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 9. Practical based questions.
Observe the experimental setup given below and answer the questions:
What will happen when the rubber sheath is pushed upwards?

10. Value based question.

Rekha participated in a 400 m competitive race held at her school and won the race.
When she came home she had mixed feelings of joy and pain as she felt cramps in her leg
muscles. Her friend massaged her legs and she was relieved of the pain.

a. What could be the possible reasons for the pain in her legs?
b. Why did she feel comfortable after a massage?
c. What were the values exhibited by her friend?

11. Life skills

• Make a group of 4-5 students and discuss the following topic in the classroom. ‘Why
human beings cannot live in water?’

• Is anaerobic respiration in bacteria and fungi a blessing or a curse? Conduct a debate and
write your opinion for or against the statement.

12. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

a. If a person sustains an injury to the epiglottis, what would be the
physiological result?

Let’s Create

Using cardboards, modeling clay and pencils make a model showing all the organs of the
human respiratory system.

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 My Project Idea

Sit in a quiet place inhale and exhale. Measure the size of your chest cavity during
inhalation and during exhalation using a measuring tape. (Take the help of your parent/
friend if are unable to measure it yourself) Record your observations in the given table.
What can you conclude from this activity?

Friend’s name Chest size during Chest size during Difference in size
inhalation exhalation

Meet the Scientist

Otto Warburg (1883 -1970) was a German physiologist,

researcher, medical doctor and Nobel laureate. He first
studied respiration in sea urchins while working at the
Marine Biological Station and proved that, the rate of
respiration increases by as much as six-fold in eggs of sea
urchin on fertilisation. Warburg studied the respiration of
cells, particularly cancer cells, and in 1931 was awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his discovery of the
nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme (a
type of protein).

WEBLINKS

http://www.biology4kids.com/files/systems_respiratory.html
https://www.livescience.com/22616-respiratory-system.html
https://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/respiratory

 As on 30.04.2019

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 10 Transportation In Animals
and Plants

Let’s Learn

Transportation of substances in • Excretion in animals

humans
• Human excretory system
• Human Circulatory system-
• Transportation of substances
blood, blood vessels and heart
in plants
• Structure and functions of the
• Excretion in plants
heart

Tune In
Take a look at the picture given below. An organ inside your body beats very fast when you
do the activities shown in the picture. Can you name the organ? _____________

Introduction
You may have heard this several times before- man needs food, water and oxygen for survival.
We consume water and food through our mouth. The food is digested by our body and
the useful nutrients are absorbed in the blood. The unwanted waste materials are expelled
from the body. We breathe in the air around us. The oxygen from the air is absorbed in our
lungs. Water vapour and carbon dioxide are given out which we exhale. How are the nutrients
from our food supplied to the different parts of the body? How is the oxygen supplied to
the arms or the legs? Just as we use a pump and a series of pipes to transport water from
a well to our homes, our body uses the circulatory system to transport various substances,
including oxygen, to and from various organs in our body. Let us learn more about the human
circulatory system.

Transportation of Substances in Humans

The human body is complex and composed of several organ systems working together. All

150
organs and the cells which constitute them need energy and oxygen to perform their own
functions.
The process of transport of substances is very important in a living body. This ensures that the
different organ systems of the living organisms work efficiently. The human circulatory system
is responsible for transporting nutrients, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and waste products.
The following are some of the substances that need to be transported:
• Food to all the cells where it is broken down for the release of energy.
• Oxygen which is required by every cell of our body.
• Water and minerals which are required for proper functioning of the body.
• Waste products, generated as a result of various life processes, which need to be removed
from the cells and the body.

Human circulatory system

The human transport system is essentially a system of tubes with
a pump and valves to ensure that the blood flows in the required Veins (blue) Arteries
(red)
direction. Blood is the fluid which circulates within the tubes
Heart
known as blood vessels and acts as a vehicle for the substances
to be transported. All the blood vessels originate and end in the
primary organ of the circulatory system, the heart. Thus, the heart,
blood and the blood vessels together form the human circulatory
system. Let us explore the components of the circulatory system
in detail.

Blood
Blood is a fluid that flows in the blood vessels. It forms a medium
through which nutrients, important gases, water and waste
products are transported inside the organism. It constitutes 8% of Fig. 10.1 Circulatory System
the total body weight. An average adult human has 5-6 litres of
blood in his or her body. Blood provides nutrition and oxygen to each and every cell in our
body and, in turn, takes away impurities and waste products. Blood is composed of two main
components;
• The liquid component of the blood or plasma
• The solid components or blood corpuscles

Plasma
Plasma is a clear, yellowish fluid. It consists of 90% water, dissolved minerals such as sodium,
potassium, calcium, carbonates, phosphates, nutrients, proteins and waste products.

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 Blood corpuscles
There are three types of blood corpuscles (blood cells). They are:

Red Blood Cells (RBC)

Red blood cells are the most abundant of all types of blood
Red blood cell
cells. Red blood cells also called erythrocytes are the solid (erythrocyte)
component of blood which gives the blood its characteristic
colour. The mature human red blood cell is a small, round
and biconcave disc. Red blood cells have a nucleus only
White blood cell
when they are growing. They lose it to become packed with
(leucocyte)
haemoglobin when they are fully grown. Haemoglobin is a
red iron-rich protein present inside the red blood cells.
The function of haemoglobin is to carry oxygen from the Platelet
lungs to all the body cells and to collect carbon dioxide, a (thrombocyte)

waste product from all the body cells to the lungs. The lack of Fig 10.2: Type of blood cells
nucleus and the biconcave shape of the red blood cell allows oxygen exchange at a constant
rate over the largest possible area. Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. The red
colour of the haemoglobin comes from iron (haem = iron).

White Blood Cells (WBC)

White blood cells also known as leucocytes are the cells of the immune system that are
involved in protecting the body against infectious diseases and foreign invaders. White blood
cells are also formed in the bone marrow.
All white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the anucleated red blood cells
(RBCs). They have an irregular shape. In fact they keep changing their shape as the cytoplasm
flows inside them. White blood cells are larger in size than the red blood cells.
Although leucocytes are much less in number in our blood as compared to the erythrocytes,
they are very important in fighting infections. The number of leucocytes increases when we
contract an infection. One kind of white blood cell, a lymphocyte produces antibodies, which
attack harmful microorganisms in the blood such as bacteria. Another kind of white blood
cell, a phagocyte, when encounters a pathogen, engulfs the organism and destroys it. White
blood cells are therefore rightly called soldiers of the body.

Platelets
Platelets are the cells that circulate within our blood and bind together when they recognise
damaged blood vessels. When we get a cut, for example, the platelets bind to the site of the
damaged vessel, thereby causing a blood clot.
Platelets are the smallest of our blood cells. They are irregularly shaped fragments of cells
which circulate in the blood. They are also known as thrombocytes.

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Pathologists study the composition of blood and the change in the number of blood cells to
detect various diseases. For example, increase in blood sugar levels indicates diabetes while
decreased level of haemoglobin indicates anaemia.

Blood Vessels
The tubes which carry the blood to and from the heart are known as blood vessels. The three
main type of blood vessels found in the human body are: arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries
An artery is a blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the
body. The only exception to this is the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood
from the right auricle to the lungs. Arteries are thicker and have stronger, more elastic walls as
they contain blood under high pressure. The force of heart pumping keeps the blood flowing
through arteries. Arteries further branch into smaller vessels known as the arterioles.

Veins
The vein is a blood vessel that transports deoxygenated blood from various regions of the
body to the heart. Only pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
auricle of the heart. Veins have thin walls as they contain blood under low pressure. They
have valves inside, which maintain the unidirectional flow of blood. Veins further branch into
smaller vessels known as the venules.

Capillaries
Capillaries are the smallest of blood vessels. They serve to distribute oxygenated blood from
arteries to the tissues of the body and to feed deoxygenated blood from the tissues back into
the veins. The capillaries are thus a central component in the circulatory system especially
between arteries and veins. They carry blood at very low pressure. Capillaries are responsible
for gas exchange between the body cells and the erythrocytes. Oxygen passes through the
capillary wall into the tissues and carbon dioxide passes from the tissues into the blood. The
capillaries are responsible for facilitating exchange of gases, fluids, and nutrients in the body.
An artery A vein
Thick outer
Thin layer of
wall
mucsle and elastic
Small fibers
lumen Large lumen
Thick layer of Fairly thin outer wall
muscles and
elastic fibres
A capillary

Very small lumen Wall made of a single layer of cells

Fig. 10.3 Lumen of blood vessels

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 Differences between Arteries, Veins and Capillaries
Arteries Veins Capillaries
Thick walled with narrow Thin walled with large lumen Thick walled narrow tubes with
lumen narrow lumen
Supplies blood from the Collects blood from organs Helps in exchange of nutrients,
heart to body organs and brings it to the heart oxygen, carbon dioxide
between blood and tissues
Carries oxygenated blood Carries deoxygenated blood Carries both types of blood
(except Pulmonary artery) (except Pulmonary veins)

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks.

1. The blood vessels carrying oxygenated blood are known as ____________.
2. The organs comprising the circulatory system are ____________, blood and
______________.
3. ____________ are irregularly shaped fragments of cells which circulate in the blood.
4. White blood cells are also known as ____________.

Lungs
Structure of the Heart
The human heart is a hollow, muscular bag-like Pulmonary Pulmonary
organ made up of powerful muscles. The heart artery vein

is approximately the size of a closed fist of an

individual. It is located in the chest region between
Heart
the lungs. The tapered end of the heart known as
Vein
the apex is pointed forwards and towards the left.
Artery
The heart is divided into left and right parts by a
thick, vertical muscular wall known as the septum.
The left and right parts of the heart are further
divided into upper and lower chambers. Thus, the
heart is divided into four chambers, namely, the Capillaries
right atrium (also known as the right auricle), the
right ventricle, the left atrium (also known as the
left auricle) and the left ventricle. The openings of
the atria into the ventricles are guarded by valves
which prevent the backflow of blood into the atria.
Fig. 10.4 Schematic diagram of circulation
Functioning of the heart
The human heart is primarily a mechanical pump. From the moment the heart develops till the

154
death of an individual, the heart continuously contracts and relaxes. The powerful contraction of
the heart pumps blood into the blood vessels which travels to the lungs and other body parts.
Let us see how the blood flows through the heart, lungs and the blood vessels.
• The deoxygenated blood is collected by several veins from various parts of the body. The
veins merge to form the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava through which the
deoxygenated blood is poured into the right atrium.
• The right atrium contracts and pushes the blood down into the right ventricle. The opening
of the right atrium into the right ventricle is guarded by the tricuspid valves which prevent
the backflow of blood into the atrium.

to lungs to lungs
Pulmonary
Pulmonary veins from
veins from AO
PA lungs
lungs LA
RA = Right Atrium
LA = Left Atrium
Superior Mitral valve RV = Right Ventricle
vena vava LV = Left Ventricle
LV Aortic valve AO = Aorta
RA
Atrial septum PA = Pulmonary Artery

Tricuspid valve Ventricular

RV
septum
Inferior
vena cava
Pulmonary valve
Fig. 10.5: Structure of the Human Heart

• The right ventricle contracts and pushes the deoxygenated blood into the lungs through
the pulmonary artery. (Note: This is the reason why the pulmonary artery is the only
artery that carries deoxygenated blood.) The opening between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery is guarded by semilunar valves.
• The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. There is an exchange of
gases in the capillary network in the lungs. Oxygen in the lungs is added to the blood
while the carbon dioxide is removed from the blood and exhaled through the lungs. Most
of the carbon dioxide in the blood is transported to the lungs by the haemoglobin. The
oxygenated blood is carried away from the lungs by the pulmonary veins. (Note: Thus, the
pulmonary veins are the only veins which carry oxygenated blood.)
• The pulmonary veins pour the oxygenated blood in the left atrium which is further
poured into the left ventricle. The backflow of the oxygenated blood into the left atrium is
prevented by the bicuspid valve (mitral valve).
• As the heart contracts, the left ventricle pushes the oxygenated blood into the aorta,
which is the largest artery in our body. The opening between the left ventricle and the
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 aorta is also guarded by semilunar valves. The aorta branches into several small arteries
which supply the oxygenated blood to all parts of the body.
• In other words, when the heart relaxes, the right and left atria are filled with deoxygenated
and oxygenated blood respectively. When the heart contracts, the deoxygenated blood
from the right ventricle is pushed into the pulmonary artery and the oxygenated blood from
the left ventricle is pushed into the aorta. Thus, the alternate contraction and relaxation of
the heart results in the supply of oxygenated blood and collection of deoxygenated blood
from the different parts of the body.

Heart Beat and Stethoscope

The heart rhythmically contracts and relaxes for about 70-72 times in a minute. This rhythmic
contraction and relaxation is together considered as one heart beat. One heart beat includes:
• A phase of contraction of heart muscles – Systole
• A phase of relaxation of heart muscles – Diastole
First atria contract to push blood into the ventricles and then the ventricles contract to pump
blood into the blood vessels. The contraction of atrial chambers and then the ventricular
chambers are two phases of a heartbeat. If you listen carefully, the heart beats can be heard
as ‘lubb-dubb-pause-lubb-dubb-pause’ sounds. These sounds are caused by the contraction
of muscles and shutting down of valves.
• In the lubb phase, the ventricles contract and the cuspid valves close.
• In the dubb phase, the pulmonary and the aortic valves close.
Although we can listen to the sounds of the heart with unaided ears, we can listen to the
sounds better with an instrument known as the stethoscope. Doctors use the stethoscope to
find any anomalies in the functions of the heart.

Activity 1

Build your own stethoscope!

You must have seen the stethoscope used by a doctor
while examining your body. You can create your own
stethoscope by using two plastic funnels, a long plastic
tube and a rubber balloon. Connect the plastic tube with
the two spout ends of the funnels. Cut up a rubber balloon
into a large square piece. Fig. 10.6: Stethoscope
Stretch the rubber piece over the mouth of the larger funnel. Secure the rubber piece
with a rubber band or sticking tape. Your stethoscope is ready.
Place the rubber sheet covered funnel on the chest of your friend and the smaller funnel
on your ear. Listen to the heart beats of your friend through the stethoscope.

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Pulse
During a systole, the ventricles pump blood into the arteries, under pressure. During a diastole,
no blood is pumped into the arteries. The forward movement of the blood during a systole thus
causes a pressure wave to be generated across the artery. This leads to a throbbing sensation
known as a pulse. It can be felt in places where arteries are comparatively superficial, such as
on the wrist, sides of the neck and the temples. Do you find any relationship between your
heartbeat and pulse rate? Each heart beat generates one pulse in the arteries and the pulse
rate per minute indicates the rate of heartbeat. Hence, the rate of heart beats and the pulse
is the same in a minute.

Activity 2

Measuring a pulse
Radial artery
The breathing of the heart can be checked by taking
the pulse. You can find your pulse by following these
instructions:
1. Hold out your left hand with the palm up.
2. Put the thumb of your right hand under your
wrist.
3. Place the middle and index finger of your
right hand on the inner side of your left wrist Fig. 10.7 Measuring Pulse
(Fig. 10.7).
4. Feel around on your wrist with these two fingers to find a throbbing artery. This is
your pulse.
5. You can count your pulse rate by counting how many times your pulse beats in a
minute.
Readings:
• Pulse rate per minute
• At rest: ______________
• After climbing a flight of stairs: ____________
• After running around in the playground : ______________
Observation: The throbbing beat is called pulse. The number of beats produced per
minute is called pulse rate which ranges between 70 to 72 beats per minute. The pulse
rate increases with increased level of physical activity.

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 Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. ____________ (Blood/Water) is the medium of transport in the human body.

2. _____________ (Veins/Capillaries) are the thinnest of all blood vessels.
3. The thick muscular organ of the circulatory system in the humans is called the
_________ (heart/blood)
4. The _____________ (right/left) ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body.

Excretion in Animals
Chemical reactions occur in the cells of living organisms all the time to carry out life processes.
They produce a variety of waste products like carbon dioxide, ammonia and other nitrogenous
compounds. These substances have to be removed as they are toxic if allowed to accumulate in
the body. The removal of waste products from the body of an organism is known as excretion
and the organs that remove these toxic wastes are called excretory organs.

Unicellular organisms such as amoeba, paramoecium, hydra etc. do not have a well developed
excretory system. They get rid of all kinds of body wastes by simple diffusion, that is, the
waste products are passed through the cell membrane into the surroundings. Animals such as
earthworms, insects and leeches have tubular structures that help to get rid of body wastes.
In multicellular organisms, the process is not that simple. In multicellular organisms, several
waste products are generated, which are removed by a set of organs forming the excretory
system. The mode of excretion varies in different animals. Aquatic animals such as fish, excrete
waste in the form of ammonia which directly dissolves in water around them. Such animals are
known as ammonotelic animals. Birds and reptiles living on land, such as lizards and snakes,
excrete waste in the form of uric acid. These animals are known as uricotelic animals. Animals
which excrete waste majorly in the form of urea are known as ureotelic animals. Human
beings and other mammals are ureotelic animals.

The human excretory system

The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials
from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and
prevent damage to the body. Only the organs specifically for the excretion are considered a
part of the excretory system.
Human body excretes wastes in the following ways:

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Lungs
Carbon dioxide formed during respiration is exhaled out through the lungs.

Liver
Ammonia is a toxic substance generated in our body. The liver converts ammonia to urea
which is excreted as sweat and urine. The liver is also responsible for the removal of several
other toxins.

Skin
Our skin also acts as an excretory organ. It has small openings called sweat pores which gets
rid of urea, salts and water through sweat secreted by the sweat glands present under the
skin. Sweat is important in regulating body temperature. It helps to keeps the body cool by
losing body heat as sweat evaporates off the skin.

Urinary system
Urea, uric acid and other minerals are expelled from the body by the urinary system in the
form of urine.

Rectum
The undigested food is expelled from the body through rectum in a semi-solid form called
faeces. This process of expelling solid wastes generated after digestion of food is known as
egestion.

The Human Urinary System

A number of nitrogenous wastes such as urea and uric Vena Cava Aorta

acid are formed inside our body. Urea is a result of the Renal Artery
combination of carbon dioxide and ammonia. It is excreted
from the body in the form of a pale yellow-coloured liquid
called urine.
Renal Vein
Urine contains almost 95% water and the remaining 5%
Kidney
consists of urea, uric acid and minerals. Formation of urine Ureter
takes place inside the kidneys.
The human urinary system comprises of a pair of kidneys,
a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder which stores urine and
urethra to remove the urine.
Urinary
bladder
Let us understand how these organs function together to
remove waste materials from our body:
Urethra
Fig. 10.8 Human urinary system

159
 Kidneys
Kidneys are brown coloured bean-shaped organs present in the abdominal cavity one on
either side of the backbone. Waste substances present in the blood are removed with the help
of the kidneys.
When blood enters the kidney, the useful substances are filtered back into the blood. Waste
substances such as urea get dissolved in water and are removed as urine. This filtration is
carried out by a large number of long coiled tubules present in the kidney which are called the
nephrons. These are the structural as well as functional units of the kidneys. As blood passes
through the kidneys, it is filtered and cleansed of nitrogenous wastes such as urea and uric
acid. It takes about 45 minutes for the kidney to completely filter all the blood in the body.
An adult human passes 1-1.8 litres of urine in 24 hours and the urine consists of 95% water,
2.5% urea and 2.5% other waste products.

Ureters
Ureters are two long tubes which carry urine from the kidneys into the urinary bladder.

Urinary bladder
Urinary bladder is a hollow muscular sac that collects and stores urine collected from the
kidneys till it is expelled out through urethra.

Urethra
Urethra is the passageway between the urinary bladder and the exterior of the body through
which urine is expelled out.

Activity 3

Locate your kidneys

Place your hands on your hips. Keep sliding your hands up until you feel your ribs. Now
place your thumbs on your back. This is the spot on each side of your body where each
kidney is located.

Diseases associated with kidneys

Human beings have a pair of kidneys. Even if one gets damaged, the person can still lead a
healthy life. However, if both kidneys are damaged the person may have difficulty eliminating
waste and unwanted water from the blood. Dialysis is an artificial way of carrying out this
process. Dialysis substitutes the natural work of the kidneys.
A person can survive with the help of dialysis or a kidney transplant.

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What is dialysis?
Dialysis is a method for removing toxic substances from the blood with the help of a dialysis
machine which is also called artificial kidney.

Blood from the artery of the arm (radial artery) is led through the dialysis machine, where
wastes like urea and excess salts are removed and the clean blood is led back to the patient’s
body.

What is kidney transplant?

Kidneys can be replaced by transplant. A person’s non-functional kidney is replaced by the
healthy kidney of another person (donor).

Diabetes and high blood pressure are major culprits behind kidney diseases although infections
and tumours can also lead to kidney dysfunctions.

Fresh Facts

Researchers at UCSF (University of California and San Francisco) have worked on

an artificial version that can allow patients to live without dialysis. The implantable
artificial kidney performs the water-balancing and metabolic functions of the real
kidney using lab-grown cells and nanofilters that remove blood toxins. The device
is not a perfect replica of a real kidney, but it provides enough functionality that
patients cannot undergo dialysis and have complete freedom of mobility.

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:

1. The __________ remove nitrogenous waste from the blood.

2. __________ is a structural and functional unit of the kidney

3. Artificial filtration of blood to remove nitrogenous wastes is called __________.

4. The machine used to remove excretory substances from blood is called

__________________.

Transportation in plants
Like all other multicellular organisms plants too need an elaborate circulatory system to
distribute food and collect waste from different parts of the plant. Plants have a well developed
transport system called the vascular system. It has two main functions:

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 • Transport water and minerals absorbed by the roots to the aerial parts of the plant.

• Transport food synthesised in leaves to all other parts of the plants

The vascular system is organised into bundles called vascular bundles which form a continuous
network in the entire plant. Vascular bundles are of two types namely; the xylem and the
phloem. Xylem and Phloem are hollow tubes which channelise the transport of water and
food, respectively. If we cut the root of a tree transversely, we can make out the xylem and
phloem, as shown in Fig. 10.9. Let us explore them in detail.

Phloem tubes
Xylem tubes

root hair

Fig. 10.9 Cross section of a root

Xylem
Xylem vessels transport water and dissolved minerals
Vascular Bundles
in the upward direction from roots through stem to
the leaves against the force of gravity. This upward
movement of water and minerals is called ascent of sap. Xylem Phloem

Water rises in the xylem due to the following reasons: Transports water Transports
and minerals food from
• Pressure caused by absorption of water from the soil.
from the roots the leaves
• Transpiration pull Fig. 10.10: transport tissues in
plants
Phloem
Phloem vessels carry food synthesised by the leaves to all the parts of the plant. Phloem
vessels are involved in translocation, which is the movement of food substances generated
by photosynthesis to growing tissues and storage tissues of a plant.

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 5. Water moves along the xylem in leaf

6. Water evaporates
into air space in spongy
7. Water vapour escapes mesophyll
through stomata (in other
words, the leaf transpires)
Xylem of 4. Water is
stem drawn up into
the xylem of the
stem (transpira-
tion stream)
Stem

Root

Soil
water

3. Water enters
xylem in root

1. Water enters root 2. Water crosses root

hairs cortex
Fig. 10.11 Transport of water and minerals in plants

Excretion in plants
Oxygen can be looked upon as a waste product of photosynthesis and carbon dioxide a
waste product of respiration. Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is normally used up
during photosynthesis. Water is a waste product of both. Excess of water is eliminated by the
process of transpiration. The water escapes through small openings on the leaves, known as
stomata.
Some of the methods of excretion are as follows:
Plants release several secretions which are stored in large vacuoles in various parts of the
plants such as bark and stem. Such substances include gums, resins rubber and latex. In case
of injury to the bark, these substances can be seen oozing out. Calcium oxalate and calcium

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 carbonate crystals are formed in some plants as waste products. These crystals are found in
leaves and stems of many plants such as spinach, rhubarb and water hyacinth.
The main products excreted by plants are:
a. Carbon dioxide and oxygen: carbon dioxide is given out during respiration and oxygen is
given out during photosynthesis.
b. Excess water: cxcreted in the form of vapour through stomata in leaves.
c. Excessive salts: the presence of high levels of salts in water or in the soil, usually get
deposited as waste products in plants in the form of crystals.
d. Gums, resins, latex: older plants get rid of their toxic wastes in the form of gums, resins
and latex.

Transpiration
Similar to sweat glands on our skin, plants too have openings on their leaves that allow
water to escape. Plants need to ‘breathe’ carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in order to
photosynthesise, or change sunlight into usable energy. They also need to release oxygen
back into the atmosphere as a waste product of cellular processes. This gas exchange occurs
through the stomata which are present in leaves, and, while this happens, some water is lost
from the plant. The evaporation of water from the leaves generates a pull called transpiration
pull that sucks water and dissolved nutrients from the soil up into the plant body.
Therefore we can define transpiration as the loss of water from the leaves into the air in the
form of vapour.
Factors that affect the rate of transpiration:
a. Higher the temperature, higher is the rate of transpiration.
b. More the humidity in air, less is the transpiration.
c. Wind speed increases the rate of transpiration.
d. Light causes stomata to open and increases the rate of transpiration.
e. Availability of water in the soil also changes the rate of transpiration. If water is not available
in the soil, the rate of transpiration decreases.

Importance of transpiration:
• Transpiration provides water needed for food manufactured by photosynthesis in the
leaves.
• Transpiration produces a cooling effect which protects the plants from excessive heat.
• The water transported upwards from the roots to the leaves by generating transpiration
pull also contains dissolved mineral salts.

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• Rate of transpiration increases when there is no more transpiration.

Word Galaxy

Lumen: the central space of a tubular structure such as an artery or a vein

through which blood flows
Haemoglobin: red coloured pigment present in the RBCs that impart red
colour to the blood
Erythrocytes: red blood cells
Leucocytes: white blood cells
Systole: a phase in which heart muscles contract
Diastole: a phase in which heart muscles relax
Ammonotelic: animals which excrete cell waste in the form of ammonia
Ureotelic: animals which excrete cell waste in the form of urea
Uricotelic: animals which excrete cell waste in the form of uric acid
Egestion: expelling of solid wastes generated after digestion of food

At a Glance

• In all living organisms food, water and oxygen need to be transported from one part of
the body to the other.
• In higher vertebrates like human beings, the substances are transported through a fluid
called blood.
• Components of blood are plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
• In humans, blood is pumped by the heart and circulated to all parts of the body through
blood vessels.
• Arteries are thick walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to all
parts of the body.
• Veins are thin walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from all body parts
to the heart.
• Capillaries are very thin walled. Gaseous exchange takes place in them.
• The human heart beats about 70-72 times per minute.
• The process of excretion is different in various animal groups depending on the type of
environment they live.
• The major waste products are water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, uric acid and urea.
• Excretion in humans occurs from organs like lungs (carbon dioxide), skin (sweat), liver

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 (toxins) and urinary system (urine).
• Urinary system of humans consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder and
urethra.
• Kidneys have filtering units called nephrons which filter wastes from the blood.
• Transportation in plants is carried out by vascular bundles which comprise of xylem and
phloem.
• Xylem transports water and minerals from the soil through the roots to all parts of the
plant.
• Phloem transports prepared food from the leaves to different parts of the plant.
• Water is lost from plants in the form of water vapour through the stomata during
transpiration.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. The tiny branches of blood vessels that connect arteries with veins are called:
i. plasma ii. capillaries
iii. white blood cells iv. thrombocytes

b. The impure blood is transported from the right ventricle to the lungs by:
i. pulmonary vein ii. inferior vena cava
iii. superior vena cava iv. pulmonary artery
c. Blood cells which transport oxygen are:
i. platelets ii. WBCs
iii. RBCs iv. thrombocytes
d. The transport system in plants is called:
i. photosynthesis ii. circulatory system
iii. vascular system iv. transpiratory system
e. The process that occurs through stomata:
i. transpiration ii. translocation
iii. transportation iv. conduction

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. Water rises in the xylem tubes due to . (transpiration pull/gravitation
pull)
b. The functional unit of the kidney is the . (urinary bladder/nephron)

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 c. In amoeba excretion takes place by . (transportation/diffusion)
d. Transpiration pull helps in .(translocation of food/transportation of
water)
e. The shape of the RBCs is . (biconcave/irregular)

3. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Ureotelic animals i. Plasma
b. Clotting of blood ii. Stomata
c. Pulse count per minute iii. Blood platelets
d. Exchange of gases iv. Heart rate
e. Liquid component of blood v. Mammals

4. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. White blood cells protect the body against infectious diseases.
b. The lungs have special filters that remove waste from the blood. 
c. Pulmonary vein carries deoxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. 
d. Food prepared in the leaves is translocated by phloem to all parts of the plant.

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. Name the red iron-rich protein of blood.
b. Name the tissue in plants that transports water and minerals up the stem.
c. Which blood vessels have valves?
d. Name the vertical muscular wall which divides the heart into left and right parts.
6. Answer the following questions in short:
a. What is a heartbeat? What is the number of heartbeats per minute in a man?
b. Differentiate between red blood cells and white blood cells.
c. What is translocation?
d. Why is it necessary to remove waste products from the body?
7. Answer the following questions in detail.
a. Describe the composition of blood.
b. What is dialysis? How does it work?
c. Distinguish between
i. Arteries and Veins.
ii. Atria and Ventricles

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 8. Observe the given diagram and answer the questions that follow:

10
2

9 3
8 4
7 5
6

a. Label the parts numbered 1 - 10.

b. What is the function of part 5?
c. What type of blood does part 6 and 10 carry?
d. What is the peculiarity of part 8.

9. Value Based Questions:

Read the passage given below and answer the questions that follow:

Jeremy grew up being active and involved in sports. He also used to eat balanced diet.
His friend, John, likes fried foods. French fries are his favourite. He does not eat fruits and
vegetables. He likes to spend time indoors watching TV, playing computer games and
hates outdoor games. He is obese.

a. Who amongst the two are following a healthy lifestyle?

b. What life-style changes do you suggest for John to be healthy?

10. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

a. If the vascular bundles in a plant are destroyed, the plant becomes
weak and dies. Why?
b. Why are ventricular walls thicker than atrial walls?
c. What does rise in the number of white blood cells indicate?

My Project Idea

Browse the internet and collect information on four kinds of blood groups; A, B, AB and
O and also on their compatibility. Prepare a report and present it in the class.
11. L

168
 Meet the Scientist

William Harvey (1578-1657) was born in Folkestone,

Kent, England. Harvey was educated at King’s College,
Canterbury and later at Cambridge University. He studied
medicine at the University of Padua in Italy.
Harvey’s research was focussed on the mechanics of
blood flow in the human body. Most physicians of the
time felt that the lungs were responsible for moving the
blood throughout the body.
Harvey’s mentor, Hieronymus Fabricius, found that the veins in the human body
had one-way valves, but could not discern their function. William Harvey made the
profound medical discovery that the flow of blood must be continuous and that its
flow must be only in one direction. He also suggested that the blood circulation in
the human body is powered by the contraction of the heart. His discoveries have
earned him the epithet ‘The father of blood circulation’

WEBLINKS

http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-atria-and-ventricles/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excretory_system
https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5260
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/315133.php

 As on 30.04.2019

169
 11 Reproduction in Plants

Let’s Learn

• Importance of reproduction • Pollination and agents of

• Modes of reproduction pollination

• Asexual mode of reproduction • Structure of seed

• Natural and artificial vegetative • Modes of dispersal of seeds

reproduction • Germination of seed

• Sexual mode of reproduction

Tune In
Imagine a new planet has been found which has water and environment similar to the
Earth. You are given a task to grow plants on this planet. What important parameters would
you consider to successfully grow plants?

Every individual has a definite lifespan. After completing their lifespan they eventually die. So
to maintain the continuity of life, the process of reproduction is necessary. All living organisms
can give birth to young ones of their own kind. The process of producing offsprings (young
ones) of their own kind is known as reproduction.

The two main methods of reproduction are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

In asexual reproduction, only one parent is needed, resulting in offsprings that are genetically
identical to the parent. In plants, asexual reproduction occurs without seeds.

In sexual reproduction, two parents, one male and one female are required. The offsprings
have a mix of inherited genes. In plants, sexual reproduction occurs by the formation of seeds.

In plants the flower performs the function of reproduction. Flowers change into fruits, which
have seeds in them. The seeds germinate to produce new plants. Thus flowers are the
reproductive part of a plant. Plants also reproduce with the help of stems and leaves, known
as the vegetative parts of plants.

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Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Asexual reproduction in plants

Spore Vegetative
Fragmentation Budding
Formation Propagation

Natural Artificial

Roots Stems Leaves Cutting Grafting Layering Tissue Culture

Fig. 11.1 Types of asexual reproduction in plants

Some common forms of asexual reproduction are fragmentation, budding, spore formation
and vegetative propagation.

Fragmentation
In fragmentation, the multicellular organism
breaks into two or more pieces called Grows
fragments. Each of the fragments so formed
has the potential to give rise to an offspring Fragment 1
and the process continues. Green algae such
as Spirogyra found floating on the surface of
water reproduce by means of fragmentation.
Fragment 2
They grow as fine strands on the water surface.
When conditions are ideal and enough nutrients
are available in the water, the algae break into
Fragment 3
fragments on their own. Each fragment grows Fig. 11.2 Fragmentation in Spirogyra
into a new organism.

Budding
In some unicellular animals like yeast, small bulb-like tiny outgrowths called buds start growing
from the cell. The buds gradually grow in size till a complete cell similar to the parent yeast cell
is formed. The nucleus of the parent cell divides too and one of them passes on to each bud.
The buds ultimately get detached from the parent cell and grow as independent new yeast
cells which are identical to the parent cell.
This process of multiplying with the formation of buds is called budding.

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 Chain of buds
Yeast cell Developing bud New bud

Fig. 11.3 Reproduction in yeast by budding

Spore Formation
Many non flowering plants i.e. the plants which Sporangium
do not produce flowers reproduce by spore
formation. In this method of reproduction, the Spores
parent plant produces hundreds of tiny spores
which can grow into new plants. Spores are tiny
cells protected by a thick wall, which helps them
Hyphae
survive in unfavourable conditions. Spores are
small and light and can easily float in the air. When
a spore carried by air, finds favourable conditions
of food, warmth and moisture, it grows into a new
individual. Plants of lower order such as mosses, Fig. 11.4 Spore formation in Rhizopus
ferns, moulds, etc reproduce by spore formation. Bread mould or Rhizopus that can often be
seen growing on moist, stale bread, grows when spores settle on the bread.
In Rhizopus numerous spores are produced within sacs called sporangia as shown in the
figure 11.4. The sporangia are knob like structures which are present at the top of the thread
like structures called hyphae. When these sporangia bursts, the spores are scattered by rain,
wind or insects and under suitable conditions develop into a new Rhizopus, when they fall on
a suitable substance like bread.

Activity 1

Aim: To observe mould growing on bread.

Materials: Bread slice, magnifying glass
Procedure:
Take a piece of bread and moisten it. Keep the bread
in a place where it gets enough warmth. Observe the
bread with a magnifying glass after a few days. Fig. 11.5

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Vegetative Propagation (Natural Methods)
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced
from the vegetative parts of the mother plant such as the roots, stem or leaves. The reproductive
organs are not involved in this type of reproduction. Vegetative reproduction can occur
naturally or can be induced artificially. Many plants like potato, ginger, sweet potato, dahlia
etc. reproduce by vegetative reproduction.

Vegetative Propagation through roots

Tuberous roots of plants such as dahlia and sweet potato when detached from the parent
plant can give rise to a new plant. The swollen tuberous roots are rich in sugar. The roots are
often stored and sown in the next sowing season for obtaining a new plant.

Fig. 11.6 a. Sweet potato Fig. 11.6 b. Dahlia

Vegetative Propagation Through Stems

Rhizomes
New plant
Plants such as ginger, canna and turmeric have
stems which grow horizontally under the ground.
They are called rhizomes. Rhizomes bear distinct
nodes, internodes, scaly leaves and adventitious
roots. Vegetative propagation from a stem
usually involves the buds. Instead of producing
a branch, the bud grows into a complete plant
Adventitious
which eventually becomes self-supporting. roots

Fig. 11.7 Rhizome of ginger

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 Tubers
Potato is a swollen underground stem, modified to
store food. It is called a tuber. Potato tubers also
have buds or eyes which can give rise to a new
plant.
When a piece of potato containing a bud is planted
in the soil, it can grow into a new potato plant. Yam
is another example of a stem tuber. Fig 11.8 Tuber of potato

Bulbs
Plants such as cactus, onions and lilies are vegetative
bulbs with thick, succulent leaves. Such bulbs are
Bulb capable of producing new bulbs with the help of
buds. Bulbs consist of a short stem base bearing one
or more buds enclosed in overlapping membranous
Adventitious roots
or fleshy leaves.
Fig. 11.9 Bulb of an Onion

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:

1. ensures continuity of life.
2. Sweet potato reproduces with the help of .
3. The stem of ginger that stores food is called a .
4. in potato are also called eyes.
5. Budding is a type of reproduction.

Runners
Plants such as grasses and wild strawberries
Parent plant
grow horizontally along the ground. These
horizontally growing stems are called runners.
Runners are thin and bear buds that can form
New plants
new plants. The terminal buds of these runners,
sprout new leaves some distance away from the
parent plant wherever it touches the soil. The
New roots
new plants develop adventitious roots. Most Runner
Fig. 11.10 Runner of a wild strawberry
type of grasses and strawberry propagate in
this manner under natural conditions.

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Vegetative Propagation Through Leaves
Generally a leaf is not a reproductive part of a plant. In some cases like Bryophyllum plant, the
leaf can reproduce by growing buds from the notches at the end of leaf margins. These buds
grow into plantlets. The plantlets fall on the soil and grow into new plants.

Leaf buds

a. Plant b. Leaf with leaf buds

Fig. 11.11 Bryophyllum

Vegetative Propagation (Artificial Methods)

Man has taken advantage of the vegetative mode of propagation in plants and adapted
them to use in his gardens, nurseries (horticulture) and in agriculture. Growing plants through
artificial methods is known as artificial propagation. It is used widely as it is faster compared
to the natural process of reproduction. It is advantageous as it allows growth of plants with
desirable characters.
Cutting, grafting, layering and tissue culture are some methods of artificial propagation.

Cutting
Plants like rose, bougainvillea and cactus can be propagated through cuttings from their
stem. In this method new plants are obtained by replanting the cut stem or leaf of the parent
plant. Not all plants can reproduce in this manner.

Activity 2

Aim: To grow new plants from a rose cutting.

Materials: A healthy rose plant and a pot (without a plant) with moist composted soil

Procedure:
• Gently cut a healthy piece of stem from a rose plant. Ensure it is obliquely cut and
has one or two buds on it.
• Plant the cutting erect in a pot with soil.
• Water it and observe it for a few days.

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 Observations: A new shoot emerges from one of the buds which later grows into a
complete plant.

Cut below the last bud

and wound
the stem

A B
Fig. 11.12 Stem Cutting

Grafting
This method is used in horticulture, to Scion
develop new varieties of fruit plant. In this
method, a plant which is fast growing and
resistant to disease is taken as the base of
the plant. It is called a stock. To get the Graft Wrapped
union and
combined features of two plants, the stem Stock
waxed
of a healthy plant is obliquely cut (graft or
scion) and inserted over the stem of the
stock through a small incision. The stock
and the scion are firmly bound together
with a string. In a few weeks, the tissue
Fig. 11.13 Grafting
of stock and the scion fuse together. The
stock provides the root system and supports the lower part of the new plant.
The upper part of the graft plant grows upwards and provides the stem, flowers and fruits.
Using this method, desired characters of the root stock can be introduced into the graft.
Apple and rubber trees are grown in this way to get improved varieties.
New plant
Layering with roots
In plants such as rose, jasmine and grapevine, the lower
branch of the plant is bent to the ground, held in place
Bent stem
and covered with moist soil. After some time, roots start with soil on it.
growing from the covered part. The bent branch is later
cut and made to grow into a new plant.

Fig. 11.14 Layering

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Tissue Culture
It is an artificial method of vegetative propagation undertaken in laboratories. It is based
on the fact that a new plant can be grown from a single cell. Many plant cells such as its
vegetative parts have the ability to regenerate into a whole plant on culture media if the right
amount of nutrients and plant hormones are provided to them. Hence exact replicas of the
plants can be produced. Through tissue culture, many plantlets can be regenerated from a
single piece of tissue.

Check Your Progress

1. Name two artificial methods of vegetative propagation.

2. Write one advantage of propagating plants by tissue culture.
3. How does asexual reproduction take place in Spirogyra?

I. Sexual mode of reproduction in plants

Plants reproduce sexually through the
reproductive parts called gametes. The male
part produces the male gamete and the female
part produces the female gamete. The gametes
fuse to form a zygote that develops into a new
individual.

Structure of a typical flower

• Sepals are small leaf-like structures found at
the base of the flower. Their main function
is to protect the flower in young (budding)
Fig. 11.15 Structure of a typical flower
stage. Sepals together form the calyx of the
flower.
• Petals are often brightly coloured and sometimes scented. We often know the flowers by
the colour of their petals. For example, red rose means the rose with red petals and white
rose means rose with white petals. Their main function is to attract insects and birds. The
petals together form the corolla of the flower. Petals also protect the inner delicate parts
of the flower. For example, the petals of tulips close when it begins to rain, sheltering the
tiny pollen grains at the flower’s centre.
• A stamen is the male part of the flower. Each stamen consists of a stalk or a filament and
a knobbed sac like tip called anther. The anthers produce pollen grains, which contain
the male reproductive cells (male gametes). Pollen grains are surrounded by a tough
protective coat. This saves them from drying out. They are light in weight and powdery in

177
 appearance. The light weight helps in carrying them through the air. All the stamens in a
flower are collectively called androecium.
• Pistil is the female part of the flower. A pistil is made of a carpel. A pistil may contain a single
carpel or two or more carpels. Each carpel is made of three parts- stigma, style and ovary.
The style is a long narrow tube arising from the ovary. Its surface may be very smooth
and hairy in order to trap pollen grains. It bears the stigma at the top that receives pollen
grains. Structurally, the stigma is like a knob, and it is sticky in order to receive the pollen
grains. At the bottom of the style is a swollen looking structure, which is the ovary. The
ovary contains ovules, the female gametes of the plant. Each ovule has an embryo sac
inside. After fertilisation, the ovary gives rise to the fruit, and the ovules give rise to seeds.
All the pistils of a flower are collectively termed as gynoecium.

Activity 3

Aim: To study the various parts of the flower.

Materials: A hibiscus flower, a magnifying lens, labelled picture of the hibiscus flower,
a chart paper, paper towels, tweezers
Procedure:
• Place the flower on a paper towel.
• Observe and draw the picture of the flower on a plain paper.
• Observe the base of the flower for the sepals - the green, leaf-like structures below
the petals.
• Pull the structures back with tweezers to expose the full length of the petals and the
ovary underneath.
• Now remove all the petals using tweezers or fingers. Lay them on the paper towel.
• Observe the exposed stamen. Use a magnifying glass to examine pollen grains on
the stamen.
• To observe the pistil and ovary remove the stamen with tweezers.
• Glue the parts of the flower on the chart paper and label each part

Types of flowers
Flowers are of two types- unisexual and bisexual.
Male Female
Unisexual flowers
A flower having either the male or female Ovary
reproductive part only is called a unisexual flower.
Pumpkin, papaya, watermelon, bitter gourd, and
corn have unisexual flowers.
Fig. 11.16 Unisexual Pumpkin Flowers

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Bisexual flowers
A flower having both male and female reproductive parts is called a bisexual flower or perfect
flower. Flowers such as lilies, gulmohars, roses, hibiscus and sweet peas are bisexual flowers.

Stamen

Pistil / Carpel

Fig. 11.17 Bisexual Lily flower

Complete and Incomplete flowers

Flowers are called complete flowers when they bear all four parts (whorls)- sepals, petals,
stamens and pistils. Incomplete flowers have one of the parts (whorls) missing.

Activity 4

Aim: To study the whole corn ear.

Supplies: Whole corn ear with corn kernels
Procedure:
• Open up the upper covering and identify the seeds and the style.
• Identify whether it is a complete or incomplete flower.
Observation: You will find the silky style at the top. The kernel is the seed.
Conclusion: A corn cob is an incomplete flower as it does not have all the parts.

Reproductive Structures Other than Flower

Have you seen the tall pine trees which are usually called conifers? They are so called because
they produce reproductive structures called cones instead of flowers. There are two types of
cones, the male cone produces pollen and the female cone produces ovules which are not
enclosed in an ovary. The female cones are larger than the male cones.

Pollination
When the male gametes stored in pollen grains fuse with the ovules in the ovary, they form a
zygote. The zygote then gives rise to a new plant. The process of transfer of pollen from the
anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower of the same kind is
called pollination.

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 Types of Pollination

Self pollination
If pollen grains from a flower reach the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the
same plant, it is called self pollination.

Cross pollination
When the pollen grains from one flower reach the stigma of a flower of another plant of the
same kind it is called cross-pollination.
Stigma Pollens Pollens
Stigma
Anther

Cross-pollination
Self-pollination
Fig. 11.18 Types of pollination

Check Your Progress

1. Which are the reproductive whorls of a flower?

2. Name two vegetatively propagated plants. State what part of the plant is involved
in vegetative propagation.

Agents of Pollination
We all know that plants do not show locomotion. Then the question arises how do plants
transfer the pollen grains from anthers to the pistil? The answer is, pollinating agents!
Birds, insects, bats and wind carry pollen grains from flower to flower. Flowers of these plants
have special features that attract pollinating agents. Different plants have different pollinating
agents.
Plants show different adaptations based on the agent of pollination they use as a means to
transport pollen grains.

Animal Pollination
Birds are common animal pollinators as many birds feed on the nectar of the flowers and
seeds of their fruit. Similarly, other animals like squirrels and birds may also come in contact
with the flowers and may carry the pollen grains on their body from one plant to another.
Humming bird has a long beak to drink nectar from the flowers. While visiting the flowers, it

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accidently rubs off the anthers, some of which fall on the stigma.

Insect pollination
Insects such as bees, butterflies and flies are attracted to bright colours and the nectar at the
base of the petals. Thus, most insect pollinated flowers are brightly coloured, fragrant and
have a lot of nectar in them. When the insects come to feed on these plants, the sticky pollen
gets stuck to their body and is carried away to the stigma. Honey bees account for 80% of
insect pollination that take place. For example, apple, mango, beet, onion are pollinated by
bees.

Water Pollination
Water pollination takes place in aquatic plants such as Vallisneria. Here pollen grains are
carried away with the help of water currents.

Wind Pollination
Pollen grains of the flowers that use wind as means for pollination are mostly light in weight
and non-sticky that make their transport through wind currents easy. Most wind pollinated
flowers bear smaller petals or no petals at all. In the absence of large petals, the anthers and
pistils remain exposed to wind, making wind pollination easier. They do not produce nectar.
Corn, grasses and wheat depend on wind pollination. Conifers such as the pine are also wind
pollinated.
Pollen grain
Fertilisation
Fertilisation is a key in the process of sexual reproduction. Many pollen Pollen tube

grains may get transferred from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of the other flower but not all fuse with the egg in the ovary to form
the zygote. The chance factor and the environmental conditions play
a big role. Ovary
Egg
When pollen falls on the stigma of a flower of the same kind, it
germinates. A sugary solution is secreted by the stigma that stimulates Fig 11.19 Fertilisation
the germination of the pollen tube from the weak spots on the pollen
grain and develops a thin small tube call pollen tube. The pollen tube grows downwards
through the style towards the ovary. It grows until it reaches the ovary and enters it. The
pollen tube carries the male gamete that unites with the female gamete (egg or the ovule)
inside the ovary. This process is called fertilisation. The fertilised egg is called the zygote.

Fruit and seed formation

• Post fertilisation, the petals, sepals and stamens wither away and fall off. In many cases the
style and the stigma also fall off.

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 • Only the ovary persists which ripens to form fruit
• Ovules in the ovary contain a supply of food. The zygote uses this food and starts growing
and develops into an embryo. At the same time, the walls of the ovules develop hard
layers and form the seeds.
• As the seeds form, the ovary begins to swell and forms fruit.
• Fruit formed are different in nature. Some are fleshy like oranges and mangoes and some
are dry and hard as almonds and walnuts.
• The main function of the fruit is to protect the seed and help in dispersion.
• In conifers, since there is no ovary, the seeds are not enclosed in any fruiting structure.

Did You Know

Growing fruits without seeds

Seedless fruits are developed in two ways. The first method is when the male and female
parts do not fuse together. This is known as parthenocarpy.

Parthenocarpic fruits

The second method is called stenospermocarpy. This happens when pollination causes fruit
development to happen without seeds.

Structure of the Seed

The seed is nothing but a fertilised ovule. A typical seed has the following parts:
Epicotyl
Seed coat

Hypocotyl

Radicle

Cotyledons
Fig. 11.20 Structure of a seed

Seed coat
The outer covering of the seed is called seed coat. Its main function is to protect the embryo

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inside. It has a tiny pore called micropyle. Water and oxygen enter through this pore during
germination.

Cotyledons
A seed may contain one or two storage tissues called cotyledons. It stores the food material
which the baby plant utilises for its growth.

Embryo
Embryo is protected by the seed coat and cotyledons. It has two parts - radicle and plumule.
During germination the radicle develops into the root system whereas the plumule develops
into the shoot system.

Epicotyl
Epicotyl is a part on the embryo just above the cotyledons (the seed leaves) that ends with
the plumule (the growth that becomes the first true leaves).

Hypocotyl
Hypocotyl is the part of an embryo beneath the cotyledons (the seed leaves) directly above the
root. The hypocotyl is the portion below the point of attachment. The hypocotyl is connected
to the radicle.

Seed Dispersal
Seeds formed at the end of the reproductive process need to be dispersed over a large area.
What would happen if all seeds of a plant were to fall directly below the parent plant? They
would compete with the parent plant for essential nutrients, available space, sunlight, water
and air which may lead to poor growth of plants and some may even die. Hence, it is very
important that seeds get scattered away from the parent plant. There are various means or
agents by which seeds are dispersed in nature. Some of them are as follows:

Dispersal by wind
The method is best suited for the light weight seeds. Air currents carry them away from the
parent plant. Some of the seeds like dandelion and milkweed show hair like projections that
help in carrying the seeds away from the parent plant and are carried to faraway places. Seeds
of sycamore and Indian elm have wings that help them to be dispersed by wind.

a. Dandelion b. Milk weed c. Sycamore d. Indian elm

Fig. 11.21 Seeds dispersed by wind

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 Dispersal by water
Seeds of aquatic plants such as lotus and water lily are
carried away by water currents. Similarly some of the
terrestrial plants like coconut which grow along sea
shores disperse the seeds to long distances by water
currents. The fruit dispersed by water have buoyant,
Fig. 11.22 Coconut- Dispersal by water
waterproof coverings that allow them to float.

Dispersal by animals
Animals may disperse the seeds when they throw them away as waste after consuming the
flesh of the fruit. Some other animals which eat the flesh with the seed pass it through their
faeces. Jamun, sandalwood and seeds of many timber plants are dispersed by birds and
other animals. Seeds of plants such as Burdock have hook-like structures on them, which get
attached to the fur of animals. The animals later shake off these seeds far from the parent
plant, and thus help in seed dispersal.

a. b. c. d.
Fig. 11.23 Seeds dispersed by animals / birds

Dispersal by explosion
Some plants have pods which explode when ripe and shoot out
the seeds. These include plants such as cotton, peas, beans etc.

Germination of Seeds
A seed contains all the material required to give rise to a new plant.
The process of growing of a young plant from a seed is called Fig 11.24 Dispersal by
explosion of fruit
germination. However, the seed requires the right environmental
conditions such as moisture, warmth and water to do so. Once the seed germinates, it needs
soil containing sufficient nutrients and right amount of sunlight to grow into a new plant.

Sexual Reproduction in Seedless Plants

Seedless plants such as ferns, mosses, liverworts and horsetail produce spores instead of seeds.
Adult plants called the sporophytes produce spores in a structure called the sporangium. The
spores are light in weight and are carried away by wind from the parent plant. The spores

184
germinate to form a structure called the gametophyte. The gametophyte produces structures
called archegonia (plural) and antheridia (plural) which produce the gametes. The structure
that produces eggs is called an archegonium (singular).The structure that produces male
gametes (sperm) is called an antheridium (singular). The gametes unite to form a zygote
which again forms a new sporophyte (new plant).

Spore
Young
gametophyte

egg
Sporangium

Antheridium

New sporopyte Sperm

Zygote Archegonium

Fertilisation

Mature sporophyte
Fig 11.25 Lifecycle of a Fern

Check Your Progress

1. Whichare
What areunisexual
the reproductive
flowers?whorls
Give two
of aexamples.
flower?
2. What
Nameistwo
thevegetatively
fertilised egg called? plants. State what part of the plant is involved
propagated
3. in vegetative
How are seedspropagation.
of milk weed dispersed?

Word Galaxy

Asexual reproduction: type of reproduction where an individual is

produced by a single parent
Hyphae: fine thread like structures which form the fungal body
Sori: spore bearing structures found in leaves of some plants like fern
Artificial propagation: the process of growing plants through artificial methods
Stock: rooted plant onto which the scion is grafted
Sepals: the outermost whorl of the flower that is green in colour
Stamen: male reproductive part of a flower

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 Pistil: female reproductive part of a flower
Stigma: knob-like structure at the top of the pistil that receives the pollen
Unisexual flowers: flowers that have either male or female reproductive parts
Bisexual flowers: flowers that have both male and female reproductive parts
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigma of a flower of the same species
Pollinating agents: agents such as water, wind, animals and insects which help in
transferring pollens
Gametes: the male and the female sex cells
Zygote: a structure formed by the fusion of male and female gametes
Archegonium: the female reproductive organ in ferns, mosses, liverworts
Antheridium: the male reproductive organ in ferns, mosses, liverworts

At a Glance

• Reproduction ensures that all living beings leave behind individuals of their own kind so
the continuity of species is maintained.
• Reproduction is of two types – sexual and asexual.
• Reproduction where a single parent is involved without the formation of gametes is called
asexual reproduction.
• In plants, asexual reproduction takes place with the help of vegetative parts like roots,
stem and leaves.
• Many methods of artificial propagation, such as cutting, grafting and layering are used to
obtain new varieties of plants.
• Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female gametes.
• Flower is the main reproductive part of the plant.
• A flower may be bisexual bearing both male and female reproductive parts or unisexual
with either of the reproductive parts.
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower
or different flower of the same kind.
• If pollination occurs in the same flower, it is called self pollination.
• If pollination occurs between two flowers of the same plant or two different plants but of
the same kind, it is called cross pollination.

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• Wind, water, insects and animals are agents of pollination.
• The process of fusion of male and female gametes to produce a zygote is called fertilisation.
• The zygote divides to form an embryo.
• All flowering plants have seeds enclosed inside a fruit.
• The ovary forms the fruit while the ovule forms the seed.
• Seed dispersal is necessary as it prevents overcrowding of the plants and competing for
water, sunlight, air and nutrients.
• Seed dispersal takes place by air, water, animal or explosion of fruit.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. Which of the following is not an example of asexual reproduction?
i. Budding ii. Fertilisation
iii. Spore formation iv. Fragmentation

b. A lily flower is not unisexual because it has:

i. both stamens and pistil ii. either a stamen or a pistil
iii. petals and pistil iv. petals and sepals
c. Plants like rose can be propagated through:
i. fragmentation ii. layering
iii. cuttings iv. grafting
d. Which of the following is a spore producing plant?
i. Spirogyra ii. Bread mould
iii. Ginger iv. Mustard
e. Bisexual flowers are present in all of the following except:
i. papaya ii. gulmohar
iii. rose iv. hibiscus

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. Coconut fruit is dispersed by . (water/animals)
b. Reproduction in yeast takes place by . (budding/fragmentation)
c. Plants like disperse their seeds through explosion. (sandalwood/
cotton)
d. Ferns and mosses reproduce by formation. (seed/spore)

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 3. Match the following.
Column A Column B
a. Fragmentation i. Method used in horticulture
b. Leaf propagation ii. Develops from ovules
c. Stem modification iii. Artificial propagation
d. Seed iv. Root tuber
e. Sweet Potato v. Potato tuber
f. Grafting vi. Mode of reproduction in Spirogyra
g. Tissue culture vii. Bryophyllum

4. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. An ovary turns into a seed after fertilisation. 
b. Two parents are needed for sexual reproduction.
c. Carrying of seeds to far off places is called pollination.
d. Cotyledons store food for the baby plant. 
e. Ginger reproduces through nodes. 
f. A zygote divides to form an embryo. 
5. Give one word for the following:
a. The reproductive part of the plant.
b. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
c. The process of production of individuals of the same kind.
d. Cell formed by the fusion of male and female gametes.
e. The part of the flowers which forms fruit.
f. Flowers having either pistil or stamen.

6. Answer the following questions in short:

a. Why is it important for all living organisms to reproduce?
b. What are the advantages of vegetative propagation?
c. What is pollination?
d. What is a seed? Name the parts of a seed which grow into root and shoot system?
7. Give reasons.
a. Sori are surrounded by a thick coat.
b. Dispersal of seeds is necessary.

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8. Answer the following questions in detail :
a. Describe post fertilisation changes in a flower.
b. Describe the structure of a seed with a labelled diagram.
c. What are pollen grains and how is a pollen tube formed?
d. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction.

9. Diagram based questions.

a. Identify the diagram and label it correctly

b. Study each flower. Write ‘B’ if it is bisexual and ‘U’ if it is unisexual.

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 10. Value based questions.
a. When you visited a garden a month back, you saw a number of moths, butterflies,
dragonflies, etc. hovering round the flowers/plants and many ants, other insects and
some worms in the soil. Now, after a month or so, when you happen to visit the same
garden, to your dismay, you don’t see any butterflies or dragonflies or the ants in the
soil. The gardener said he had used some ‘medicines’ to avoid the insects causing
damage to the plants.
i. Was it a wise decision?
ii. How would the yield from the garden be affected? Explain with reasons.
iii. Can this act of the gardener cause any health problems to the consumers? Explain
the value of organisms.

b. Radhika and Sita compared the fruits (mango) of their mango trees in the backyards
of their homes and found that there was difference in the structure and the taste of
fruits. Mango form Radhika’s trees was not sweet and it was small. The other mango
from Sita’s tree was bigger and tastier. Sita took some branches of her mango tree to
Radhika’s place to grow a new mango tree.
i. Which method has Sita suggested for getting good quality fruits?
ii. Explain the method that helped Radhika. Mention its advantages.
iii. Explain scientifically why this method is advantageous.
iv. Mention the values expressed by Sita in the given situation.

11. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

One day, Ramesh was standing in the kitchen with his mother who was
cutting onions for making vegetables. He observed that in some of the
onion bulbs, green leaves appeared at the upper end and roots on the
lower end. In the evening, he shared his observations and discussed with his father, a
Botany teacher. His father explained that in case of onion, new plants develop through
asexual reproduction.
Read the above passage and answer the following questions:
a. Name the type of propagation.
b. Can this method also be used to raise onion plants at home?

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 My Project Idea

Regrow cabbage by vegetative reproduction:

Materials: Two paper towels, two plastic bags, scissors, cabbage, cutting board,
kitchen knife, permanent marker, spray bottle, water, camera
Procedure:
1. Take the two bags, and label them “leaf” and “stem”.
2. Fold each paper towel three times and slip it into a bag. Use your spray bottle
to spray the towel until it is damp.
3. Remove the leaves from the cabbage and set one aside. Have an adult cut the
stem crossways, close to the bottom where the roots were.
4. You now have a leaf and a piece of cabbage stem. If you give these cabbage
pieces some water, will they grow? What will happen?
5. Take a photo of each piece before you start the experiment.
6. Slip the leaf into the middle of the paper towel in the “leaf” bag, and slip the stem
into the middle of the paper towel in the “stem” bag. Make sure the bags have a
bit of air in them, and close them.
7. Leave the bags in a place with light at room temperature.
8. Open the bags the next day and look at the colour and texture of the pieces of
plant. Are any roots growing? Take a photograph of the plants, and put them back
into the bags. Make sure that the paper towel is still a little bit damp.
9. Peek into the bags every day for a week, and make sure that you take a photograph
each time. What happens to the pieces over the course of the week? What do they
look like at the end?
Results
The piece of cabbage stem will start to grow small roots. The piece of leaf will begin to rot.

Let’s Create

Make your own Landscape garden

Materials required: A3 size white chart paper, coloured crepe paper rolls, glue
Prior preparation for the students: Refer the following site for Landscape gardening (you
can refer any other similar site to get ideas)
https://www.google.com/search?q=landscape+gardening&source=lnms&tbm=isch&s
a=X&ved=0ahUKEwjfhsXKn4biAhWKtY8KHavSC7oQ_AUIDigB&biw=1366&bih=657
• Recreate your own landscape garden on the A-3 size white chart paper by using
coloured crepe paper balls, (made from coloured crape paper rolls).
• Paste attractive borders to make it look like a picture frame.
• Once they are done display it on the classroom softboard.

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 12. Field trip:
Visit a nearby nursery. Talk to the gardener. Ask him the methods used in propagating
various plants in the garden. Observe the processes involved in some of the plants.

Meet the Scientist

Philip R. White The ground breaking research carried out

by Philip R. White in the 1930s and 1940s played a critical
early role in the development of modern plant tissue
culture techniques. He was the first person to establish
indefinite growth of isolated roots and of tumour tissues of
plants artificially (tissue culture). White was one of the best
known and most influential figures of his generation in
plant cell culture research. His tireless and lifelong efforts
to promote the use of plant cell culture systems inspired
a generation of scientists and stimulated much scientific activity. He was admired as
much for his science as for his humanity. He felt very strongly that science had to
be international and without borders in order to be of service to humankind. This
led to the founding of the International Association for Plant Biotechnology in 1963,
currently the largest forum for the international plant biotechnology community.

WEBLINKS

https://www.google.com/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layering
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/14383/fragmentation-hard-disks
https://biologywise.com/what-is-vegetative-reproduction

 As on 30.04.2019

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12 Motion and Time

Let’s Learn

• Time • Measurement of time using

• Standard units of measurement simple pendulum

• Measurement of time • Motion

Tune In
How many times have you heard the following statements:
Time is precious. Don’t waste it.
Do you wake up on time to go to school?
How much time do you spend on the internet?
These are frequent statements or questions which though important. You will realise that
all these statements clearly depend on one concept.
Can you name this essential concept?

Introduction
It is clearly evident that all these statements are related to time. The word ‘time’ is so often
used in our daily lives. Don’t you think we should know how this concept of time came into
existence?
Time
Like length, mass, electric current and temperature, time is also one of the most important
fundamental physical quantities. Time is so essential and fundamental to us that it affects all
aspects of human life.
But how do you define time?
Time is the period between two events. Time also defines numerous other quantities of science,
such as speed. Furthermore, all possible motions in the universe can only occur through time.
Motion and time are thus inseparable.

Did You Know

The science that includes the study and measurement of time is called horology. A person
who professionally deals with timekeeping apparatus like a watchmaker, a clockmaker, etc.
and a scientific researcher who studies the science of horology, are known as horologists.

193
 We know that time is a physical quantity and it can be measured. Each physical quantity has
one or more units of measurement.
For example, when we buy apples from a market, the apple vendor would ask you, “How
many kilograms of apples do you want?” Here kilogram is a unit of mass and it measures
the amount of apples. Similarly, time has units of measurement like, seconds, minutes, etc. In
short, a unit of measurement of a quantity tells us one thing about the quantity such as
magnitude, scale, size, extent, degree, enormity, level and amount.

Standard Units of Measurement

Over the course of time and depending upon the geography of the various locations,
human society has developed many units of measurement for various quantities. During
this development, many individual quantities are measured in different units. For example,
depending upon the place, distance can be measured in hand span, cubit, yard, etc. These
types of primitive units may be convenient in everyday life, but they are not dependable as they
differ from one person to the other. Thus, there was a need for certain units of measurement
called the standard units of measurement which could be uniformly used by everyone.
In 1960, the General Conference of Weights and Measures recommended that a common
system of measurement should be used all over the world. This system was called the SI
system. SI is the abbreviation of ‘Systeme International d’Unites’ in French. The standard
basic units under this system are as given in the table.

Quantity Unit Abbreviation Did You Know

Length metre m The SI Unit is made up of 7
Mass kilogram kg base units that define the
Time second s 22 derived units with special
names and symbols.
Temperature kelvin K

The SI system is used uniformly all over the world for all scientific work. However, in everyday
measurements, other systems are still in use; for example, FPS system (foot, pound, second);
the CGS system (centimetre, gram, second) and the MKS system (metre, kilogram, second)
which use the same standard units for length, mass and time as the SI system. For example,
in spite of kelvin being the SI unit of temperature, there are some other commonly used units
such as degree celsius (°C) or degree farenheit (°F).

Multiples and Sub-Multiples of SI Units

There are various instances where shorter and larger variant of these SI units are required to
measure different quantities at different scales.

194
For example, when someone wants to note down the mass of the Sun in kilograms, it would
look like: 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg
The mass of the Sun (2×1030 kg) is 2 followed by thirty zeroes. This is very long and equally
inconvenient for use in calculations. In order to reduce such difficulty, multiples and sub-
multiples of SI units are used. A few of them are presented in the following tables.
Multiples of standard SI units:

Multiple Prefix Symbols

109 or 1,000, 000, 000 giga G
106 or 1,000, 000 mega M
103 or 1,000 kilo k
102 or 100 hector h
101 or 10 deca Da

Sub-Multiples of Standard SI Units

Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol

1
10-1 or deci d
10
1
10-2 or centi c
100
1
10-3 or milli m
1, 000
1
10-6 or micro µ
1, 000, 000
1
10-9 or nano N
1, 000, 000, 000

Measurement of time
From the time when humans first observed the repetitive movement of the Sun in the sky,
we started to think about the passage of time. Humans started keeping a record of time by
tracking a variety of natural phenomena such as the movement of the Sun, phases of the
Moon and seasonal rain, the flooding of rivers, migration of animals and birds, the flowering
of plants, etc. The progression of various civilisations are accompanied with the advancement
in the ways of measurement of time through the ages.
For example, the unit of time interval between one sunrise and the next is called a day. The
time period from one sunset to sunrise is called night. Similarly, the time interval between one

195
 new moon and the next is called a month.
60 seconds (s) = 1 minute (min)
A year is measured as the time taken by the
60 minutes (min) = 1 hour (h)
Earth to complete one revolution around the
24 hours (h) = 1 day
Sun. Such commonly used, units of time are
7 days = 1 week
listed below in the table.
Between 28 to 31 days = 1 month
Now-a-days, we measure time with the 12 months = 365 or 366 days = 1 year
help of the clocks or watches and by 10 years = 1 decade
using calendars. Humans have been using 10 decades or 100 years = 1 century
numerous devices for the measurement of 10 centuries or 1000 years = 1 millennium
time since ancient times. Let us study some
of these devices which are presented below.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the symbol of the SI unit - kilogram?

2. 2 minutes is equal to _______________ seconds.
3. 2.5 hours = 150 minutes = 9000 seconds. (true/false)

Sundial or Shadow clock

A sundial or a shadow-clock was used a long time ago to
measure the intervals of time shorter than a day. The device
worked on the principle that as the position of the Sun in the
sky changed, so did the position and length of the shadow
cast by an object.

Let us perform the following activity to observe how the length Fig.12.1: Sundial
of the shadow changes with the change in the position of the
Sun.

The decrease and increase in the length of the shadow during the daytime were used to
measure time in sundials. The sundial has a triangular metallic plate called a gnomon fixed
vertically at the centre of a circular plate. The device is placed in the open in such a way that
the gnomon points in the north-south direction. The shadow of the gnomon on the circular
scale shows the time at that particular moment. Sundials indicate the time quite accurately
but the problem is that they cannot be used after sunset or on a cloudy day. Also they cannot
be carried along to different places. Such sundials can be seen in New Delhi, Jaipur and Ujjain.

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 Activity 1

Aim: To study the movement of the shadow of a stick under the Sun throughout the
day.

Materials: 1 metre long stick and a measuring tape.

Procedure:
• On a sunny day, take a stick and fix it on the
ground in an open space.
• Make sure that the sunlight is not obstructed
by any tree or a building.
• Observe the shadow of the stick at various
intervals of time. 7 am 5 pm
10 am noon 2 pm
• Measure the length of the shadow with the Fig.12.2: Movement of the shadow of a
stick under the sun
help of a measuring tape.
Observation:
• You will observe that the length of the shadow of the stick is the smallest at noon
when the Sun is just above it.
• It is the longest in the morning and evening when the Sun is low in the sky.
• The shadow of the stick falls in the direction opposite to that of the source of light;
that is, the Sun.
Conclusion:
The shadow moves according to the change in the position of the Sun relative to the
stick.

Hourglass
An hourglass (or sand-glass, sand timer, or a clock) is a device used to
measure the duration of time. The Romans used sand clocks which worked
on the principle that a definite quantity of sand takes a constant time
to fall from the upper chamber to the lower chamber. It cannot be used
to find the exact time, but can be used to measure the predetermined
time interval. That constant time was the unit of measurement of time
Fig.12.3: Hourglass
commonly called an hour. Once the upper chamber is completely emptied,
the hourglass is turned upside down to record the time again.

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 Water clock
A water clock is also known as Clepsydra. To
stopper to
measure the time, it uses the fact that equal control rate of
flow
amounts of water take the same interval of 24-hour
clock face
time to flow through an opening. Water clocks water supply

existed as early as 1600 BC, but these water overflow tube gear
clocks were not very accurate. Water clocks are transfer
rod
of two types: inflow and outflow.

In an outflow water clock, a container is filled

float
with water. The water is then drained slowly
and evenly out of the container. This container
has lines or markings that are used to show
Fig 12.4: Water Clock
the passage of time. As the water leaves the
container, an observer can see the level of water with respect to the markings and tell how
much time has elapsed. An inflow water clock works basically the same way, except instead of
flowing out of the container, the water is filled up. As the container gets filled, the observer
can see where the water meets the lines and tell how much time has
elapsed.

Candle clocks
Candle clocks have been used since antiquity. For the measurement
of time, a candle clock uses a slow burning thin standard candle with
many markings. Each marking indicates the passing of a unit of time as
the candle burns throughout the day and night. A candle clock was an
effective way to measure time indoors despite the rain, night, or any Fig 12.5: Candle clock

other environmental conditions.

Did You Know

CSIR-National Physical Laboratory or National Measurement Institute of India is responsible

for maintaining the Indian Standard Time (IST) for commercial and official uses. A bank
of Cesium (Cs) atomic clocks and a Hydrogen maser are used for the purpose of time
keeping. These clocks are so accurate that they would lose or gain one second in about
three lakh years. All government owned and large number of private radio services and
television networks in India broadcast the exact time.

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 Check Your Progress

1. The length of the shadow does not change with change in the position of the Sun.
(True/False)

2. Name two devices that were used to measure time in the olden days.

Measurement of time using a simple pendulum

Italian astronomer, Galileo Galilei was the first one to prove that the motion of a pendulum
is periodic and that it takes the same time to complete one oscillation. This fact of simple
pendulum was used in the development of pendulum clocks. A pendulum clock was first
invented in 1656 by the Dutch Scientist and inventor, Christian Huygens.
A simple pendulum is a simple device which consists of a point mass suspended from a bar
using a string of negligible mass.

Point of suspension

Length of the pendulum

C
A

Bob
B
Fig 12.6: Simple pendulum

The above figure shows a freely suspended bob. When the bob of the pendulum is at B, it is
said to be in its mean position.
When the bob of the pendulum is displaced slightly and released, it begins to move back
and forth. The back and forth motion of a simple pendulum is called oscillation. When the
bob moves from one position and
returns to the same position, it is said to Did You Know
complete one oscillation. For example, Stop clocks and stopwatches are used in
when the bob moves from position B to laboratories and sports to measure short intervals
C then from C to A and then back to B of time accurately. They can be started and
is counted as one oscillation. Similarly, stopped at will. They are actually the improved
when the bob moves from position A form of wrist watches and measure time up to
to C and then comes back to A is also 1/10th of a second.

199
 counted as one oscillation. Thus, the time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation
is called the time period of that pendulum.
Let’s do an activity to understand oscillation and time period of a simple pendulum in detail.

Activity 2

Aim: To determine the time period of a simple pendulum.

Materials: a long cotton string, a metal bob, stop watch, a clamp with stand.
Procedure:
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
• Keep the length of the string fixed for the entire experiment.
• Release the bob from position A and allow it to oscillate.
• Record the time period of an oscillation of the pendulum with the help of a stop
watch.
• Repeat the experiment few times and record the time period.
• Refer to Fig 12.6 given on the previous page.
Observation:
You will observe that the values of all the recorded time periods of different oscillations
of the simple pendulum are equal.
Conclusion:
The pendulum always takes the same time to complete one oscillation.

The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation depends upon the length of the
string. With an increase or decrease in the length of the string, the time period also increases
or decreases, respectively.

Motion
Every object takes a certain time to change its position. Thus, motion and time are related to
each other.
Let us explore the relationship between motion and time. Suppose a train is moving from one
station to another and covers a distance of 10 km during the journey. Here, the train also takes
some time to cover this journey, because motion and time are inseparable entities. Similarly,
take all possible examples of motions which you can think of, and analyse it, you will find that
all movements require a certain amount of time and they occur together.
A body or an object is thus said to be in motion when its position changes with respect
to time and its surroundings. However, if we look around our classroom, we can see things

200
such as desks, blackboard, table, books, pens and pencils that do not appear to move. These
things are said to be at rest. Thus, an object is said to be at rest, when it does not change
its position with time or with respect to its surroundings.
Slow and Fast
If we compare the motion of different objects, we will find that all of them do not move or
travel with the same speed. We know that a moving body requires a certain amount of time
to change its position between any two given points. Suppose your friend takes about 10
minutes to walk and reach school and you take more than 15 minutes to cover the same
distance, then we can classify the motions as fast and slow. Here, the motion of your friend
is fast, whereas you are slow. Thus, the motion of an object with respect to another object
depends upon factors as follows.
1. The distance covered by the object
2. The time taken to cover the distance
As a consequence, we can conclude the following:
1. A body which covers a given distance in less time is said to move faster and the one
which takes a longer time to cover the same distance, is said to move slower.
2. A body which covers more distance in a given interval of time is said to move faster than
the one which covers less distance in the same interval of time.
Concept of Speed
While moving in a car, you must have heard your mother telling your father not to exceed the
speed limit. Does your father drive at the same speed throughout? No, the speed of the car
is not uniform as it depends on traffic, the road type and various other factors. You may have
heard that the speed of an aeroplane is more than that of a train, the speed of a train is more
than that of a car and speed of a car is more than that of a bicycle. What exactly is speed?
Speed is a very basic concept in motion which tells how fast or slow an object is moving. Thus
speed can be defined as follows.
The distance covered by a moving body in unit time is its speed. In other words, the
speed of the moving body is the total distance it travels divided by the total time it
takes to travel that distance.
The speed of an object can be expressed as follows.
Total distancecovered (d) d
Speed (s) = or s =
Total time taken (t) t

Unit of speed
The SI unit of speed can be derived from the above expression as follows.

201
 Total distancecovered (d)
Speed =
Total time taken (t)

Substituting the right hand of the above expression with the SI units, we get
metre
Speed =
second
= m/s or ms-1

Therefore, the unit of speed is m/s or ms-1 (metre per second).

Let us do an activity to measure the speed of an object practically.

Activity 3

Roll a ball from one end of a room. Switch on the stopwatch the moment the ball starts
rolling. Stop the watch when the ball reaches the other end of the room. Note the time
taken by the ball to cover the entire length of the room. Now find the speed of the ball
using the formula of speed. That is,
Total distance covered (d)
Speed =
Total time taken (t)

Measurement of Speed
Vehicles such as cars, buses, scooters and bikes have speed indicating devices called
speedometers. These devices show the speed of vehicles in km/h. Inside the speedometer
there is an instrument called odometer which records the distance covered by the vehicle in
kilometres. These devices are used to measure speed and distance.
Let us see how to calculate speed and other related quantities.
A car takes 50 minutes to reach a school. The odometer of the car shows that the car has
covered a distance of 10 km. What is the speed of the car?
Given: Time (t) = 50 minutes= 50/60 hours = 0.83 hours
Distance (s) = 10 km
To find out: Speed (s) =?
Solution: Substituting the given values in the formula of speed, we get,
d 10
s= = = 12.05 km/h
t 0.83

Therefore, the speed of car is 12.05 km/h.

Can we calculate the distance if time and speed are given? Let us do it through the following
sum.

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A boy rides a bicycle to go to his friend’s house at a speed of 6 km/h and this journey
took him 3 hours. How far did he travel?

Given: Speed (s) = 6 km/h

Time (t) = 3 hours

To find out: Distance (d) = ?

Solution: As we know,
Total distance covered (d) d
Speed (s) = or s =
Total time taken (t) t

Rearranging the above equation, we get,

d=s×t

Substituting the given values in the above equation, we get

d = 6 × 3 = 18 km

Therefore, he travelled 18 km.

Let us calculate the time required to cover a distance, if distance and speed are given.

A school bus travels at 40 km/h to cover a distance of 16 km. How much time will the
bus take to cover this distance?

Given: Distance (d) = 16 km

Speed (s) = 40 km/h

To find out: Time (t) =?

Solution: If we rearrange the expression of speed from time, we get

d
t=
s

Substituting the given values in the above equation, we get

16
t= = 0.4 hours
40

if we convert hours into minutes, we get

t = 0.4 × 60 = 24 minutes
Hence, the bus will take 24 minutes to cover the distance of 16 km.

203
 Check Your Progress

1. Define speed.

2. When the bob of a pendulum moves from one position and returns to the same
position, it is said to complete one oscillation. (true/false)

3. When an object travels at the speed of 2 m/s and covers a distance of 10 metres,
then it takes _______________ seconds.

Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion

In our everyday life we encounter several objects either in motion or rest like mountains, trees,
rivers, humans, trains, cars, buildings, etc. All objects that are in motion have a very special
characteristic that is they change their position with respect to time. The motion of the objects
can be further categorised into uniform motion and non uniform motion.
A body moving in a straight line covering equal distances in equal intervals of time is
said to be moving in uniform motion. For example, if a truck covers a distance of 50 km
every hour, its uniform speed is 50 km/h.

Fig 12.8: Uniform motion

Thus, after 2 hours, the truck will cover a distance of 100 kilometres. Similarly, the lifts and
escalators in tall buildings and malls have uniform motion.
A body covering equal distances in unequal intervals of time or vice-versa is said to be
moving in non-uniform motion. A motion along a straight line can be non-uniform. For
example, if a truck covers 50 kilometres in its first hour, then it takes 2 hours to cover the
next 50 km, and then takes 3 hours to cover another 50 km, then it is said to be moving at
non-uniform speeds.

Fig 12.9: Non-uniform motion

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The speed of all vehicles keeps changing during their journey. In this case, when a body is
moving with non-uniform speed, then we find the total distance covered and total time taken
to cover that distance, to find the average speed.
Let us solve the following numerical problem and find the average speed.
A train starts from its terminal at 5 am. It travels with a speed of 40 kilometres for the
first hour, and then travels with a speed of 50 kilometres for the next hour. Find its
average speed.
Given: Total distance covered = 40 + 50 = 90 km
Total time taken = 1 + 1 = 2 hours
To find out: Average speed =?
Total distance covered 90
Solution: since, Average speed = = = 45 km/h
Total time taken 2
Hence, the average speed of the train is 45 km/h.

Distance-Time Graph
A distance-time graph is a way of representing the motion of an object in the form of a graph.
The Y- axis of the graph is used to plot the distance, whereas X-axis is used to plot the time.
This illustrates how far an object moved and how long it took to reach that far. This is a quick
method to analyse the motion of an object. The distance-time graph of an object in uniform
motion is always a straight line, whereas, the distance-time graph of an object in non-uniform
motion is a curved graph.
Let us consider the following example.
Tom and Richard are travelling in two different cars with different speeds. They start
from the same spot and their destination is also the same. The distances covered by
them during different time intervals are given in the following table.

Time in the Richard Tom

clock Distance covered by the car in km Distance covered by the car in km
5.00 pm 00 00
5.30 pm 20 18
6.00 pm 40 15
6.30 pm 60 54
7.00 pm 80 41
7.30 pm 100 98
8.00 pm 120 120

Let us plot two graphs of distance versus time based on the data given in the table.

205
 Scale:
X-axis: 1cm = 10 min
Y-axis: 1cm = 20 km

Distance

Time
Fig. 12.10: Distance -time graph for uniform motion

Scale:
X-axis: 1cm = 10 min
Y-axis: 1cm = 20 km
Distance

Time
Fig. 12.11: Distance -time graph for non-uniform motion

The distance and time of Tom’s car is plotted in the above distance-time graph. This graph
shows the variation in the distance covered by the car. Also, the car does not cover equal
intervals of distance in equal intervals of time. The graph is thus not a straight line and is an
example of a non-uniform motion.

Word Galaxy

Measurement: it is the numerical comparison of an unknown quantity with

a fixed known quantity of the same type
Unit: it is a standard segment in which a quantity is measured
Bob: a metallic ball that is hung to one end of a pendulum
Suspended: hung from above

206
 At a Glance

• A unit of measurement of a quantity tells us one thing about the quantity such as
magnitude, scale, size, extent, degree, enormity, level and amount.
• The SI unit is the standard unit of measurement adopted by the world.
• Metre, kilogram, second, kelvin, etc. are some examples of standard SI units.
• Sundial, hourglass, water clock and candle clock are examples of ancient time measuring
devices.
• When the bob of a pendulum moves from one position and returns to the same position,
it is said to complete one oscillation.
• The time period of a simple pendulum does not change if the length of the string is fixed.
• Motion is a change in the position of an object with respect to time and its surroundings.
• The distance covered by a moving body in a unit time is its speed.
• The SI unit of speed is metre per second (m/s).
• The concept of speed is used to distinguish between fast and slow objects.
• A body moving in a straight line covering equal distances in equal intervals of time is said
to be moving in uniform motion.
• A body covering equal distances in unequal intervals of time or vice-versa is said to be
moving in non-uniform motion.
• A time-distance graph shows the distance travelled and time taken by an object.
• The distance-time graph of a uniform motion or constant speed is a straight line.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. An object is travelling in a straight line. The motion of this object is:
i. non uniform motion. ii. uniform motion
iii. either uniform or non-uniform motion iv. none of these

b. The speed of light is about 3,00,000 km/s and it takes about 8 minutes to travel from
the Sun to the Earth. The distance between the Earth and the Sun is about:
i. 24 million km ii. 18 million km
iii. 145 million km iv. 170 million km
c. Identify the unit of measurement which is not primitive.
i. Yard ii. Metre
iii. Hand span iv. Cubit

207
 d. The correct relation between speed and time is

ii. Distance
i. Speed × Distance = Time Time =
Speed
iii. Speed = Distance × Time Time
iv. Distance =
Speed

e. Which of the following cannot be used to measure time during night?

i. clepsydra ii. hourglass
iii. candle watch iv. sundial
f. Which of the following distance-time graph shows uniform motion?
i. ii.
Distance

Distance
Time Time

iii.
iv. None of the above.
Distance

Time

2. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Odometer i. Hourglass
b. Average speed ii. Oscillation
c. Clock iii. A distance measuring device
d. Pendulum iv. km/s

3. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. The SI unit of is metre. (speed/distance)

b. A simple pendulum shows motion. (oscillatory/circulatory)

c. The sundial has a triangular metallic plate called fixed vertically at

the centre of a circular plate. (circular plate/gnomon)

208
4. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. A moving body requires a certain amount of time to change its position. 
b. The SI unit of time is hours. 
c. A simple pendulum always takes the same time to complete one oscillation when the
length of the string is fixed. 

d. The distance covered by an object is always plotted on the Y-axis of a distance-time

graph. 

e. All objects have uniform motion. 

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. When do we state that an object is at rest?
b. Give atleast two examples of early clocks which are equally effective indoors as well
as outdoors.
c. What is the working principle of clepsydra?
d. On what factor does the time period of a simple pendulum depend upon?
e. Where are odometers situated in vehicles?
6. Answer the following questions in short.
a. What is the difference between speedometer and odometer?
b. What are the two facts on which the motion of an object depends?
c. Define the following quantities:
i. motion
ii. speed

d. Distinguish between uniform motion and non-uniform motion.

7. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. Compare the terms fast motion and slow motion.
b. Describe the working of a candle clock.
c. Describe a distance-time graph.

8. Solve the following numerical sums.

a. A train travels at 120 km/hour. In what time will it cover a distance of 1200 km?
b. Shree travels a distance of 12 km from her house to school by a bus at 20 km/hr and
returns home at 16 km/hr.

209
 i. Calculate the time required to reach school from home.
ii. Find out the time required to reach home from school.
iii. Determine the average distance of the entire journey.

9. Diagram based questions.

a. Observe the diagram and answer the following questions.

C A

i. Describe oscillation with the help of the above diagram.

ii. Explain at least two ways when the bob shown in the diagram can complete one
oscillation.
iii. Firstly, the bob of a given pendulum is stroked gently and after that it is stroked
with fierce force, will the time periods of the pendulum be the same in both the
conditions? Explain.
10. Practical based questions.
a. Answer the following questions based on the activity of the shadow of a stick under
the Sun throughout a day.
i. During which part of the day will the shadow of the stick be the longest?
ii. State the factors on which the length and the position of a shadow depends.

11. Value based question.

A large number of accidents in which people are killed, get handicapped permanently or
injured occur on the roads due to over speeding. To curb these accidents and in order to
save precious human lives, government has placed certain speed limit on the roads. Speed
limit is a rule that bars vehicles from exceeding the speed beyond a certain reasonable limit.

a. When the speed limit of a road is 55 km/h, a bus moves continuously for 40 minutes

210
 with a speed of 40 km/h and after that moves with a speed 50 km/h for 20 minutes.
Calculate the total distance covered by the bus.
b. How long will a car take to travel a distance of 120 kilometres on a road, where the
speed limit of the road is 65 km/h for first 100 kilometres and then the speed limit is
only 30 km for rest of the distance? The top speed of the car is merely 60 km/h.

12. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

a. Plot a distance-time graph on a graph paper using the data given in the
following table. Also identify the type of the motion.
Time in minutes 0 20 40 60 80
Distance travelled in km 0 7 14 21 28

b. Draw a distance-time graph for the following cases:

i. An object is at rest.
ii. An object is moving upwards with a constant speed.
13. Life skills
a. Make a presentation on the various primitive clocks except those mentioned in the
chapter and discuss their chronology and locations where they were used.
b. Make a list of various objects which perform uniform motion in day-to-day life and
discuss why they perform uniform motion?
My Project Idea

Design a working model of a clepsydra or a water clock. The internet

can be used for the research. A brief procedure is also given below.
• Take a 2 litre plastic water bottle and cut it into two halves.
• Make an opening (about 3 mm in diameter) in the middle of
the lid of the bottle.
• Turn the upper part of the bottle along with the lid upside down
and place it inside the lower part of the bottle.
• Fill the water (or coloured water) in the upper part of the bottle
which is already in the inverted position.
• Now, measure how many drops of water fall in a definite period
of time.
• Accordingly mark equal intervals of time on the lower part of
the bottle.

211
 Meet the Scientist

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was a well-known Italian

physicist, engineer and astronomer. He studied motion
and various quantities associated with motion during
his life time in detail with numerous experiments. He is
also credited for the invention of various devices like
thermoscope, military compasses, telescope, etc.
Galileo worked extensively on pendulums during his
lifetime. He was the first to notice that the angle of the
swinging movement of a pendulum changes over time.
Also the amount of time required for the pendulum to swing in one direction and
then return to its original starting point remains constant.
Due to his great contribution in the various fields of physics and astronomy, he is
often regarded and called by various names like “father of scientific method”, “father
of observational astronomy”, “father of modern physics”, etc.

WEBLINKS

https://www.iau.org/publications/proceedings_rules/units/
https://www.timecenter.com/articles/when-time-began-the-history-and-science-of-sundials/
https://www.smashinglists.com/10-early-firsts-in-timekeeping-devices/

 As on 30.04.2019

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13 Wind, Storms and Cyclones

Let’s Learn

• Factors that determine the • Weather phenomena related

weather. to wind.
• Air pressure • Thunderstorms, Tornadoes
• Factors affecting air pressure and Cyclones

• Wind • Safety measures during a

Storm or a Cyclone.

Tune In

1. Can you name the phenomena given in the above pictures?

2. Have you come across any of these natural phenomena?
3. What do you think is the cause of these phenomena?

Introduction
Man has made tremendous progress in the area of discoveries and inventions. Yet we cannot
accurately predict the occurrence of natural phenomena like earthquakes, floods and cyclones.
In fact, it is believed that man himself is responsible for several of these natural disasters. We
read and hear news reports about the destruction of livelihoods and even lives due to storms,
cyclones, tsunamis, etc. So, it is essential that we learn how these phenomena occur and how
to minimize the sufferings and effects caused by them.
A very strong wind is called storm. It is generally accompanied by rain and often by thunder
and lightning. The weather of a region is closely related to the wind patterns of that region.
So let us understand how the change in weather conditions affects the natural phenomena
of a place.

213
 Factors that determine the weather
Weather is the state of atmosphere at a particular place. Let’s discuss
The changes in air around us cause a change in the weather Why do mountaineers
conditions. For example if the air is warm, it makes the weather carry oxygen cylinders
hot and if the air is cold, the weather turns cold. Whenever the at high altitudes?
speed of wind increases, the weather is windy. If there is a plenty
of water vapour in the air, the weather turns out to be humid. A drastic change in the weather
conditions such as cyclones can cause tremendous damage to the environment.

The factors that affect weather are air, temperature, humidity and air pressure. Most of the
weather conditions occur in the lower portion of the atmosphere.

Air pressure
Lower air
The envelope of air surrounding the Earth is called atmosphere. pressure
This air exerts pressure on everything on the Earth. This is
called air pressure. Every place on the Earth has a column
of air over it which exerts pressure. Atmospheric pressure is
Higher air
not the same everywhere. The air pressure decreases with an pressure Sea level
increase in the height (altitude), hence air pressure is more
near the surface of the Earth and decreases as we move away
from the surface. It is the highest at sea level. Fig 13.1: Air pressure

Activity 1

Aim: To prove that air exerts pressure.

Materials: Glass tumbler, water and cardboard
Procedure:
Glass
Fill the glass tumbler completely with water. Cover it tumbler
with a card board. Note: There should not be any air
between the water and the cardboard. Support the Water
cardboard with your hand and invert the tumbler.
Gently hold the glass tumbler and remove the hand.
Observation: The cardboard does not fall because the Cardboard
air pressure is acting on it from all the directions.
Air exerts pressure
Conclusion: Air exerts pressure.

214
Factors affecting air pressure
Temperature
Did You Know
At higher temperature, the air gets heated up
Temperature change brought
and expands, reducing the air pressure. At lower
about by global warming can cause
temperature, the air becomes denser and air pressure
an increase in frequency of storms.
increases. Air temperature also changes with seasons.

A hot air balloon is an example of the behaviour of air when it is heated. A hot air balloon is
filled with warm air. As the air in the balloon is constantly heated, the air expands. As a result,
the balloon becomes lighter than the cooler air of the atmosphere surrounding it and thus
floats in the air.

Activity 2

Aim: To prove that air expands on heating.

Balloon
Materials: Balloon, bottle, tub and hot water
Procedure:
Tie a balloon to the mouth of a bottle and place this Bottle
bottle in a tub of hot water.
Observation: The balloon gets inflated after some time.
Hot
Conclusion: The air in the bottle heats up resulting in water
the inflation of the balloon due to expansion of air.
Heated air expands

Altitude
These molecules
As we go to a higher altitude, the air
contribute to the
pressure decreases due to reduction in pressure (weight) at
this altitude
air molecules. Since the atmospheric These molecules contribute
to the pressure (weight) at
density decreases at higher altitude, this altitude
the number of oxygen molecules also
decrease. The pressure outside our
body is less compared to the pressure
Surface air pressure = weight of air in column
inside our body. This is the reason why above unit area
Fig 13.2: Atmospheric pressure due to altitude
people suffer from nose bleeds.

Water vapour
Moist air is less dense or lighter than dry air. Hence it exerts less air pressure.

215
 Check Your Progress

Some books have been stacked as shown in the figure. Two

positions A and B are marked in the picture.
A
1. The pressure exerted by the books at position A is _____________
than the pressure exerted at B.
2. Which position experiences maximum pressure? B

Wind
Moving air is called wind. It is caused due to the
horizontal difference in atmospheric pressure. The winds
spiral downwards and flow outwards on a surface during
high pressure, while in low pressure air spirals inwards
at the Earth’s surface and continues to move upwards.
The greater the difference in the pressure, the greater
Fig 13.3: Spiral movement of air
is the speed at which the wind blows. If the difference is
less, it gives rise to breeze. Air moves from areas of high
pressure towards areas of low pressure. The direction
of wind can be observed with the help of a wind vane,
commonly known as a ‘weather cock’. The speed of wind
is measured with an instrument called as Anemometer.

The heating of the land, sea nad blowing of the winds

Fig 13.4: Anemometers
leads to land breeze and sea breeze.

Check Your Progress

Who Am I?
1. You use me to measure the speed of wind.
2. I am an envelope of air surrounding the Earth.
3. I am also known as moving air.

Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, uneven heating of the regions around the equator
and poles takes place. The equatorial regions receive maximum amount of heat from the Sun
throughout the year. The air in these regions gets warm and rises creating a low pressure.
The air at the poles is much colder, because of which an area of high pressure is created.

216
 Let’s discuss
These winds blow from the North Pole and the South Pole How does lightning strike
towards the equator. Wind circulates in this way from the the Earth’s surface?
poles to the warmer latitudes.

Weather phenomena related to wind

What brings rain?
During summer, the intense heat evaporates huge
quantities of water from the oceans. The water vapour
thus formed rises, cools in the upper atmosphere,
condenses into water droplets and forms clouds. Thus,
in summer, dense clouds form over the oceans.

What causes thunderstorms?

Fig 13.5: Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are severe local storms accompanied by
lightning and thunder. Lightning is an electric current that
Did You Know
happens inside a cloud. Sometimes lightning happens
between the cloud and the ground. When the positive Doldrum is a very calm place
and the negative charges grow large enough, a giant where the winds from northern
spark called lightning occurs between the two charges hemisphere and southern
within the cloud. Thunder is caused by lightning, in which hemisphere meet.
electrons flow between or within clouds, or between a
cloud and the ground. The light from the flash reaches first, whereas the sound of thunder is
heard a fraction of second later. This happens because light travels faster than sound.
Thunderstorms form in humid regions where large masses of cold air and warm air meet. As
cold air is heavier than warm air it pushes the warm air upwards. As a result, strong upward
winds of warm air develop. The warm air cools some of the water vapour in the air which
condenses into water droplets to form clouds. The heat is produced as the vapour condenses
and makes the air in the higher regions warm. This gives rise to thunderstorms and they are
limited to a small area. There is sudden heavy rain along with lightning and strong winds.
Thunderstorms may even cause floods.

Tornadoes
They develop from severe thunderstorms. They are
violent storms which are formed mostly on land.
A tornado contains very strong winds blowing
upwards through the thunderstorm clouds. A
tornado looks like a twisting funnel of air reaching
from the sky with the narrow end on the ground.
Fig 13.6: Tornado

217
 The highest wind speeds on Earth occur in tornadoes that sometimes reach over 500 km/hr.

Cyclone
Thunderstorms have the potential to develop into
Did You Know
cyclones. Cyclones are large revolving tropical storms
caused by winds blowing around a central area of In cyclones, wind spins at speeds
low pressure zone over the ocean. In the southern around a central point called ‘eye
hemisphere these storms rotate in a clockwise of the cyclone’.
direction, hence these tropical storms are called
cyclones. Cyclones are also called as typhoons or hurricanes in the northern hemisphere as
they rotate in an anticlockwise direction.
A cyclone develops over warm moist waters of the
ocean. The warm water in turn heats the air above it. This
causes a low pressure belt over a large surface of the
ocean. Due to low pressure, the moist air from the ocean
surface begins to rise rapidly. This causes a sharper drop
in the pressure. More air blows towards the centre of the
storm. As the moist air reaches a certain height, it cools
and condenses, releasing heat. This heat warms the air in
the upper regions and makes the air rise further, adding Fig 13.7: Cyclone

speed to the rotating air column. These large rotating windstorms are called as cyclones.
The speed of wind in a cyclone is more than 120km/hr. A cyclone needs a constant supply of
warm, humid air to continue. As it reaches the land, the supply of warm, humid air gradually
drops and the cyclone dies down. When a cyclonic storm moves towards the coast, it comes
with heavy rain, strong winds and high waves.

Cyclone-prone areas
Cyclones in India generally strike the East coast, although they affect both the Bay of Bengal
and the Arabian Sea. The eastern coastal regions of India including states of Orissa, West
Bengal and Tamil Nadu are more affected than the cyclones which develop in the Bay of
Bengal.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) provides advance cyclone warnings to the
people staying in coastal areas. The department receives signals from the Cyclone Surveillance
Radars which are installed at various locations over the Indian coast and also from the satellite
pictures.
Let’s discuss
Why do cyclones mostly
Destruction caused during storms
start over the oceans and
Every year, storms cause great damage across the world. At not on land?

218
times, the wind is so strong that it tears off the roofs of the houses, causes uprooting of trees
and pulls down structures coming in the way. Cyclones are the worst because they last longer
and affect a wide area. As they travel over the sea, they gather a lot of moisture and hence
when they hit the coast they bring in heavy rainfall.

A large number of people are killed and injured in a cyclone. Due to cyclones, the sea water
floods the coastal regions drowning human beings and animals, destroying crops, uprooting
trees and reducing soil fertility. Telephone and electric lines snap. Continuous rain due to
cyclones causes floods and pollutes drinking water sources and can cause an outbreak of
epidemics.
Safety Measures to be followed during a Storm or a Cyclone
• Stay indoors, preferably if possible in the basement during the storm.
• Cyclone forecast services, i.e., warnings should be given rapidly and repeatedly to the
public and fishermen.
• Construction of storm-proof shelters.
• Do not stand near metallic objects or near an open window.
• Do not take shelter under the trees because they may get uprooted due to strong winds.

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:

1. The highest wind speeds on Earth occur in _____________.

2. In _____________, dense clouds form over the oceans.

3. Cyclones are also called as __________ or ___________.

Word Galaxy

Typhoons: a tropical storm in a region

Epidemics: a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease
Afforestation: the action of planting trees
Disaster: a sudden accident
Funnel: a tube or a pipe that is narrow at the bottom and wide at the top
Condenses: make denser or more concentrated
Equatorial: near the equator
Latitudes: angular distance of a place north or south of the Earth’s equator

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 Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. Which among these exert atmospheric pressure?
i. Water ii. Land
iii. Air iv. All of these
b. Which of the following Indian States is more prone to a cyclone?
i. West Bengal ii. Jammu and Kashmir
iii. Rajasthan iv. Madhya Pradesh
c. A wind vane is used to measure the ________________.
i. wind direction ii. wind speed
iii. air pressure iv. wind pressure
d. The tropical storms formed in the Southern hemisphere are called _____________
i. tornadoes ii. typhoons
iii. cyclone iv. hurricanes
e. Warm air is lighter and therefore moves _______________
i. downwards ii. sideways
iii. northwards iv. upwards

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. have the potential to develop into cyclones.(Thunderstorms/
Storms)
b. The regions receive maximum amount of heat from the Sun
throughout the year. (equatorial/ polar)
c. is caused due to the horizontal difference in atmospheric pressure.
(Wind/ Pressure)
d. A hot air balloon is filled with air. (warm / cold)
e. pressure is not the same everywhere. (Atmospheric/ Body)

3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. Moist air exerts less pressure than dry air. 
b. A cyclone becomes weaker when it reaches the ground. 
c. Atmospheric pressure is lowest at sea level.
d. As the air in a balloon is constantly heated, it contracts.

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4. Match the following.
Column A Column B
a. Cyclone i. Moist air
b. Tornado ii. Speed more than 120 km/hr
c. Water vapour iii. Speed more than 500 km/hr

5. Answer the following in one word or one sentence.

a. What are large rotating wind storms called?
b. What happens to the air pressure with an increase in the height?
c. What is the full form of IMD?
6. Answer the following questions in short.
a. Describe the structure of a tornado.
b. How does change in the temperature affect air pressure?
c. How do cyclones affect the environment?
7. Give reason.
a. Storms are called hurricanes in the northern hemisphere.
b. As we go to a higher altitude pressure decreases.
c. Why do cyclones bring heavy rainfall?

8. Answer the following in detail.

a. With the help of an activity prove that air exerts pressure.
b. What is atmospheric pressure and explain how it is affected due to altitude?
c. What are winds and how are they formed?
d. Write down any three safety measures that should be taken during a storm or a cyclone.

9. Diagram based question

a. Identify the weather phenomenon occurring in each of the following pictures.

10. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

a. Which of these – a thunderstorm or a cyclone cannot occur in Madhya
Pradesh?

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 b. State the differences between tsunamis and cyclones.
c. Why should we not take shelter under a tree during lightning and thunderstorms?

11. Life Skills

a. On a map of India, mark the zones that are most prone to the occurrence of cyclones
and tornadoes.
b. Discuss how cyclones occur due to the climatic changes caused by humans.
My Project Idea

To make an anemometer.
Materials required – 5 plastic cups, a scissor, a punch, two light plastic straws, push pins,
a pencil with an eraser attached to it.
1. Take four plastic cups and punch one hole (approx. 1.5 cm diameter) in each
below the rim.
2. Now on the fifth cup make 4 holes spaced evenly around the rim. Also make
a hole (large enough for a pencil to pass through easily) in the centre at the
bottom using push-pins and the scissors. This cup will be the centre point of the
anemometer.
Step 1 Step 2

3. Fit a straw through the hole in one of the four cups and bend it inwards.Tape half
of it on the inside wall of the cup.
4. Place the other end of the straw through two of the holes in the fifth cup and
continue passing the straw through the hole in one of the remaining cups.
Step 3 Step 4

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 5. Tape the end of the straw to the inside of the cup as you did earlier, making sure
that the openings of the two cups face in opposite directions.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 with the remaining two cups, sliding the straw through the
remaining two holes in the fifth cup. Each of the four cups should be facing sideways.
7. Insert the pencil facing up through the bottom of the fifth cup.
Step 6 Step 7

8. Carefully push the pin through the two straws and into the eraser on the pencil.
9. Your anemometer is now ready for use.
Step 8

10. Field trip

Visit a nearby meteorological department if any and try to understand the system of warnings
issued by them during a cyclone. Also prepare a list of contents of an emergency supply kit.

Meet the Scientist

When you hear a warning from weather forecasters of

how fast the wind is going to blow, do you ever think about
how they will measure it? Wind isn’t something you can see
very easily, so you cannot time it with a stopwatch. Scientists
are however amazingly innovative and they have come up
with a unique way of measuring the speed of wind with a
device called anemometer.

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 Understanding weather patterns is the only way to be able to predict approaching
storms and anemometers are essential for this purpose.
John Thomas Romney Robinson, an astronomer and a physicist has his name
associated with the invention of the hemispherical 4-cup anemometer. Commonly
known as “Robinson cup anemometer” this device has three or four cups that are
attached to horizontal arms. At the centre, the arms connect to a vertical rod. The cups
catch the wind, moving the arms and spinning the rod. The faster it spins, the faster
the wind is blowing.
Robinson’s original anemometer still stands where he installed it, on the Observatory
roof.

WEBLINKS

https://earth.esa.int/web/earth-watching/natural-disasters/cyclones
http://www.wxdude.com/singalongcompanion/windandairpressure/index.html
https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/
http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2018/05/does-global-warming-make-
tropical-cyclones-stronger/
https://www.c2es.org/content/hurricanes-and-climate-change/

As on 30.04.2019

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14 Light

Let’s Learn

• Rectilinear propagation of light • Real and virtual images

• Reflection of light • White light is composed of
• Reflective surfaces many colours

Tune In
All of us know that energy has numerous forms and they are used to carry out activities
and different types of work. Though we talk about energy with absolute surety, have you
ever seen any form of energy? Which is the only form of energy visible to us? This form of
energy moves at an incredible speed, that is, it is faster than anything that one can point
out in the universe.
Furthermore, plants use this energy to make food and the Sun is the biggest source of this.
Name this form of energy.

Introduction
Turn off the light in your room and try to look around you. You will see nothing but darkness.
This is a condition which occurs in the absence of light. Light is something which enables us
to see the world around us. The marvels of nature like beautiful landscapes, rainbows, sunsets,
sunrise, colourful flowers, etc. are the visual pleasures which we enjoy because of light.
Light is an electromagnetic radiation, which causes
Did You Know
the sensation of vision. It has been extremely
important for the existence and development of The branch of Science that deals with
the human civilisation. Even, the art of reading is the study of light is called optics.
a light dependent task. Let us know more about
light in this chapter.

Rectilinear propagation of Light

The motion of light through space is described using words such as “propagation” or
“propagate”. Light propagates not only in a vacuum (or emptiness) but also in transparent
media like glass, water, air, etc. It propagates from many different sources right from a bigger
source like the Sun to a very small source like a bulb. The tendency of light to propagate in
straight lines is called rectilinear propagation of light. The rectilinear propagation of light

225
 requires a homogeneous medium which has uniform physical properties like density, state,
temperature, pressure, etc. and also uniform chemical properties such as composition of the
entire medium.

For example, you must have seen beams of light coming out of a projector and falling on
the big screen. Do these beams of light take a curved path? To understand this let us do the
following activity.

Activity 1

Aim: To verify rectilinear propagation of light.

Materials: A burning candle and a flexible rubber tube or a straw.
Procedure:
(a) (b)

• Place a lighted candle on a table as shown in the diagram.

• View the candle using a rubber tube as shown in figure [a].
• Close one eye and try to look at the flame of the candle with the other eye.
• Now bend the straw /tube from the middle. Once again look at the flame as shown
in figure [b].
• For better results do this activity in a dark room.
Observation:
At first, the candle flame will be visible through a straight rubber tube or straw.
The flame will not be visible through a bent rubber tube or straw.
Conclusion:
Light travels in a straight line.

Furthermore, the phenomenon of the formation of shadows is also a consequence of rectilinear

propagation of light. When an opaque object is placed in the path of the light, then the light
gets obstructed by the object. This results in the formation of a shadow.

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Reflection of Light
It is clear that light propagates in a
straight line in one direction through
a homogeneous medium. In rectilinear Incident ray Reflected ray
of light of light
propagation, it makes no change in its
direction of motion, unless it is bounced
Surface
back or scattered from the surface of an
object that is placed in the path of light Fig. 14.1 Reflection of light
in the same medium. This phenomenon
is referred to as reflection of light. Thus, when light rays fall on the surface of an object, they
bounce back and their direction changes. This is called reflection of light.

In the above diagram, the incoming ray or the ray that hits the surface of the plane mirror is
called the incident ray and the ray that gets reflected off the surface is called the reflected
ray. Such a diagram is called ray diagram and it is used to depict the path taken by light rays.

Let us do an activity to understand reflection of light.

Activity 2

Aim: To see that light gets reflected and travels in a different direction.
Materials: A torch light, a mirror with a stand, black paper, comb and white paper.
Procedure:
• Fix a white paper on a table.
• Cover a comb with black paper completely
except the small middle section in such a
way that light can only pass through the
uncovered middle portion.
• Hold the comb perpendicular to the white
paper and then project the light of the torch
on the uncovered section of the comb.
• Adjust the position of the comb and torch
in order to obtain light rays on the white
paper.
• Now place a mirror in the path of these rays of light with the help of a stand as
shown in the figure.
• For better results do this activity in a dark room.

227
 Observation:
• Initially, the light rays propagated in a straight line from the middle section of the
comb.
• After the placement of the mirror, these rays bounced back from the surface of the
mirror, and the direction of the rays of light changes.
Conclusion:
The rays of light are reflected in a different direction from the surface of an object which
is placed in the path of a ray of light.

The reflection of light, usually occurs when light falls on a smooth and polished surface. Light
reflects more from a shiny and a smooth surface as compared to an object with rough and
unpolished surface. Since silver metal is the best reflector of light, it is used to coat one side of
mirrors. Even a new steel plate or any shining metal piece is capable of changing the direction
of light. Likewise the still water of a lake is able to reflect
Let’s discuss
light. Thus we can see the reflection of the surroundings Does the Moon have its own
and us in water bodies. Thus, majority of the times we light? If not, then how are we
can see different objects around us due to reflection of able to see it?
light.

Regular and irregular reflection of light:

According to the nature of the reflecting surface, the reflection of light is categorised into
regular reflections and irregular reflections.

(a) Regular reflection (b) Irregular reflection

Fig. 14.2 Regular and irregular reflection of light

Regular reflection
The reflection of light rays from a plane and uniform (or smooth) surface such as a plane
mirror or a stainless steel sheet is called regular reflection of light.
Irregular reflection of light
The reflection of light rays from a rough and non-uniform surface is called irregular reflection
of light. This is also known as diffused reflection. Most of the objects seen around us have
rough surfaces.

228
 Check Your Progress

1. Define reflection.
2. Light does not change its direction of propagation after reflection. (True / False)
3. Name the ray that hits the surface of an object.

Real and virtual images

When we stand in front of a mirror what we see in the mirror is our image which is formed
behind the mirror.
Images are of two types, real and virtual images.

Real image
A real image is formed when light rays coming from an object meet each other at a particular
point after reflection. A real image can be obtained on a screen. A real image is always
inverted. For example, a real image is produced by the cinema screen of a theatre which uses
a projector to produce images. Also, we can see everything around us with the help of real
images which form on the retina of our eye.

Virtual image
A virtual image is formed when light rays coming from an object do not meet each other,
but appear to meet at a definite point after reflection. In other words, it is a location from
where light rays appear to meet each other from an object. Unlike a real image, a virtual
image cannot be obtained on a screen. A virtual image is always upright. For example, images
formed by the mirrors are virtual images.
Let us study the nature of images formed by different mirrors and lenses in detail.

Plane mirror Plane mirror

A plane mirror is a mirror with a flat surface.
These types of mirrors are without any
inward and outward curve. It is made of
l
a smooth piece of glass with a thin sliver
O
layer on its back. An image is formed in a O’

plane mirror due to regular reflection. h h

The characteristics of images formed by a
P D D’ P
plane mirror are as follows. Fig.14.3 image formed by a plane mirror
• An image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual because the reflected rays from the
surface of the mirror diverge and do not meet at a particular point.

229
 • An image formed by a plane mirror is always upright.
• An image formed by a plane mirror is of the same shape and size as the object is in front
of the mirror.
• The image distance and the object distance from the mirror are equal to one another.
• An image formed by a plane mirror is always laterally inverted.
Lateral inversion is a phenomenon in which the left hand side of an object appears as right
hand side of the object in a plane mirror and vice versa. The most common example of lateral
inversion can be observed in an ambulance, where the term AMBULANCE is painted laterally
inverted as follows.

Laterally inverted text Plane mirror Image

Fig. 14.4 Lateral inversion

This is because the drivers of other vehicles who are ahead of the ambulance on the road can
read it in their rear-view mirrors and make way. Let us do the following activity to study the
characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror.

Activity 3

Aim: To study the different characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror.
Materials: A plane mirror of your height.
Procedure:
• Action 1 - Stand in front of a mirror and observe your image.
• Action 2 - Move two steps forward, and then take 5 steps backward.
• Action 3 - Now raise your right hand.
Observation:
• Action 1 - The image will be upright, of the same size and shape. This shows that the
image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
• Action 2 - The image will also appear to move two steps forward and five steps
backward.
• Action 3 - When the right hand is raised by you then the left hand will raised by the
image.
Conclusion:
• The image produced by the plane mirror is a virtual image. The size and shape of
the image is the same as the object.
• The image distance is equal to the object distance from the mirror.
• The image is laterally inverted.

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 Did You Know

A German scientist Justus von Liebig made the fist mirror. He coated the plane surface of a
piece of ordinary glass with the sliver metal. This mirror is called silvered glass mirror.

Spherical mirror:
A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a piece cut out of a hollow glass sphere
with one side polished or reflective surface. The reflective surface of such a mirror can be
curved inwards or outwards. The surface that caves ‘in’ or the inner surface of a half is called
‘concave’. The surface that bulges out or the outer surface of a half is called ‘convex’.

Thus spherical mirrors can be categorised into two types - concave mirror and convex mirror.

Let us look into a stainless steel spoon to know more about spherical reflection through the
following activity.

Activity 3

Aim: To study the formation of an image on both the surfaces of a shiny stainless
spoon.
Materials: A new steel spoon with two curved surfaces.
Procedure:
• Take a stainless steel spoon and look at your image on the outer surface (convex
side) of the spoon.
• Bring the spoon closer towards your face and notice the changes in the image.
• Now, do the above mentioned activity with the inner surface (concave side) of the
spoon.

Front side Back side

Observation:
• Formation of image as seen on the convex side -The image will be upright and
small.

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 • The image will remain small and upright while the spoon was moved closer towards
the face.
• Formation of image as seen on the concave side -The image will be small and
inverted.
• As the spoon is moved towards the face, the size of the image gradually increases.
• Furthermore, the image will also become upright suddenly when the spoon is
brought very close to the face.

Some important terms related to spherical mirrors are given below.

Convex
Concave mirror
Principle mirror
Principle
axis Pole Pole
axis

C P P C
Centre of Centre of
curvature curvature

R R
Radius of Radius of
curvature curvature
Concave mirror Convex mirror

Fig. 14.5 Concave mirror and Convex mirror

• The centre of curvature (C) is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
• The radius of curvature (R) is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
• The pole (P) is the centre of the mirror.
• The principal axis is an imaginary line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature
of the mirror.
• The focus or focal point (F) is a point on the principal axis where parallel rays of light meet
or converge (for concave mirror) or seem to diverge (for convex mirror) after reflection.
• The focal length is the distance between the focus and the pole of the spherical mirror.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by lateral inversion?

2. The centre of curvature is the centre of the mirror. (True/false)
3. Convex and concave mirrors are types of ______________ mirrors.

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Let us study the formation of images by a Concave mirror
concave mirror and a convex mirror.

Concave mirror
Principle axis F
If the part of the mirror that curves inwards is P
C
polished and serves as the reflecting surface,
then such a mirror is called a concave mirror.
The image produced by a concave mirror is a
real image. When a beam of parallel rays of light
from infinity is incident on the concave mirror, Focal
then the rays of light are converged (meet) at length
Convex mirror
the focal point of the mirror.

Convex mirror
If the part of the mirror that curves outwards Principle axis F P
is polished and serves as the reflecting surface, C

then it is called a convex mirror.

The image produced by a convex mirror is a
virtual image. When a beam of parallel rays is
Focal
incident on a convex mirror, then the rays of length
light are diverged (do not meet) but appear to Fig. 14.6 Converging and diverging rays
meet behind the mirror on producing the
reflected rays backwards. Did You Know
Let us do an activity to understand the The concave shape of radio telescope
formation of images by a concave mirror and dishes and dish TV antennas helps them to
a convex mirror. [Precaution: Perform this collect and transfer signals in a better way.
activity in a dark room]

Activity 5

Aim: To study the formation of images by concave and convex mirrors.

Materials: A burning candle, a table, white chart paper, a concave mirror, a convex
mirror and a stand to hold the lenses.

Procedure:
• Fix a white chart paper on a wall, which will act like a screen.
• Now fix a concave mirror on a stand and keep it about one metre away from the
screen.

233
 • Place a lighted candle between the screen and
the mirror in such a way that its reflection will be
obtained on the screen.
• Observe the reflection of the candle on the screen.
• Now, adjust the distance between the mirror and (A)

the candle, to obtain a sharp image on the screen.

• At the same time, observe the changes on the
screen.
• Keep the candle very close to the concave mirror
(B)
and observe the screen.
• Do the same activity with a convex mirror.
Observation:
With a concave mirror:
(C)
• The inverted image of a candle will be obtained on the screen.
• On adjusting the distance between a candle, a concave mirror and a screen, two
types of images will be obtained -
a. An inverted and diminished image
b. An inverted and enlarged image
• No image will be formed on the screen, when a candle is placed very close to the
mirror. However, an enlarged and upright image of the candle will be seen in the
mirror.
With a convex mirror:
• No image will be formed on the screen. However, a small and an upright image of
the candle will be seen in the mirror.
Conclusion:
• For a concave mirror, a real image of an object is formed at all distances except at
very close distances.
• Also, the size of the image varies from small to large with a change in the distance
of an object when moved away from or moved towards a concave lens respectively.
• For a convex mirror, the image of an object is always virtual and small.

Uses of mirrors
Plane mirror
• The plane mirrors are used to make different optical devices such as periscopes and
kaleidoscopes.

234
• The plane mirrors are used to see ourselves at various places like dressing tables, jewellery
shops, malls, etc.

Concave mirror
• The concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors.

• Dentists use concave mirrors to magnify the small parts of the teeth.

• It is used as a reflector in various devices like torch lights, car headlights, etc.

Convex mirror
• The convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles to look over the wider area.
This enables a driver to keep an eye on the traffic behind.

• They are also used in various places like shops, parking lots, etc. in order to keep a watch
over a large area for security reasons.

Check Your Progress

1. Sameer found a mirror that always forms an upright and miniature image of an
object. What type of a mirror is it?
2. A plane mirror always forms real images. (True / False)

Lenses
You might have seen a magnifying glass. It is used to enlarge written
texts and many other minute things. A magnifying glass is nothing
but a lens. Lenses are something which you have encountered in a
variety of devices for example, in cameras, smart phones, telescopes,
microscopes, binoculars, spectacles, projectors, etc.

A lens is a transparent medium or substance bounded by two surfaces

of which at least one is curved. It is used to bend the light rays as they
pass through it, as a result light rays change direction. That means Convex Concave
Fig. 14.6 Convex lens
the light rays appear to come from a point which is closer or further and Concave lens
instead of their actual place of origin. Consequently,
Let’s discuss
this makes an object appear bigger or smaller when it
How are mirrors different
is observed through a lens. There are two main types from lenses?
of lenses, concave or diverging lens and convex or
converging lens.

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 Concave lens
A concave lens is thin in the middle and
thicker at the edges. It bends the parallel
rays of light outward or diverges when light
rays pass through it. For that reason, they are
Principle axis
also known as diverging lenses. The objects Principle focus
Pole
appear smaller through concave lenses.
When light rays parallel to the principal axis
are incident on a concave lens, they diverge
or spread after passing through the lens in Focal length
such a way that appears to be coming out
Fig. 14.8 Diverging rays through Concave lens
from a point called as principal focus.
A concave lens always produces a virtual and an upright image of an object. Concave lenses
are used in projectors and flashlights.

Convex lens
Focal length (f)
A convex lens is thick in the middle and
Optical centre
thinner at the edges. When light rays parallel
to the principal axis are incident on a convex
Principle axis F
lens, then the rays of light converge or focus O
to a point on the principal axis. This point is
known as the principal focus of the lens. A Principle focus

convex lens is also called a converging lens. Fig. 14.9 Converging rays through Convex lens
A magnifying lens is a convex lens because it makes the image of an object look larger.
The convex lenses are used in various things like telescopes, binoculars, etc., where convergence
or focusing of light rays is needed.
Let us do a practical activity to understand principal focus.

Activity 6

Aim: To determine the principal focus of a lens.

Materials: A convex lens, a concave lens and few pieces of paper.
Procedure:
• Take a convex lens. Allow sunlight to fall on it.
• Place a sheet of paper on the other side of the lens.
• Adjust the distance between the lens and the paper till you get a sharp bright spot
on the paper.

236
 • Be careful, the paper may start burning at that point.
• Repeat the activity using a concave lens.
Observation:
• In case of a convex lens, a bright spot will appear on the paper at a point. In other
words, it is actually the image of the Sun formed on a screen by the lens.
• In case of a concave lens, the image of the Sun at the principal focus will be seen,
but it cannot be formed on a screen.
Conclusion:
• The rays of sunlight come from a far distance; therefore they are parallel to each
other.
• In case of a convex lens, these rays of light converge by the lens at a particular point
and form an image of the Sun on the screen. This point is the principal focus of the
convex lens.
• In case of a concave lens, the rays of the sunlight diverge and the point at which the
image of the Sun is visible is the principal focus of the lens.

From the above activity, it is also clear that a concave lens always forms a virtual image.
Let us now study the nature of an image formed by lenses. Here is an activity that will show
you the formation of images by a convex lens.

Activity 7

Aim: To find out the nature of an image formed by a convex lens.

Materials: a convex lens, a lens holder, lighted candle, a table and a white screen.

Procedure:
• Keep a convex lens on a lens holder.
• Place a lighted candle on a stand on the table.
• Also place a white screen on the table on the other side of the lens.
• Place the candle about 50 cm from the lens.
• Adjust the distance of the screen from the lens to get the image of the candle flame
on the screen.
• Now move the candle closer to the lens in steps of 10 cm.
• Record the nature of the image and its distance from the lens in each case.

237
 Observation
• When the candle is far away from the
lens, the image formed will be real and
inverted. Image
• As the candle is moved toward the lens, Object
the image will start appearing bigger
and bigger on the screen.
• When the candle is placed very close to Convex lens
the lens, then the image no longer will be formed on the screen.
• Nevertheless, an upright and enlarged image can be seen on looking through the
lens.
Conclusion
When the distance of the object from the lens is large, then the image is real and
inverted. On the other hand, when the object distance is very small from the lens, the
image formed is virtual and magnified.

Check Your Progress

1. Name the lens that cannot form a real image of an object.

2. The centre of a lens is called the___________.

Use of concave and convex lens

1. Concave lenses are used to make spectacles for people who are not able to see distant
objects distinctly.
2. Concave lenses are used in flashlights in order to widen the beam of light produced by
a bulb.
3. Like concave lenses, convex lenses are also used to make spectacles but for people who
are not able to see nearby objects clearly.
4. Convex lenses are used in devices such as microscopes and magnifying glasses.
5. The various combinations of convex and concave lenses are used in cameras to improve
the quality of photographs.

Splitting of White Light

Sir Issac Newton discovered that sunlight or white light is a complete mixture of several
colours. He allowed sunlight to enter through a small aperture (opening or hole) in a window

238
and placed a glass prism in the path of the light ray. After passing through the prism the light
was received on a white screen. This light obtained on the screen was a band of colours of a
rainbow known as a spectrum.

Fig. 14.10 Spectrum formed by prism

The colours of the band or spectrum extending from violet to red, as starting from the base
of the prism, are represented by the acronym – VIBGYOR: V for Violet, I for Indigo, B for Blue,
G for Green, Y for Yellow, O for Orange and R for Red. Thus, the phenomenon of splitting of
a white light into its constituent colours on passing through a transparent medium is known
as dispersion of light.
Thus, it is clear that white colour can split into several constituent colours. Let us do an activity
to combine these colours into white colour.

Activity 8

Aim: To prove that white light is a combination of seven different colours.

Materials: A disc of cardboard of 10 cm diameter, seven colours (Vibgyor) to paint, a

pencil, etc.

Procedure:
• Take a circular cardboard disc of diameter 10 cm.
• Divide this disc into seven segments of approximately equal measurement.
• Paint the seven colours of white light (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and
red) on these segments.
• Fix the disc loosely on the tip of a pencil such that the disc would rotate freely. Now
spin the disc in daylight at the maximum speed possible.

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 Observation
When the disc rotates, the white colour will
be observed instead of the seven individual
colours on the disc.

Conclusion
This proves that white light consists of
seven colours.

Word Galaxy

Concave: inward curving surface

Convex: outward bulging surface
Dispersion: spreading outward
Lateral inversion: an image inverting from left to right and from right to left only
Real image: an image which can be obtained on the screen
Virtual image: an image in a mirror or formed by a lens but not obtained on a screen
Spectrum: band of colours as in rainbow
Mirror: a smooth highly polished and reflecting surface
Lens: an object made from transparent material, which has two or atleast one spherical
surface

At a Glance

• Light is a form of energy which produces the sensation of vision in our eyes.
• Light travels in a straight line and this phenomenon is referred to as rectilinear propagation
of light.
• The bouncing back of light in the same medium from the surface of an object is known
as reflection.
• Reflection of light from a uniform surface is called regular reflection, whereas reflection of
light from a non-uniform surface is called as irregular reflection.
• The images which can be obtained on a screen are called real images.
• The images which cannot be obtained on a screen are called virtual images.
• A mirror which is a polished or a shining surface reflects light.
• A plane mirror is a uniform surface. The light falling on it undergoes regular reflection.

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• There are two types of spherical mirrors, convex and concave mirrors.
• The convex mirrors are curved outwards and concave mirrors are curved inwards.
• Light bends while travelling through a transparent medium.
• A lens is a transparent medium bound by two surfaces of which at least one is curved.
• Both the surfaces of a convex lens are bulging outwards, whereas both the surfaces of a
concave lens are curved inwards.
• The splitting of white light into seven colours is called dispersion of light.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. A real image can be formed by the following:
i. a convex mirror ii. a plane mirror
iii. a concave lens iv. a convex lens

b. An image formed by a plane mirror is always:

i. upright and real ii. inverted and real
iii. inverted and virtual iv. upright and virtual
c. A magnifying glass is:
i. a convex mirror ii. a plane glass
iii. a convex lens iv. a concave lens
d. The rectilinear propagation of light means:
i. light travels in a rectangular path ii. light travels in a straight path
iii. light does not move iv. light changes its direction
e. A ray of _______________ light is a combination of many colours.
i. blue ii. red
iii. green iv. white

2. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. centre of a mirror i. pole
b. distance between principal focus and pole ii. focal length
c. centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a iii. principal axis
part.
d. an imaginary line through the pole and the iv. centre of curvature
centre of curvature

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 3. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.
a. When a light ray travels through a transparent medium, then its of
propagation changes. (speed/direction)
b. A convex lens is also known as a lense. (converging/diverging)
c. Dentists generally make use of mirrors. (convex/concave)
d. mirrors find their application in periscopes and kaleidoscopes.
(Plane/Concave)

4. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. A convex mirror does not form a real image.
b. A concave lens does not form a real and upright image of an object. 
c. A virtual image can be obtained on a screen.
d. A real image is always upright. 
e. A plane mirror makes all the things look smaller.

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. Name the seven constituent colours of white light.
b. State the phenomenon of dispersion of light.
c. What is reflection of light?
d. Which lens is used in a magnifying glass?
e. What are the two main types of spherical mirrors?

6. Answer the following questions in short.

a. Describe the formation of shadows.
b. Give any two uses of concave lenses.
c. Explain the two types of reflection.
d. State the phenomenon of lateral inversion. Show the lateral inversion of the term
“CLASSICAL”.
e. Compare the principal focus of convex and concave lenses.

7. Give reasons.
a. Convex mirrors are used in cars.
b. We are not able to see in the dark.

242
8. Answer the following questions in detail.
a. Distinguish between a convex lens and a concave lens.
b. Answer the following questions based on characteristics of mirrors.
i. Why are images formed by the plane mirror always virtual?
ii. State the relation between image distance and object distance.
iii. Recall the shape and size of an image formed by a plane mirror
c. Compare real and virtual images.
Concave
9. Diagram based questions. mirror
a. Observe the following diagram and answer X
Y
the following questions.
C P
i. Identify X and Y. Centre of
curvature
ii. What do you mean by centre and radius
of curvature?
R
b. Describe the phenomenon explained by the Radius of
following diagram. curvature
Convex mirror

Principle axis F P
C

Focal
length

c. Look at the picture and attempt the following

questions.
i. What did the dog see on the surface of the water?
ii. What is the phenomenon of light which puzzled
the dog?
iii. State the characteristics of the image formed in
this case.
iv. How does water behave in this case?

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 10. Practical based questions.
Newton’s colour disc is an activity which is used to prove that white light is a combination
of seven different colours. Answer the following questions based on this.
i. Examine the source of different colours of light.
ii. Explain the procedure to combine the seven colours of light into white colours.

11. Life skills

Make a power point presentation to explain similarities between mirrors and lenses and
discuss it in the class.

12. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

a. Why are concave lenses not used as magnifying glasses?
b. If you stand in front of a mirror and your image appears to be larger,
then name the type of the mirror in use. Justify your answer.

My Project Idea

Make a working model of a periscope.

For the reference read the following instructions.
• Take a cardboard box.
• Make two windows of about 1 inch each at the top and bottom.
• Then take two plane mirrors and fix them in the box near the windows such as way
that
~ They make an angle of 45° with the sides of the box.
~ Their reflective surfaces must be parallel to each other.
• Now see through it and make note of your observations.

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 Meet the Scientist

Sir Isaac Newton (1642 to 1727) was an English physicist,

mathematician, astronomer and theologian. He is one of
the most influential figures in the history of mankind. In
his lifetime, he worked in numerous disciplines of science
including optics, a branch of science which deals with the
behaviour and properties of light. For example, scientists
of earlier times knew that rainbows are formed when light
is refracted and reflected in raindrops, but they did not
know why rainbows were so colourful. It was Sir Isaac
Newton who saw right through light and proved the facts about the spectrum. These
facts about light led him to theorise that even the better models of telescopes used
then had a set of glass lenses to magnify an image.
Through his experiments with colours, Newton knew that lenses refracted different
colours at different angles, creating an unclear image for the viewer. As an improvement,
Newton proposed the use of reflecting mirrors rather than lenses which led him to
successfully make the first reflecting telescope in 1668. This Newtonian telescope
consisted of a large mirror which would capture the image and then a smaller mirror
which would bounce it into the viewer’s eye. Not only does this method produce a
clearer image, it also allows for a much smaller telescope. Until this day, nearly all
astronomical observatories use a variant of Newton’s original design.

WEBLINKS

https://kids.kiddle.co/Light
https://kidskonnect.com/science/light/
https://www.synopsys.com/optical-solutions/learn/optics-for-kids/what-is-light.html

 As on 30.04.2019

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 15 Electricity and Its Effect

Let’s Learn

• Electric current • Magnetic effect of electric

• Electric circuits current

• Heating effect of electric current • Electromagnet

• An electric fuse • An electric bell

Tune In
When little Josh heard something buzzing, his curious eyes fell on the switchboard. He
called out for his father, “Dad, look, I can see the lightning from the switches.” Seeing
the spark his father immediately switched off the main supply. All the appliances stopped
working.
Do you think Josh was right in referring to the spark as ‘lightning’?

Introduction
In modern days, our lives are dependent on electricity to
Let’s discuss
such an extent that a short power cut makes us furious
Spend a whole day without
and anxious, and this little duration without electricity, electricity and then discuss your
appears a never ending. We cannot imagine our life experience and the importance
without electricity and it has become an inseparable of electricity.
part of our lives. A whole day without electricity means
no light, no ACs or fans, no cell phones, no computers and everything which operates on
electricity. It seems quite frightening even for a day, and then just imagine an entire life
without electricity.

We are overwhelmingly using electricity more than ever before; we are dependent on electricity
for carrying out even the smallest of tasks from charging of a mobile phone to powering an
entire railway network. Let us study about electricity in this chapter.

Caution
Do not touch electric components with wet hands. Always be cautious while handling electrical
appliances.

246
Electric current
The rate of flow of charges through an electric conductor (a material which allows electrical
charges to flow through it) is called an electric current. The SI unit of measurement of electrical
current is called ampere (A).

The flow of electric current is like the flow of water. As we know water flows from a higher
level to a lower level. Similarly, there is tendency of the positive charges to flow from a point
of higher electric level to a point of lower electrical level. This electrical level that decides the
direction of flow of charges is called electrostatic potential. Similar to the height difference of
a waterfall, it is the difference between the potential of two points, that is potential difference.
Thus, potential difference is defined as the amount of work done to move a unit charge from
one point to another. The SI unit to measure the potential difference is called volt (V).

When the potential difference between the points is zero, then no electrical current will flow
between these points. If there is a potential difference between two points, the electrical
current will flow because positive charge will flow from a higher potential point to lower
potential point. It is similar to the flow of the water in a waterfall. In a circuit, a battery and
cells are used to apply potential difference.

Did You Know

Electrification was central to how early nationalists and planners conceptualised Indian
development and huge sums have been spent on the project from independence till now.
Yet, 240 million Indians have no access to electricity.

Electric circuit
An electric current flows from the end of the cell marked ‘+’ (called the positive terminal)
through the metal wires to the end marked ‘-’ (called the negative terminal). The flow of
electric current is possible only when the charges flow or travel along a closed path. Thus, a
closed path along which an electric current can flow is called an electric circuit. How does a
simple circuit look like and work?

To know this, let us make an electric circuit and see how it works.

Activity 1

Aim: To build a simple circuit and understand its working.

Materials: a bulb, connecting copper wires and a dry cell

247
 Procedure:
• Connect the two ends of two copper wires to a bulb and
a dry cell with the help of cellophane tape as shown in
fig (a).
• Observe the bulb.
• Now remove the cellophane tape from one end of the dry
cell as shown in Fig (b). Fig. 15.1 (a): Close circuit

• Observe the bulb.

Observation:
First, you will observe that the bulb will glow brightly when
the circuit is closed. After removing the cellophane tape the
respected wire will be detached from the bulb and circuit gets
open. Also, the bulb will stop glowing.
Fig. 15.1 (b): Open circuit
Conclusion:
The current flows in a closed path and when the closed path is broken due to some
reason current will stop flowing in the circuit.

From the above mentioned activity, we have learned

two things about electricity. For the flow of electricity
in a circuit, the circuit must be closed. In a close
circuit the potential difference can be applied and
electrical current flows from high potential to low
potential. To stop the flow of electricity in a circuit, Switch
the circuit must be opened. The potential difference
cannot be applied on an open circuit, thus electrical
current does not flow in such circuits. An electric circuit with a switch
Fig. 15.2: An electric circuit with a switch
Thus, we can allow or stop electricity in a circuit by
opening and closing the circuit. To ease this process, an electrical component called a switch is
used for this purpose. By connecting a switch as shown in the diagram, we can stop and allow
the electricity in a circuit. Like a switch, there numerous electrical components are available.
We will study a few of them below.

Electric components and symbols

The commonly used components in an electric circuit discussed below.

248
Electric cell
An electric cell has two terminals, one positive and the other negative,
which are shown on two sides of the cell. A cell converts chemical
energy into electrical energy. It is used to apply a potential difference Fig. 15.3: A cell
between two ends of a conductor.

Electric battery
When two cells are joined together via
conducting wires in such a way that the positive
end of one cell is joined to the negative end
of the other cell, the arrangement is called
a battery. Thus a battery is a combination of
two or more cells. It stores chemical energy
and makes it available in electrical form. Like
a cell, a battery also has two electric terminals.
Fig. 15.4: A battery
It is used to apply a large potential difference
between two ends of a conductor.

The Switch or Key

As we have seen earlier, switch is used to stop the flow of electric current in a circuit. When
this switch is set to ‘ON’ position then current starts flowing in the circuit. If a fan is connected
in the circuit then it starts rotating. When the position of the switch is changed to ‘OFF’
position, then the electrical current stops flowing in the circuit. Due to this, the connected fan
also stops rotating.

Connecting wires
Substances which allow electric charge or electric current to pass through them are called
conductors of electricity. Metals such as silver, copper, aluminium etc.; are good conductors
of electricity. Thus, wires are made of these metals and are used as conducting wires. They are
used to connect various electrical components in the circuit.

A light bulb
As soon as a light bulb is connected in a closed circuit, then the bulb will glow when electrical
current passes through the circuit. In addition to its daily life use, it is also used to test the flow
of electric current in a circuit.

LED (Light emitting diode)

A LED is an electrical component with two terminals, which is a light Positive Negative
terminal terminal
source. It emits light when an electric current is passing through it.

Fig. 15.5: LED

249
 Unlike a light bulb it permits current only in one direction. It is available in various colours
and sizes. Its application is similar to a light bulb.

Resistor
It is a two terminal electrical components that are used in electric circuits to reduce the flow of
electric current. A resistor offers obstacles in the path of flow of electric current, and thereby it
reduces the flow of electric current. Through this device, the flow of electric current in a circuit
can be controlled. For example, suppose the amount of current flowing through a circuit can
destroy a LED in the circuit. In order to save that LED, the flow of current must be reduced in
the circuit. To do this, one can use an appropriate resistor.

Drawing a Circuit
Electrical circuits can be represented by drawing a simple diagram using standard symbols of
electric components. All electric components have at least one standard symbol. An illustration
of an electrical circuit with such standard symbols is known as a circuit diagram. Some of the
useful standard symbols of various components are given in the following table.

Component Picture Symbols

Electric cell

Electric Battery

OFF or open switch or key

ON or close switch or key

Connecting wire
Light bulb

250
 LED

Resistor

Let us now see, what a circuit diagram with these symbols is. A circuit diagram indicates
the arrangement of different components of the circuit with standard symbols. The circuit
diagram of Figure 15.6 shows one close and one open electric circuit.

Switch Switch
Led Led
+ +
Battery Resistor Battery Resistor
– –

A (open circuit) B (closed circuit)

Fig. 15.6: Circuit diagrams with standard symbols

Since in a closed electric circuit, current flows from

Did You Know
the positive to the negative terminal of the battery,
arrows are marked to show the flow. An electric eel is a fish that
generates powerful electric shocks.
Thus, the following points should be kept in mind
It uses this mechanism for hunting
while constructing a circuit diagram.
and self defence.
• There should be an electric source such as a cell
or a battery.
• There should be a device or an appliance such as a LED or a bulb to consume electric
current.
• There should be a conductor in the form of connecting wires to provide a path for the
flow of current.
• There should be a switch to open or close the circuit.
• There should not be a gap in the electric circuit, for a smooth flow of electric current.

Check Your Progress

1. Is there any difference between a battery and cell? Justify your answer.
2. What does LED stand for?
3. Why are connecting wires made of metals?
4. A light bulb does not glow when it is connected to an open circuit. Why?

251
 Measuring devices
Electric current and potential difference can be measured in terms of numerical values. They
also have SI units, ampere (A) and voltage (V). A device is required to measure the amount
of electric current flowing through a circuit. This device is called ammeter, and it measures
electric current in amperes. Similarly, a device used to measure the potential difference
between any two points in a circuit is called a voltmeter. Voltmeter measures the potential
difference between two points in the voltage. The standard electrical symbols and pictorial
depictions of these devices are shown below.

Measuring Device Symbol

ammeter

voltmeter

Check Your Progress

1. Metals are good conductors of electricity. (True / False)

2. ______________ is used to measure the potential difference between the two
terminals of a circuit.
3. What do we use to open or close a circuit?
4. How do you measure the amount of current in an electric circuit?

Heating effect of an electric current

How does an electric geyser turn cold water into hot
Did You Know
water? Have you ever pondered on this? Usually, we
use fire to make something hot, but in this case we It is important to use electrical
use an electric geyser which is an electric device. It appliances with ISI mark on them
means electrical current has something which raises as this mark ensures the safety of
the temperature of water. the appliance.
This ability of an electric current is referred as heating

252
effect of electric current. When an electric current flows through a wire, a part of the electrical
energy gets converted into heat energy, and the wire gets heated. This is known as the heating
effect of an electric current.
The amount of heat produced by the flow of current through a wire depends upon the
following factors.
• Material of the wire
• Thickness of the wire Did You Know

• Length of the wire Only about 10% of electrical energy is used in a

• Amount of the current flow light bulb (incandescent bulb) to produce light and
The heating effect of an electric current about 90% of electrical energy is used to produce
is used in a large number of domestic heat. There is a large amount of waste of electrical
and industrial appliances such as a energy. Whereas CFLs (compact fluorescent light
room heater, an electric kettle, a geyser, bulbs) consume 70% less energy compared to a
a toaster, an electric iron, a hair dryer, light bulb and last 12 times longer than a light
an oven etc. However in an electric bulb. On the other hand, LED bulbs last 5 times
bulb, it is the filament that gets hot longer than any bulb which is available in the
which in turn glows and produces light. market and are the most energy efficient but they
This is called the lighting effect of are quite expensive compared to CFL bulbs.
electricity.

Electric Fuse
Now, we are aware that various electric appliances which
we have used in day to day life are based on heating effect
of electric current. The fuse is the most important device
among them. It keeps our electric system safe from over
Fuse wire melts and breaks the circuit
current (more than the normal current on which various
Fig. 15.7: A fuse
appliances work).

(Caution - Never try to investigate the fuse connected to the electrical supply on your own.)
It is a safety device in a circuit against overloading of current. It is made of a thin piece of a
metal or an alloy wire which has a low melting point. It means it can melt at low temperature.
Every circuit is made in such a way that they can carry an amount of current up to a certain
limit. Sometimes the current transgresses this limit and increases greatly due to a short circuit.
A short circuit is a condition that occurs in a circuit when negative terminal and positive
terminal come into direct contact with each other and suddenly a great amount of current
flows in the circuit. Due to this, connecting wires overheat and insulation covering of the wire
sometimes catches fire. This fire can spread, can damage and destroy life and property.

253
 In order to prevent this damage, fuses are used in every circuit. The thin wire of a fuse gets
melted when it gets heated due to large amount of the current of a short circuit. This melting
of fuse wire makes the circuit open, which immediately stops the flow of current. In such a
way, a fuse prevents damage by eliminating the possibility of a fire.
Fuses come in different shape and sizes. A fuse which is depicted in the above diagram is
commonly known to people. Nowadays, instead of a fuse, another similar device is used
with some advanced features. It is called MCB or Miniature Circuit Breaker. It is a switch that
automatically stops the current in a circuit if the current in it exceeds the specified maximum
limit.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by MCB?

2. An electric bulb shows both ________________ and _________________ effects of
electricity.
3. The electric fuse is based on the magnetic effect of electricity. (True/False)
4. State atleast two factors on which heating effect of electric current depends.

Magnetic effect of an electric current

When an electric current is passed through a conductor, a magnetic field is set up around it
which exists as long as the current flows in the conductor. This is called magnetic effect of
an electric current.
This effect was the observed for the first time by a Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted
in 1820. Orested performed an experiment which proved the magnetic effect of an electric
current. He placed a compass needle parallel to a straight conductor carrying a current. The
needle was deflected. On reversing the current the needle was deflected in the opposite
direction. Orested concluded that a wire carrying an electric current possesses an area around
it where its influence is felt which he called magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field
depends upon the strength of the current.
Magnetic effect of an electric current is used in a large variety of ways like in doorbells, hard
drives, MRI machines, microphones, motors, etc.
The region in the vicinity of a magnet, where force of attraction or repulsion can be felt by
magnetic materials, is called a magnetic field. When an electric current is passed through a
conductor, a magnetic field is generated around the conductor. This phenomenon is referred
to as the magnetic effect of an electric current.
To understand this we can do the following activity.

254
 Activity 2

Aim: To show that when an electric current is passed through a wire, it behaves like a
magnet.
Materials: A compass or magnetic needle, insulated
connecting wires, a battery, switch, a bulb
Procedure: A B
• Arrange an electric circuit using a bulb, a switch and S N

insulated wires as shown in the figure.

Magnetic needle
• Place a magnetic needle under the wire through which Fig. 15.8a: No deflection
the current is being passed. of needle in the absence of
electricity.
• Close the circuit by putting the switch on and keeping
the flow of current from south pole of the magnetic
needle to the north.
• The needle deflects towards the east. W
A B
• Now, change the direction of the cell in the circuit so S N
that the flow of the current is from the north pole of the
needle towards the south. Put the switch on Magnetic needle
• This time the deflection of the needle is towards the east. Fig. 15.8b: Deflection of
needle in the presence of
Observation: flow of electric current.
You will observe that the magnetic needle aligns with the geographic north and south
when there is no current flowing through the circuit. But, one end of the magnetic
needle starts moving in the direction of current and the other end moves away from it.
Conclusion:
The magnetic effect is observed because of the current in the wire. This means electricity
and magnetism are closely associated.

Solenoid
A solenoid is a cylindrical coil of a metal wire. Commonly, a solenoid
is made by coiling a metal wire on the hollow cylindrical plastic or
ceramic tube (called core). When a current passes through a solenoid,
it starts to behave like a bar magnet. The strength of the magnetic
field of a solenoid can be increased in three ways: N S

• Increasing the number of turns of the coil of the solenoid.

Fig. 15.9: Solenoid
• Replacing the cylindrical core with soft iron cylinder.
• Increasing the amount of current flowing through the solenoid.

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 Solenoids are used in a variety of ways in electronic appliances. They are generally found in
electrical locks or latches, washing machines, copy machines, etc.

Electromagnet Battery
Plug-key
The most immediate use of the magnetic effect of
electric current is to make a magnet. This type of a
magnet is called an electromagnet. An electromagnet
is a device which behaves like a magnet until current
is flowing through a solenoid; otherwise it is no
longer magnetic in the absence of electric current in
Soft iron core
the solenoid. As a consequence, electromagnets are
temporary magnets.

Generally, an electromagnet can be made by winding

an insulated copper wire with many turns on a
soft iron core. The strength of the magnetic field of Fig. 15.10: Electromagnet

an electromagnet can be increased like solenoid by taking the same measures which are
mentioned for the solenoid. Due to this, the strength of electromagnets can be controlled,
unlike permanent magnets. This makes it quite useful in various industrial applications. Let us
make an electromagnet to learn more about them.

Activity 3

Aim: To make an electromagnet. Iron nail

Materials: A long iron nail, a battery, an insulated copper Battery

wire, stapler pins, a switch
Procedure: Insulated
copper wire
• Wind the insulated copper wire around the iron nail
with as many turns as possible.
• Connect one end of copper wire to the battery through Switch
the switch. Figure 15.11: Electromagnet
made of iron nail
• Connect the other end of the copper wire directly to
the battery.
• Place a few stapler pins near the iron nail.
• Now, switch on, and allow the electric current to flow through the circuit.
• Observe, the effect on the pins.

256
 Observation:
The pins cling to the nail when the switch is on, while they drop as soon as the switch
disconnects the electric circuit.
Conclusion:
The iron nail behaves like a magnet as long as current flows through the circuit.

Use of electromagnets
The magnetic properties of electromagnets have many applications. Let us look at a few of
these.
• Electromagnets are used in various electrical appliances such as electric bell, electric fan,
electric motor etc.
• Electromagnets are also used for the preparation of strong permanent magnets.
• Doctors use very small electromagnetic devices to take out small magnetic materials from
eyes, ears and nose.
• Very strong electromagnets are used for magnetic separation of iron ores.
• Strong electromagnets are used in heavy industrial cranes to lift, move and drop heavy
iron and steel objects like cars.

Electric Bell
An electric bell is the most common application of electromagnets. Have you ever wondered
how it actually works?

Construction of an electric bell

Battery
An electric bell consists of an electromagnet, an
Switch
armature, a contact adjusting screw, a gong and a
hammer. The armature consists of a soft iron rod
Spring
mounted on a spring. One end of the iron rod Electromagnet
Soft iron
presses against the top of the contact adjusting strip
screw.

Working of the electric bell Hammer Gong

When the switch is pressed on, current flows in

the electromagnet. It then attracts the iron rod
Figure 15.12: Electrical bell

257
 towards itself, causing the hammer to strike the gong. At the same time, the armature loses
contact with the screw and the current is switched off. This causes the electromagnet to lose
its magnetism and the armature springs back to its original position to close the circuit once
again. Current flows again and the cycle repeats itself till the current is switched off.

Check Your Progress

1. A solenoid can generate a magnetic field in the absence of flow of electric current
through it. (True/false)
2. The electric bell consists of a natural magnet. (True/false)
3. Why do medical doctors use an electromagnet?
4. What happens when the number of turns of the wire of a solenoid reduces?

Did You Know

When electrical current flows through a circuit, it produces three effects.

• Heating effect: Which you might have seen while boiling water with the help of an
electrical heater
• Magnetic effect: Which you might have seen in electric water pumps at homes.
• Chemical effect: It is present in cells and batteries.

Word Galaxy

Fuse: a device with a short length conducting material with limited capacity
to allow the flow of current through it
Solenoid: a cylindrical coil of current carrying wire
Electromagnet: a coil of insulated current carrying wire wound around a piece of magnetic
substance

At a Glance

• The rate of flow of charges through an electric conductor is called an electric current.
• A material which allows electrical charges to flow through it is referred to as an electric
conductor.
• A circuit is a close conducting path through which electricity flows between two points.
• A circuit diagram is a representation of an actual electrical circuit with the help of standard
symbols of the components of that circuit.
• Ammeter and voltmeter are used to measure current and potential difference respectively.

258
• Electricity produces different effects such as heat and magnetism.
• A fuse protects an electric circuit from overloading current.
• Short circuit occurs when the positive and the negative terminals come in direct contact
with each other.
• A current carrying wire produces a magnetic field.
• A solenoid behaves like a bar magnet as long as the electric current is flowing through it.
• An electromagnet is a temporary magnet.
• An electric bell works on the principal of electromagnets.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. Choose the standard symbol of a cell for a circuit diagram.

i. ii.

iii. iv.

b. Which of the following is not an electrical component of an electric circuit?

i. Cell ii. Conducting wire
iii. Electrical bell iv. None of these

c. The heating effect of electric current is used in:

i. room heater ii. electrical oven
iii. electric iron iv. all of these

d. A fuse wire is:

i. an insulator with high melting point ii. a conductor with high melting point
iii. a conductor with low melting point iv. an insulator with low melting point

e. When a current is being drawn from the cell, then the circuit is:
i. an open circuit ii. a close circuit
iii. an incomplete circuit iv. None of these

2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. The SI unit of an electric current is . (amperes/ohm)
b. is a device which measures the electric current in a circuit.
(Voltmeter/Ammeter)

259
 c. A is a collection of two or more cells. (power supply/battery)
d. Electromagnets are magnets. (permanent/temporary)
3. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. MCB stands for Miniature circuit board.
b. The LED is a one terminal electrical component.
c. When a current passes through a wire, a part of the heat energy is converted into
electric energy and the wire gets heated.
d. Key is another term for a switch.
e. Electrical bell is a safety device.

4. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Solenoid i. heating effect of electric current
b. Fuse ii. a copper wire wounded on iron core
c. Circuit diagram iii. a component of electric circuit
d. Resistor iv. standard symbols of components

5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.

a. What is the application of a cell in an electrical circuit?
b. How is a voltmeter useful?
c. Why are electrical current and electrical circuits different?
d. Why is an electrical fuse a useful device?
e. Name the unit of potential difference.
f. Draw a standard symbol of LED.

6. Answer the following questions in short.

a. State the differences between a close circuit and an open circuit.
b. Define the following:
i. Electric current ii. Electromagnet
c. State three different uses of an electromagnet.
d. Write a short note on LED.
e. Compare a cell and a battery.
7. Give reasons.
a. Electromagnets are temporary magnets.
b. A fuse wire has a low melting point.

260
8. Answer the following questions in detail.
a. Give details of the use of switch in a circuit.
b. What must be kept in mind while constructing a circuit diagram?

9. Diagram based questions.

a. Observe the following symbols.
i. ii.

iii. iv.

b. Identify the symbols and describe why they are used in a circuit.

10. Life skills

Discuss with your class about, the various instances where the heating effect of an electric
current is responsible for waste of electrical energy.

11. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

a. Why are electromagnets used in industrial cranes instead of permanent
magnets?
b. Why are coil of wires used in electromagnets instead of straight wires?

My Project Idea

Make your own electromagnet using different materials which is easily available at home.
You can choose your own design and procedure. One example is given here for reference.
Take a three meter long insulated copper wire of about 20 gauge and wrap this wire
closely around a nail of 20 cm length. Once you are done with the wrapping, take a
wire stripper and remove about 10 cm long insulation from the both the ends of the
wire. Connect these ends of the wire to a D-cell or a 9 volt battery. At this stage your
electromagnet is ready to test. For testing this, you must take few stapler pins and place
them on a table. Now, hover the electromagnet (nail with wrapped wire) just a little
above these pins. Here, you will see the pins start sticking to the electromagnet.

12. Field trip

Visit a river dam in your city to understand how electricity is produced from water stored
in dams. Prepare a field report of your visit.

261
 Let’s Create

With the help of an electromagnet, try to make an electrical latch for a door.

Meet the Scientist

Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931): He was an American

inventor and a leading businessman. He held a world
record of holding 1093 patents, individually and jointly.
Among his many inventions, the first working incandescent
bulb was a very famous and very important invention.
He is also considered as the driving force for innovation
in the development of various devices in the fields of
photography, motion picture, sound recording, electric
power generation, etc. Besides these, he has also made
the world’s first industrial research laboratory known as the Wizard of Menlo Park.
He had become the most famous man in the world by the time he was in his 30s.
Apart from his talent as an inventor, he was a highly successful manufacturer and
businessman.

WEBLINKS

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/electricity.html
https://www.ducksters.com/science/electricity_101.php
http://phys.org/news/2013-11-rural-india-electricity.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/battery-timeline-1991340

 As on 30.04.2019

262
16 Water: A Precious Treasure

Let’s Learn

• Forms of water • Depletion of water resources

• Availability of water • Scarcity of water around the
• Water resources world

• Water distribution and resources • Water management

Tune In
About 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water along with a significant amount of
water also present in the ground.
Icecaps and
glaciers 2.06% Lakes, swamps
and rivers
Oceans and Groundwater 0.009%
seas 97.00% 0.903%

Available fresh Others

water 0.94% 0.027%

Despite this, why are the following slogans accepted and popularised?
“Save water”, “Conserve water, conserve life.”,
“A drop of water is worth more than a sack of gold to a thirsty man.”

All animals and plants need water to survive, and also the bodies of living things contain large
amount of water. Water molecules are the most abundant molecules in cells; they account for
70% or more of the total cell mass. Therefore, in almost all water related quotes, water becomes
synonymous to life.
Water is central to water transportation and the
Did You Know
production of electricity. Water is a precious resource
for the entire human race. 22nd March is celebrated as world
water day.
Forms of Water
Water is a molecule made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Its chemical
formula is H2O.
Water is found in nature in all three states:
The solid form of water is known as ice. Water freezes into ice at 0°C. The density of ice is
less than water. Water is present in its liquid form in water bodies like oceans and seas. Water

263
 vapour (steam) is the gaseous form of water.
The temperature at which a liquid on heating, gets converted into a gas is called boiling
point. The boiling point of water is 100°C. The process of conversion of a liquid into vapour
from the surface of the liquid below its boiling point is called evaporation, whereas the
process of conversion of vapour into a liquid is called condensation.

Did You Know

Steam is invisible to the naked eyes. The things that are visible to us when water gets boiled
are mist or fog. It contains tiny droplets of liquid water that gets condensed and suspended
in the air. In other words, it is a warm little cloud.

Water Cycle
The three forms of water keep the total amount of the Earth’s water constant through the
effect of water cycle or hydrological cycle. During this process, water also gets purified. It is a
continuous cycle where water is turned into vapour due to constant evaporation of water from
water bodies like oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, etc. Also, events like transpiration, sublimation
and volcanic emissions also account for the release of water vapour in the atmosphere. These
water vapours travel upwards and condense into millions of tiny droplets, which form clouds
at high altitude.

The water cycle

Transpiration

Condensation
Precipltation

Condensation Sublimation
Precipltation Snowmelt runoff

Transpiration
Evaporation
Surface flow
Evaporation Surface flow

Infiltration

Plant uptake Percolation

Groundwater flow
Fig. 16.1: The Water Cycle

264
The clouds keep moving from one place to another. When clouds enter into the low temperature
area, millions of tiny droplets come closer and collide with one another and form larger
droplets. When droplets get very heavy, they fall down as rain or snow. This phenomenon
is referred to as precipitation. The water from these precipitations fills the streams, rivers,
etc. which eventually ends up into the seas. Some of the rainwater flows over the ground
as surface runoff, gets absorbed in the soil, and is stored in the Earth as groundwater. The
ground water also discharges into streams and lakes, and finally ends up into seas.

This entire process repeats itself again and again in a never ending cycle. In this process, water
incessantly changes its state from a solid to a liquid to a gas and once again into solid. This
entire gigantic cyclic system is powered by solar energy.

In order to understand the water cycle better, let us carry out the following activity.

Check Your Progress

1. What is evaporation?
2. Total amount of the Earth’s water is constant. (true/ false)
3. All the rainwater eventually discharges into ____________.

Availability of Water on Earth Salt water 97.5%

All of us know the fact that the Earth is
covered in water. Actually, continents
Freshwater Freshwater
are huge islands in the midst of massive
Accessible 0.5% unaccessible 2 %
oceans. In simple terms, water makes up
about 71% of the Earth’s surface, while the
remaining 29% consists of continents and
islands. Due to the existence of this amount Fig. 16.2: Water distribution
of water on the surface of the Earth earned
the name the blue planet.

The total amount of water in the world is around 1.4 billion km3, out of which 97.5% is contained
within oceans as salt water. About 35 million km3 of water on the Earth is freshwater which
amounts to only about 2.5 % water out of the total amount of water in the world.

Did You Know

About 90% of the world’s supply of fresh water is located in Antarctica.

265
 Water distribution and resources
As we have seen the distribution of water on the Earth’s
surface is extremely disproportionate. Only about
2.5 % water on the surface is fresh water and remaining Ground water,
97.5% water resides in the seas and oceans. Out of this 20%

total freshwater, about 79% of water is frozen in the

Surface water,
glaciers, about 20% of it is found underground and Ice caps & 1%
only about 1% water is available in different water Glaciers, 79%

bodies like lakes, ponds, rivers, etc.

Thus it can be concluded that the main sources of
water for human use are rainwater, surface water and
groundwater. Fig. 16.3: Freshwater distribution

Rainwater
Rain water is the purest form of water source compared to other sources. Rainwater helps in
replenishing the surface water as well as the groundwater. Rainwater can get polluted while
falling on the Earth due to air pollution. It is important to prevent the pollution of rainwater
and also to maximise its utilisation. It is important for countries like India, which are heavily
dependent upon rainwater for their agriculture and drinking needs. The monsoon brings
heavy rain in India between June and October.

Surface water
It is the water which flows and gets accumulated on the surface of the Earth. It includes the
water present in different water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, seas and oceans
on the surface of the Earth. Among these water bodies, the water from the seas and the
oceans cannot be used on account of salinity.

Groundwater
It is the water that is present below the surface
Natural recharge
of the Earth where it occupies all or part of the
empty space. The groundwater is largely filled
and refilled by rainwater, when rainwater or
Rainfall
water from other sources of water like ponds,
lakes, etc. moves downwards through empty Water table
spaces in the soil, sand, or through cracks in
the rocks until it reaches a layer of the rock
Fig. 16.4: Groundwater
(known as bedrock) through which water
cannot pass. The process of seepage of water through the soil is known as infiltration.
Thus, the water is accumulated underground. The top level of the water in the soil, sand, or
rocks below the ground is called the water table. The reservoir of water that gets collected in
the empty spaces between the water table and the bedrock is called the aquifer.

266
At least some groundwater can be found almost Let’s discuss
everywhere. The water table may be deep, such as under What would happen if water
a hill, or shallow such as under a valley. It is accessible existed in only one form?
through tube wells and hand pumps. As a result,
groundwater is the major source of drinking water in both urban and rural India. In addition,
it is also an important source of water for the agricultural and the industrial sectors.

Check Your Progress

1. What is an aquifer?
2. The groundwater reserves are recharged by rainwater. (true/false)

Depletion of Water Resources

The depletion of water resources means the consumption of water from a water resource is
greater and faster as compared to the speed by which it can be replenished. Water resources
deplete, despite the continuous recycling of water naturally. The depletion of water resources
takes place due to human activities and change in the environment. Some of the causes for
the depletion of all water resources are mentioned below.
• Over the years, lower rainfall has been witnessed around the world as a result of
deforestation. It is a well known fact that all water resources are recharged by rainwater.
Thus, low rainfall contributes to reduction of water in the various water resources.
• A major cause of depletion of water resources is water pollution. Almost all industries
around the world dump their waste into many water bodies for example lakes, rivers,
etc. This pollutes and contaminates the water of various water sources. Households and
agricultural activities also contribute to this by discharging sewage, garbage and liquid
waste into the lakes and rivers.
• The demand and consumption of water has increased several folds due to over population.
In order to support such a huge population, large amount of water is being used and wasted
in various activities such as agriculture, construction, urbanisation and industrialisation.
• The agricultural productivity is directly proportional to the availability of water in the
region. In order to increase the productivity, more and more amount of water is being
used from varied sources. Especially, groundwater is exploited beyond reasonable limits
for this purpose as it is available free of cost. Large amount of water gets wasted during
different agricultural processes because of inefficient methods of irrigation and faulty
machinery involved in the process.

Groundwater Depletion
The groundwater is also affected by the following reasons:
The groundwater is the major source of drinking water for both urban and rural areas. For a

267
 very long period of time it has been considered as a dependable source of uncontaminated
water. Such over dependency leads to depletion because of overuse and insufficient recharge.
As a consequence the quantity of water in the resource is decreased several folds. Furthermore,
the rate of depletion is increased by pollution which degrades its quality as well.
Besides these, other factors which affect the groundwater are deforestation, salt water
contamination and decrease in seepage. Extensive deforestation reduces the capacity of the
soil to hold water and this affects the water table. When deep inside the ground the fresh
water gets mixed with salt water, this depletes the groundwater.

Check Your Progress

1. The groundwater does not deplete. (true/false)

2. State the factors responsible for water depletion.

Scarcity of Water around the World

The biggest impact of depletion of water resources is scarcity of water. In simple terms the
shortage or scarcity of water can be defined as the condition wherein the available water
resources are inadequate to meet the demands of water usage within a specific region.
Whenever there is a shortage or inaccessibility of potable and fresh water for drinking and
sanitation in a particular region, it means that the region is suffering from scarcity of water.
This problem persists across the world which has now become a global crisis.

Effect of water scarcity on human life Let’s discuss

Any recent drought affected
Some of the effects of water scarcity are mentioned
region and its consequences on
below.
daily life.
Poor Health:
• Scarcity of water forces people to drink contaminated and low quality water, especially in
the non-developed countries. As a result, people expose themselves to waterborne diseases
like typhoid, cholera, etc. Such diseases claim several lives every year across the world.

Did You Know

About 80% of all the diseases in the developing world are water related.

• The flow of sewage ceases and gets stagnated at

Did You Know
particular places because of shortage of water.
Such places become breeding grounds for a variety Globally, about 4000 children die
of insects like mosquitoes, which end up spreading every day because of unsafe water.
infections and life threatening diseases like malaria.
• Sanitation also becomes a great problem due to scarcity of water.

268
Shortage of foods
Agriculture and livestock require very large amounts of water. Globally, about 70% of the water
is used for the purpose of agriculture and only 10% of water is utilised for other domestic
purposes. Thus, in arid and semi-arid places, agricultural yields remain low and animals die
very often due to scarcity of water. This eventually contributes to shortage of food.

Habitat loss and destruction to ecosystems:

The natural landscapes are affected severely because of the scarcity of water. The scarcity of
water leads towards the desertification of landscapes and destruction of wildlife. Consequently,
an entire ecosystem of a region collapses and food shortages become a permanent problem.
As a result, various animals lose their natural habitat.

Effect of water scarcity on plants

As it is a vital component for human existence, water is needed for the survival of plants as
well. Water is used for the following vital activities in plants:

• Plants use water not only to keep their cells from drying out, but also for the transport of
nutrients within their bodies.

• Plants use water to absorb nutrients from the soil for photosynthesis.

The harvest of plants reduces to a large extent because in such conditions plants do not
grow as per the expected height, which reduces the activity of photosynthesis. Plants are
more susceptible to diseases when water is not available in sufficient amount. In other words,
scarcity of water weakens the plants and eventually leads them to death. Accordingly, the
amount of oxygen in the air and rainfall reduces drastically. Therefore, water is a thread for
the existence of flora and fauna of a region.

Water Management
Once upon a time, water was the most abundant natural resource on the Earth, but now
it has become a scarce resource due to overuse, wastage and droughts. As the world has
been facing scarcity of water, conservation of water has become imperative for the future of
mankind and the rest of the world. Water management is obligatory for each individual to
save water. Water management is a management of water resources to use water optimally
through planning, distributing and managing water. Some of the measures of effective water
management are listed below.

269
 Awareness Let’s discuss
The government with NGOs should organise effective Different daily activities where
campaigns to make people aware about the importance water wastage can be avoided
of water. This awareness should be reached at all levels of
by taking preventive measures.
the society especially children. In order to shun depletion
of water, each individual should be taught to reuse, recycle and reduce the wastage of water.

Afforestation
Tree plantation and maintenance reduces the depletion of water manifold. The roots of plants
and trees retain significant amount of water in the soil that increases the groundwater seepage
to a large extent. It also reduces soil erosion.

Reduction of water pollution

The industrial waste and other harmful chemicals cannot be dumped in the water bodies. Such
harmful pollutants contaminate the freshwater and make the water unavailable for daily use.
Prevention of such activities helps to maintain the quality of water for present and future use.

Rainwater harvesting
Water harvesting or rainwater harvesting is the most effective way to reduce water depletion.
It is a simple technique in which rainwater is collected and stored for future use. The collected
water can be used in a number of ways. It can be used for daily activities as an alternative
source of water and can also be used for the purpose of recharge of local aquifers. Rainwater
can be collected through modern ways as depicted in figure 16.5.

4. Water storage tank

- the water is then
supplied to flats,
which can be used for
domestics purposes

3. Collection tank - a
titted sensor then 1. Rainwater inlet - the
sends the water to rainwater that collects
the tank located on on the terrace makes
the terrace its way down a pipe

2. Suction tank - a filter

placed in the tank clears
the water of impurities
Fig. 16.5: Rainwater harvesting

It can also be collected by the old Indian way of using bawris. A bawri is a traditional Indian
deep well dug in the ground to collect rainwater. It also has staircases to reach the water

270
stored in it. They store water for a long period of time because the evaporation rate of these
deep bawris is less. Bawris are no longer used as reservoirs of water despite their usefulness.
Villages, towns and communities should come together to revive such traditional water
harvesting systems.

Agriculture water management

Effective water management can maintain the quality and quantity of the crops while reducing
the amount of water used in farming. Drip irrigation is one such method of watering the roots
of plants, drop by drop. It reduces the amount of water as also the usage of fertilisers by
minimising the wastage due to evaporation and runoff.

At a Glance

• Water is essential for life.

• Water exists in all the three forms, solid, liquid and gas on the Earth.
• About 97.5% of water on the Earth is salt water and the rest is fresh water.
• Very limited amount of fresh water is accessible to us in the form of surface water and
groundwater.
• Groundwater accumulates in the space between the Earth’s surface and bedrock.
• The top level of underground water in the soil, sand or rock is called the water table.
• The aquifer is water between the water table and the bedrock.
• Water can be depleted by human activities and environmental factors.
• Scarcity of water is the shortage of water resources to meet the demands of water usage
in a region.
• Water management is the management of water resources to use water optimally by
planning, distributing and managing water.
• Methods like rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation can conserve large amounts of water.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. Which of the following is a form of precipitate?
i. Wetland ii. Aquifer
iii. Snow iv. Fog

b. Soil erosion can be reduced by

i. drip irrigation ii. rainwater harvesting
iii. afforestation iv. overgrasing

271
 c. Water is a molecule made up of
i. two atoms of oxygen and one atom of hydrogen.
ii. two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of nitrogen.
iii. two atoms of nitrogen and one atom of hydrogen.
iv. two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
d. Scarcity of water forces people to drink:
i. contaminated water ii. hot water
iii. high quality water iv. sea water
e. Bawris are traditional Indian deep wells dug in the ground to collect
i. river water ii. sea water
iii. groundwater iv. rainwater

2. Match the following.

Column A Column B
a. Afforestation i. increases the demand of water
b. Over population ii. retains the water in the soil
c. Precipitation iii. seepage
d. Infiltration iv. rainwater

3. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.

a. The top level of the water in the soil, sand or rocks is called the is called .
(water table/aquifer)

b. The surface water is recharged by . (groundwater/rainwater)

c. of water is the shortage of water resources to meet the demands

of water usage in a region. (pollution/scarcity)

4. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. Events like transpiration, sublimation and volcanic emissions account for release of
water vapour in the atmosphere. 
b. Rainwater harvesting is responsible for the scarcity of water. 
c. Habitat loss and destruction of ecosystems is an effect of water scarcity. 
d. About 97.5% of water on the Earth is drinkable water. 
e. Trees help in groundwater recharging. 

272
5. Answer the following questions in one word or a sentence.
a. What is drip irrigation?
b. Name the biggest source of freshwater.
c. Define infiltration.
d. Name the source of energy which powers the entire water cycle.
6. Answer the following questions in short.
a. List any two causes of water pollution.
b. Describe the effects of water scarcity in plants.
c. Explain the dependence of agriculture on the available water.
7. Give reasons.
a. Rainwater recharges the groundwater.
b. Rainwater harvesting helps us to reduce depletion of water resources.
8. Answer the following questions in detail.
a. Explain hydrological cycle.
b. Justify the statement that water scarcity can destroy habitats of animals.
c. Explain any two reasons for depletion of water resources.
9. Value based question.
Raj visited his friend Mohan on a Sunday morning. He noticed that Mohan was brushing
his teeth while he had kept the tap running. Raj asked him to close the tap.
a. Why do you think Mohan should close the tap?
b. What values are shown by Raj?
10. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)
a. How does drip irrigation prevent the wastage of water?
b. About 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, then why is
water scarcity a problem?
My Project Idea

• Find out what the “Nirmal Ganga” project is. Write a report on when and why the
‘Nirmal Ganga’ was launched. Describe the current status of the plan.
• Find out about ways of water conservation in ancient times. Prepare a project report.
Include which practices, with or without modifications, can still be used in modern
times.

11. Field trip

Take a tour of any water treatment facility to understand the methods by which the quality
of waste water can be improved.

273
 Let’s Create
Gather pictures and news articles that describe the pollution of various rivers in India and
list the different measures taken to revive polluted rivers. Create an attractive chart for
the same and display it in the class.

Meet the Scientist

Hiware Bazar is a small village in the Ahmednagar district

of Maharashtra state. It was a drought prone district for
a long period of time. Due to lack of water, many farmers
abandoned their lands and migrated to cities in search of
employment.
This was until, Popatrao Baguji Pawar, who was born
in the village of Hiware Bazar, came back to the village.
He was convinced by the youth of the village to become
the sarpanch. As the sarpanch of the place, he decided to
tackle the water shortage problem. This was a major cause for the socio-economic
deterioration of the village.
To conserve the rainwater, the villagers and the Forest Department began constructing
trenches, checked dams, gully plugs and bunds along the forest areas. Crops such as
banana, sugarcane and rice, which require a lot of water were banned temporarily.
Cattle were not allowed to graze in the forest areas (charabandi). Cutting of trees
and digging of bore wells and tube wells for irrigation was also banned. Crops which
grow well with drip-irrigation and rainwater were cultivated. All these measures
ensured that all the available water was conserved and used optimally.
Along with this, lakhs of trees were also planted. As the forest cover increased, the
water table rose automatically. From a deserted and an abandoned place, Hiware
Bazar rose to become an Adarsh Gaon (ideal village), all due to the efforts of the
visionary, Popatrao Pawar and the villagers of Hiware Bazar.

WEBLINKS

https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water
http://www.eschooltoday.com/global-water-scarcity/global-water-shortage-for-kids.html
http://www.fao.org/3/y2006e/y2006e0f.htm

 As on 30.04.2019

274
17 Forests: Our lifeline

Let’s Learn

• Forests • Interdependence of plants and

• Structure of forests animals in forests

• Importance of forests • Types of forests in India

• Forest as an ecosystem • Threats to forests

• Food chain and food web in an • Conservation and management

ecosystem of forests

• Energy flow in the food chain

Tune In
You must have read the newspaper article given below that made headlines.
Scientists have warned that an ancient forest widely considered as the largest single living
thing in the world is dying, despite efforts to preserve it. The Pando aspen is an enormous
expanse of 40,000 trees, all of which are originating from a single underground parent
clone and covering about 43 hectares of Utah’s Fishlake National Forest. “While Pando has
likely existed for thousands of years – we have no method of firmly fixing its age – it is now
collapsing on our watch,” said Professor Paul Rogers, an ecologist at Utah State University.

Introduction
A forest is a section of land having many trees. Forests are home to about 80% of the world’s
terrestrial biodiversity. The trees and plants of the forests provide a healthy environment for
the breeding of several species of animals and birds. Approximately one-third of the Earth’s
total land surface is covered by forests.

Forests
Forests can be defined as large uncultivated areas of land covered thickly with different kinds
of trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. The word `forest’ is derived from a Latin word `foris’ which
means `out of doors’. Thus, natural vegetation found out of doors are forests. Before the dawn
of agriculture, more than half of the Earth’s land surface was covered by thick forests. Over the
years and more so recently, various factors have contributed to deforestation. Human beings
and forest ecosystems influence each other in both positive and negative ways.

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 Let us learn more about forests and their importance to living things.

Structure of forests
Vegetation of a forest is dominated by a
dense growth of different trees such as
bamboo, teak, seesham, sal, neem etc. The
trees in forests are of different shapes and
heights. The upper branched part of a tree
Canopy
trunk is called the crown, which varies from
one species to another. On the basis of the
height of trees, different horizontal layers get
formed in a forest. The three main horizontal
Understorey
layers of a forest from top to bottom (ground)
are canopy, understorey and forest floor.

Canopy
It is the topmost layer of the forest. It consists
of leaves and branches of tall trees that form
a kind of roof or umbrella over the smaller Forest floor
Fig 17.1 The layers of forest
trees and other plants. This layer is so dense
that very little sunlight penetrates it to reach the lower layers of the forest. A large variety of
birds, bats, monkeys and insects live here.

Understorey
The layer of vegetation which is just below the canopy is called the understorey. It mainly has
large leafed plants and small trees that are able to survive in much less sunlight. Plants such
as orchids, palms and ferns grow in this region.

Forest floor
It is the lowest layer of the forest. It receives very little sunlight. Only plants adapted to grow
with very little light can survive in this damp, warm and dark region of the forest. The floor is
covered with a layer of dead and decaying leaves, fruit, seeds, twigs and small worms. A large
variety of insects, ants, beetles are found on the forest floor. Big animals such as tigers, lions,
deer, bear etc. live on the forest floor.

Importance of forests
We depend on forests for our existence, right from the air we breathe to the various products
obtained from them that we use. Forests are renewable natural resources that are the habitats
of many plant and animal species. They, prevent soil erosion and monitor climate change.
Forests are useful in many ways.

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Source of food
Forests provide a variety of food for all animals including humans directly or indirectly. We get
numerous fruit, dry fruits and nuts from the forest. Spices like pepper, cardamom, cinchona,
cinnamon etc. obtained from the forests.

Provide shelter and protection

Forests are a home to many animals and plants. Many tribal people too live in forests. These
people depend on the forest for food, shelter, water and medicines.

Useful materials
A variety of trees such as teak, mahogany, rosewood, sal etc. growing in the forests are
sources of wood. Good quality wood is used to make furniture, boats, houses etc. Wood is
also used for the production of paper which in turn is used for making books, magazines and
newspapers. It is also used as a fuel or firewood in many households as a source of heat for
cooking food. Forests also provide gum, rubber, resins, fibres, beeswax, honey, non-edible
oils etc. Turpentine which is produced from resin or gum of pine trees is used for thinning
paints and varnishes. Non-edible oil from trees such as eucalyptus and sandalwood are used
to make dyes and perfumes.

Medicines
Several plants that grow in forests are used in the preparation of medicines. The bark of cinchona
tree is the source of a medicine called quinine. Quinine is used to treat malaria. Medicinal
plants like neem, tulsi, turmeric, mint, aloe vera are used to prepare ayurvedic medicines.
They have minimal side effects and are in demand both nationally and internationally. Many
essential oils obtained from grasses such as lemon grass, khus, vanilla etc. are used in making
cosmetics, soaps, incense sticks etc.

Purify air and maintain balance of gases

Trees have the unique ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release
oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. This oxygen is used by animals and plants
during respiration. Forests are therefore called the `green lungs’ as they play an important
role in the purification of air and maintain the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Trees bind soil particles together thus reducing the amount of dust getting into
the air. In evergreen forests, there is almost no air pollution seen.

Maintain the water cycle

Trees help in maintaining the water cycle. They absorb the water from soil and give it out
through the leaves. The process of transpiration contributes to the formation of rain clouds,
thus also helping in rainfall.

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 Reduce atmospheric temperature
Let’s discuss
Trees help in keeping air around them cool by evaporating How would the world be
the water from the leaves. This is the reason why we feel
without the forest cover?
cool under the trees.

Prevent soil erosion

The gradual removal of the topsoil by the action of wind, waves, rain, flowing water etc.
is called soil erosion. The roots of the trees firmly hold the soil particles in place thereby
preventing soil erosion.

Flood control
Trees slow down the flow of rainwater and reduce its force, this helps to control floods. Trees
play a role in replenishing groundwater as they allow water to percolate into the ground.

Recycling nutrients
Trees increase soil fertility by recycling nutrients. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi present
in the forest floor decompose the dead and decaying matter of the plants and animals. In this
process they release the nutrients back into the soil.

Provide means for tourism and recreation

Forest areas are used for recreational activities such as hiking, camping, bird watching, animal
observation and research.

Wildlife reserves
Many forests worldwide are developed into wildlife reserves for protecting wild animals and
plants.

Activity 1 Did You Know

Group the students and ask them to make One out of four medicines that we consume
a poster on the importance of forests. are derived from plants and trees.

Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks.

1. Approximately ___________ of the Earth’s total land surface is covered by forests.
2. __________ is the topmost layer of the forest.
3. __________ produced from resins or gums of pine trees is used for thining paints.
4. The bark of ___________ tree is the source of a medicine called quinine.
5. Trees increase the fertility of soil by recycling __________.

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Forest as an ecosystem
Living things and their environment together are called an ecosystem. Plants, animals and
microorganisms are the living components of an ecosystem. The abiotic factors such as air,
water, soil make up the environment. The living organisms are also termed as the biotic
community. They are divided into the following categories:

Producers
Plants are called producers as they produce food for themselves as well as all other life forms.
They are also called autotrophs as they use light energy to produce food from carbon dioxide
and water by the process of photosynthesis. All animals are directly or indirectly dependent
on plants for food.

Consumers
Animals cannot make their own food so they have to depend on plants and other animals for
food. Therefore, animals are called consumers. They are also referred to as heterotrophs.
There are three types of consumers as follows:

Herbivores
The animals that eat only plants or plant products are called herbivores. They are the primary
consumers. Examples include cow, deer, goat, elephant, horse, rabbit, parrot etc.

Carnivores
The flesh-eating animals are called carnivores. They feed on herbivores. They are the
secondary consumers. Examples include lion, tiger, fox, hawk etc.

Omnivores
The animals that feed on both plants and the flesh of other animals are called omnivores.
Examples include human beings, bears etc.

Scavengers
The animals that feed on dead and decaying animal matter are called scavengers. Examples
include crow, hyena, jackal and vulture.

Decomposers
The micro-organisms that decompose and Did You Know
destroy the dead remains of plants and animals 70% of the world’s animal species depend
are called decomposers. Examples include
on forests for their homes.
bacteria and fungi. They help in recycling the
nutrients back into the soil by the formation of a rich organic compound called humus.

Food chain and food web in an ecosystem

In an ecosystem, one organism eats another which in turn is eaten by the third, thus forming
a chain. A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms that feed on each other. It starts

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 from producers (plants) and ends with decomposers (bacteria and fungi). For example a rabbit
(herbivore/primary consumer) eats grass (producer) and is in turn eaten by a fox (carnivore/
secondary consumer).

Grass Rabbit Fox

(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer)
Fig 17.2Simple food chain

In bigger food chains, there is more than one carnivore or omnivore in the chain. Consider the
following example.

Grass Grasshopper Frog Python Eagle

(Producer) (Primary (Secondary (Tertiary consumer) (Final consumer)
consumer) consumer)
Fig 17.3 A bigger food chain

In a food chain every organism represents

a level or a link. If a link is missing, it affects
the feeding and survival of the next link
(organism). An increase or decrease in the Python Eagle
number of a particular organism (link)
affects the number of the next organism in
Wolf
the food chain. Thrush
Rat Frog
However, in nature the food chains do not Dragonfly
exist individually. Often the food chains are
interlinked to form a network called food
Grasshopper Butterfly
web. A food web is a complex feeding
system of interlocking and interdependent
food chains. In a forest ecosystem, many Corn A flowering plant
Fig 17.4 A food web

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food chains exist simultaneously. This is important because in case any one of the food chains
is disturbed, the other food chains are there to support the animals of the next feeding level.
For example, in the food web shown in figure 17.4, if the number of grasshoppers decrease
due to some reason, the frogs are still able to survive as they can feed on butterflies and
dragonflies.

Activity 2

• Divide the students into groups of 4.

• Ask them to select a habitat and draw a food chain.
• Draw or stick pictures.

The nutrients absorbed by the plants from the soil during photosynthesis are passed onto
all the consumers in a sequential manner. When the producer as well as the consumer dies,
the decomposers act on them and break them down to release all these nutrients back into
the soil. Thus, the decomposers serve a very useful purpose of maintaining the balance of
nutrients in the soil. In this way nature recycles the nutrients that have been taken away from
the soil. This is very essential, since the total amount of these nutrients does not change. Thus,
what has been taken away must be put back for the life cycle to continue.
Energy Flow in a Food chain
6
The Sun is the ultimate source of energy
for everything on the planet. Green Tertiary consumers (carnivores) 21
plants trap the energy from the Sun and
convert it into food by the process of
67
photosynthesis. In a food chain, energy
from plants (producers) is passed on
Secondary consumers (carnivores) 383
from one organism to another. From the
producers, the energy is transferred to
the herbivores from where it is passed 1478
on to the carnivores/omnivores. Thus,
producers are always at the beginning Primary consumers (herbivores) 3368
of the food chain. The entire amount of
energy is never transferred to the next 8863
level. Some part of the energy is given
out in the form of heat. Remaining Sun Producers (plants) 20810
energy is transferred to the next level
(link). Thus, the energy is maximum at = Net production
the start of the food chain i.e. at producer (calories left after respiration)

level while it is minimum at the last link. = Grass production

(total calories acquired)

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 Check Your Progress

Name the following.

1. Animals that only eat the flesh of other animals.
2. The ultimate source of energy for everything on the planet.
3. The organisms that destroy the dead remains of plants and animals.
4. The animals that feed on both plants and animals.

Interdependence of plants and animals in forest

The forest ecosystem is dominated by trees, climbers, Let’s discuss
creepers and aquatic plants. There is a wide variety of How plants and animals are
insects, birds and animals such as deer, tigers, monkeys, interdependent?
elephants, bisons etc. found in forests. All the living
organisms depend on each other either for their survival directly or indirectly. Plants and
animals of a forest ecosystem are interdependent in the following ways:
• Herbivores depend directly on green plants for food. Omnivores depend both on plants
and other animals for food. Carnivores depend indirectly on plants for their food. . Thus
all living organisms depend on green plants for their food.
• Animal excreta and the bodies of dead animals are broken down by decomposers and
converted into humus. The humus provides minerals for the growth of plants. Thus, plants
too indirectly depend on animals.
• The oxygen released by plants during photosynthesis is used by all the living beings for
respiration.
• Plants also help in replenishing groundwater which is used by all living organisms.
• The carbon dioxide given out by animals during respiration is used by the plants for
photosynthesis.
• Insects such as butterflies, honeybees and many birds help to pollinate flowers in the
forest. The continuity of plant species is not possible without pollination.
• Dispersal of plant seeds takes place by means of birds, other animals and human beings.

• Many arboreal animals such as squirrels, monkeys etc. and birds live on trees. Thus plants
also provide shelter to animals.

Types of forests in India

There are different types of forests depending on the soil type, topography, elevation and the
type of climate in which they thrive. India has a diverse range of forests which are divided into
five types.

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 Types of
forests in india

Tropical Tropical Thorn forests and Mangrove Mountain

rainforests deciduous forests desert vegetation forests vegetation

Tropical rainforests
These forests are characterised by heavy rainfall
and are also known as lowland equatorial evergreen
rain forests. Typically the tropical rainforests receive
around 60 to 160 inches of rainfall throughout the
year. The combination of warmth and moisture
makes them a suitable place for many plants and
animals. Rainforests are dominated by broad-
leaved evergreen trees which form a leafy canopy
Fig 17.5 Tropical rainforest
over the forest floor. The most abundant rain
forests are situated on the south-western coast of Kerala. Some other parts in India where
rain forests can be found are in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura, Western Ghats and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These
forests are also called the ‘Jewel of the Earth’ and the ‘World’s largest pharmacy’ as a large
amount of natural medicines have been discovered here. Banana tree, mango tree, papaya
tree all originally came from tropical rainforests. These forests provide shelter to elephants,
gaur, crocodiles and other large animals.

Tropical deciduous forests

Deciduous forests are so called because the trees
of these forests seasonally shed all their leaves
for about six to eight weeks. Trees in tropical
deciduous forests lose their leaves in the dry
season and regrow them in the rainy season. These
trees have large and broad leaves. The deciduous
forests are most commonly found on the eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats, Kerala, Chotta
Nagpur plateau, East Madhya Pradesh, South Bihar Fig 17.6 Deciduous forest
and West Odisha. Trees found in these forests include teak, sandalwood, mahua, sal, mango,
bamboo, banyan, jackfruit etc. The animal species found here are tiger, sloth bear, wild dog
and chousingha.

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 Thorn forests and desert vegetation
These forests are mainly found in dry places where the annual rainfall is very less. These forests
sprawl mostly over the Thar Desert of Rajasthan and the North western region of India, from
Saurashtra to Punjab. Long roots, broadness and radial pattern are the most common features
of the trees found in this region. The forests gradually give away to thorny bushes and scrubs.
Kikar, babul, and coarse grasses are found in these forests. These forests are homes to many
mammals including chinkara and the threatened species black buck among others.

Mangrove forests
The mangrove forests of India are considered as the largest mangrove forests in the world.
These forests are mainly situated on the Gangetic Delta and in the coastal plains of West Bengal
called the Sunderbans. The most renowned among the wildlife present in the Sunderbans is
the Royal Bengal Tiger. Other notable animals that take shelter in these mangrove forests are
grey mongoose, flying fox, wild boar, jungle cat, spotted deer, crocodiles, snakes and many
species of birds.

Mountain vegetation
These forests are mainly located at a high altitude in the mountains. The Himalayas are the
main region where these mountain forests can be found in India. These forests spread across
the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. The Sino-Himalayan
mountain forests region forms a big portion of the mountain forests in India. Evergreen trees
such as sal, teak, bamboo and cane grow abundantly in mountain forests. Besides these,
the temperate conifer trees such as pine, fir, maple, oak, spruce etc. grow in plenty in these
forests. The animal species found here include musk deer, wild goats, sheep, wolves and the
Indian snow leopard.

Check Your Progress

State whether true or false.

1. All carnivores depend directly on plants for food.
2. The mountain vegetation is mainly located at a high altitude.
3. Chinkara and black bucks are normally found in thorn forests.
4. Tropical rainforests are characterised by trees that shed leaves seasonally.

Threats to forests
The major threats to the forests are caused by human activities. Deforestation and pollution
are the major threats that currently forests all over the world are facing.

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Deforestation
The permanent destruction of forests in order
to make the land available for other purposes is
known as deforestation. About 7.3 hectares of
forests are destroyed every year.

Causes of deforestation:
• To make more land available for housing and
urbanisation
• To create more land for agriculture as the Fig 17.7 Mangrove forest
demand of food is increasing due to an increase
in population
• Increased mining activities
• Overgrazing
• For constructing dams
• Increased demand for construction of infrastructure facilities such as road ways, railways
and other transport means
• To make highly prized items such as essential oils
• To meet the demand of timber for commercial items such as furniture, paper and
construction
• Pollution – All the three types of pollution i.e. air, water and soil cause great damage to
the forests. The polluted water damages the natural flora of the forest and over a period
of time the forest cover is lost. Similarly the harmful gases present in the polluted air have
dangerous effects on plants such that their existence is threatened. Polluted soil causes
maximum damage as the plants depend on soil for anchoring as well as nutrients and
water.
• Forest fire is also one of the important causes of large scale destruction of forests.

Effects of deforestation
Forests are intricate ecosystems that affect almost every species on the planet. When they are
degraded, it can start a devastating chain of events. Following are some of the consequences
of deforestation.
• Increased soil erosion – The roots of trees hold the soil particles together. This prevents
the soil from getting washed off. Without the trees, the soil is free to blow away. Thus,
deforestation increases the rate of soil erosion.
• Trees are important for the water cycle. They help in rainfall. Due to decrease in the green

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 cover, there will be lesser rain affecting the pattern of water cycle. This will ultimately lead
to desertification of the land.
• Deforestation leads to increase in the overall temperature of the Earth leading to global
warming.
• It will ultimately lead to unpredictable changes in weather and climate.
• More and more wildlife species are losing their habitats due to deforestation. If this
continues to happen, it may lead to extinction of the affected species in near future.
• Loss of biodiversity due to extinction of plant and animal species.
• Many tribal people live in rainforests of the world. Destruction of forests thus destroys the
homes of tribal people.

Conservation and management of forests

Forests are of great economic and ecological significance. Hence, it is the duty of every human
being to protect and preserve our forests. Conservation means judicious use of resources
without wasting them. Some of the ways to conserve the forests are as follows:
• Large scale cutting of trees must be stopped.
• ‘Tree for a tree’ principle should be adopted, that is, for every tree that has been felled,
a new tree should be planted. Plant more trees every year during the rainy season to
develop new forests.
• Excessive cutting down of forest trees should not be allowed by the Government.
• Paper products such as old newspapers, magazines, books and notebooks should be
recycled to conserve forests.
• Using wood as a fuel should not be encouraged. People from rural areas should be
encouraged to use biogas in place of wood as a fuel.
• Overgrazing by cattle should be checked periodically.
• Waste lands should be utilised for producing fodder, timber and firewood.
• Pollution of air, water and land must be controlled so that forests can survive.
Conservation and management of forests does not mean that we should stop using forest
resources completely. It means that we should use them judiciously without depleting them.
Thus, conservation of forests aims at
• Increasing forest cover by planting more trees
• Increasing forest productivity
• Avoiding exploitation of forest resources

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Afforestation
Large scale planting of trees is called afforestation. With growing awareness among
environmentalists and common people, the importance of forests is being felt. Special drives
are conducted for afforestation of land. For example, Vanmahotsav, where new saplings of
trees are planted on a large scale, is celebrated every year.
Our main aim should be to minimise human intervention. We need to learn to utilise our
forest resources in a judicious manner to ensure conservation of the environment.

Check Your Progress

Define the following.

1. Deforestation
2. Soil erosion
3. Afforestation

Word Galaxy

Canopy: the topmost layer of the forest

Understorey: the layer of vegetation in a forest which is just below the
canopy
Turpentine: fluid obtained from resins of pine trees
Humus: the organic component of soil formed by the decomposition of dead plants and
animals
Organic: containing carbon compounds
Deforestation: permanent destruction of forests
Afforestation: large scale planting of trees
Desertification: the process of conversion of fertile land into desert

At a Glance

• Forest is a large uncultivated area of land thickly covered with different kinds of trees,
shrubs, herbs and grasses.
• The three main horizontal layers of a forest from top to bottom (ground) are canopy,
understorey and forest floor.
• Forests are a renewable natural resource. They provide many valuable products, purify the
air, maintain the water cycle, keep floods under control, prevent soil erosion etc.
• Living things and their environment together are called an ecosystem.

287
 • Food chain is the sequence in which energy is transferred in the form of food from one
organism to another.
• A food web is a complex feeding system of interlocking and interdependent food chains.
• The way in which plants and animals depend on each other in order to survive is called
interdependence.
• Tropical rainforests are characterised by heavy rainfall.
• Tropical deciduous forests are characterised by trees that seasonally shed all their leaves
for about six to eight weeks of the year.
• Thorn forests are mainly found in dry places where the annual rainfall is very less.
• The permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for other purposes
is known as deforestation.
• Conservation means judicious use of resources without wasting them.

Let’s Exercise

1. Tick () the correct option.

a. Trees of __________ seasonally shed their leaves.
i. tropical rainforests ii. tropical deciduous forests
iii. thorn forests iv. mountain forests

b. Living things and the environment together constitute the _____________.

i. ecosystem ii. biotic community
iii. food chain iv. food web
c. Energy flow in an ecosystem can be represented by
i. Sun – herbivore – decomposer – carnivore
ii. Producer – herbivore – carnivore
iii. Sun – producer – herbivore – carnivore – decomposer
iv. Decomposer – carnivore – herbivore – producer
d. ___________ directly feed only on plants.
i. Omnivores ii. Carnivores
iii. Decomposers iv. Herbivores
e. Which one of the following statements is incorrect about forests?
i. Forests help in prevention of soil erosion.
ii. Forests lead to an increase in the overall temperature.
iii. Forests provide us with essential oils.
iv. Forests help in slowing down the flow of rainwater

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2. Fill in the blanks with the words given in the brackets.
a. is the lowest layer of the forest. (Forest floor/Understorey)
b. The bark of tree is the source of a medicine called quinine. (neem/
cinchona)
c. In a food chain, every organism represents a . (layer/level)
d. Large scale planting of trees is called . (afforestation/deforestation)
e. Decomposition of dead plants and animals leads to the formation of .
(humus/soil)
3. Match the following.
Column A Column B
a. Herbivore i. Fungi
b. Carnivore ii. Hyena
c. Scavenger iii. Tiger
d. Decomposer iv. Rabbit

4. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
a. The forest floor is covered with a layer of dead and decaying leaves.
b. The living organisms of an ecosystem are also termed as biotic community.
c. Deciduous forests are dominated by broad-leaved evergreen trees.
d. Forest fires are one of the important causes of large scale destruction of forests.
e. In nature the food chains exist individually.

5. Give two examples of the following.

a. Grasses that are good sources of essential oils
b. Omnivores
c. Non-edible oils
d. Animals found in mangrove forests

6. Answer the following questions in short.

a. What is the main characteristic of thorn forests?
b. List the animals found in the canopy layer of the forest.
c. What is a food web?
d. Give any four regions of India where tropical rainforests are found.

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 7. Give reasons.
a. The tropical rainforest is a suitable place for many plants and animals.
b. Forests are also called ‘green lungs’.

8. Answer the following questions in detail.

a. Plants are dependent on animals. Justify the statement by giving two examples.
b. Write a note on mountain vegetation of India.
c. List the causes of deforestation.
d. State any four ways to conserve the forests.

9. Diagram based question.

a. Identify two herbivores in the given figure.
b. Give one complete food chain in the given
food web.
c. Identify two carnivores in the figure.

10. Value based question.

Khushbu visited her grandparents during
the summer vacation. Her grandfather went to the forest every day to cut wood. Her
grandmother used it as fuel for cooking. She asked her grandfather, if there was any
alternative for the wood. She advised him on the various other resources that can be used
for cooking. Also, Khushbu suggested that her grandfather should plant a tree for every
tree that he cuts.

a. Are the actions of Khushbu’s grandparents justifiable? Why?

b. Is the suggestion given by Khushbu valid? Why?
c. What values are shown by Khushbu?

11. Life skills

Conduct a group discussion on – `Is deforestation justified in the name of development?’

12. HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)

What will happen if decomposers are destroyed in an ecosystem?

13. Field trip

Visit a nearby National park and prepare a report on the variety of plants
and animals seen there. Gather information regarding their habitats and feeding habits

290
 using the internet or books. Make your report presentable by pasting photographs of the
listed plants and animals.

My Project Idea

Many species of plants and animals are getting endangered due to deforestation. Find
out the details about endangered species of India and list measures that can be adapted
to conserve them. Present your work in the class.

Meet the Scientist

Aldo Leopold (1887 – 1948) was an American

author, scientist, ecologist, forester, conservationist
and environmentalist. He was an expert on wildlife
management and was considered to be the Father of
Wildlife Ecology and the United States Wilderness System.
He is the inventor of modern environmental ethics and
the movement for wilderness conservation. Early in his
career he was assigned to hunt and kill bears, wolves
and mountain lions in New Mexico as these predators
caused huge livestock losses. However, he developed an
ecological ethic to replace the existing ethic of human dominance and emphasised
on the importance of predators in the balance of nature. His efforts resulted in
the return of bears and mountain lions to New Mexico wilderness areas. The Aldo
Leopold Foundation Baraboo, Wisconsin founded in 1982 is a non-profit conservation
organisation that aims to foster the land ethic through the legacy of Aldo Leopold.

WEBLINKS

http://www.indianetzone.com/2/indian_forests.html
https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/ecosystems/whatis.html
https://www.aldoleopold.org/about/aldo-leopold/
http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/chipko.htm

 As on 30.04.2019

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