GENNF301 NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS

Learning Outcome 1: Describe network concepts

Content/Topic 1: Network concepts and technologies

✓ Definition of network

A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other with the
ability to exchangedata.

✓ Advantages of network
• A user can logon to a computer anywhere on the network and access their work files from the file
server
• Computers can be managed centrally
• Time
• Sharing printers, modems etc saves money and time
• Security
• It is easy and convenient to monitor users –
• Peripherals such as printers can be shared amongst many different users.
• Software can be shared among different users.
• Communication across the network is cheap and fast.

✓ Disadvantages of network
1. Cabling can be expensive to install and replace.
2. A fault with the server will prevent the whole network from working.
3. Security measures are needed to restrict access to the network.
4. WANs are vulnerable to hackers and viruses.
5. If something goes wrong with the file server the whole network is unable to operate
6. The technical skills needed to manage a network are much higher than working on a stand-alone
computer
7. Users may use too much bandwidth - for example when listening to music files or
watching video clips -preventing others from using the network facilities properly

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 ✓ Application of network
• Communication and Collaboration
Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter connect people worldwide, facilitating
communication, sharing information, and building communities.
Email: One of the most fundamental network applications, email allows for efficient communication and
information exchange.
Instant Messaging: Apps like WhatsApp, Messenger, and Telegram provide real-time text, voice, and
video communication.
Video Conferencing: Tools like Zoom, Google Meet, and Microsoft Teams enable face-to-face meetings,
regardless of location.
• Information Access and Sharing
Internet: The global network of networks provides access to a vast amount of information, including
websites, online resources, and databases.
Cloud Computing: Networks enable the storage and access of data and applications on remote servers,
providing scalability and flexibility.
File Sharing: Networks allow for the sharing of files, documents, and other digital content between devices.
• Business and Industry
Intranets: Private networks within organizations facilitate communication, collaboration, and information
sharing among employees.
Extranets: Networks that connect an organization with its partners, suppliers, and customers.
E-commerce: Online businesses rely on networks to sell products and services, process payments, and
manage inventory.
Remote Work: Networks enable employees to work from anywhere, improving flexibility and productivity.
• Entertainment and Media
Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and Spotify deliver movies, TV shows, and music over
the internet.
Gaming: Online gaming allows players to compete and collaborate with others from around the world.
Social Media Influencers: Networks enable individuals to build large followings and monetize their
content.
• Education and Research
Online Learning: Networks provide access to online courses, tutorials, and educational resources.
Research Collaboration: Scientists and researchers can collaborate and share data through networks.
Distance Education: Universities and colleges offer online degree programs and courses.
• Government and Public Services
E-Government: Governments use networks to deliver services to citizens, such as online registration, tax
filing, and permits.

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Public Safety: Networks are essential for emergency response, law enforcement, and public safety services.
✓ Network classification

Classifying network by components roles (working principle)

The network falls into two major architecture

a) Peer to peer networks
b) Client/server networks
1. Peer to peer
• Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate only for very small businesses or for home use.
• A peer-to-peer network can support about ten clients (workstations)
• computers are connected individuals in pair (one to one connection).
• There is no dedicated server. All the computers are equal.
• Each user has the right to decide what he would or would not like to share.

Each computer acts as both client and server. This arrangement is suitable in small office network.

Advantages Disadvantages
inexpensive security
easy to set up Scattering data
easy maintenance
No need for a network operating system
Does not need an expensive server because
individual workstations are used to access the files

2. Client Server architecture

This is a network Architecture in which each computer on the network is either a client or a server.
Each client is connected to a centrally located dedicated computer called server.

Some different types of server:

➢ File server: managing files or disk drives
➢ Print server: to handle printing request
➢ Communication server: they are setup to handle remote users dialing into network
➢ Mail server: specially setup to handle client’s email

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 Advantages Disadvantages

▪ All files are stored in a central location ▪ A specialist network operating system
▪ Network peripherals are controlled needed
centrally ▪ The server is expensive to purchase
▪ Backups and network security is ▪ Specialist staff such as a network
control centrally manager needed
▪ Users can access shared data which ▪ If any part of the network fails a lot of
i centrally controlled disruption can occur

▪ Client: Computer that uses the services that a server provides. The client is less powerful
than server.
▪ Server: Powerful computer that provides services to other computers on the net

Classifying network by geographical area

1. LAN (local area network)

• Local area network (LAN), which is usually a small network constrained to a
smallgeographic area such as home, computer laboratory, office building…
• LAN is a fast small network
A local area network can be expanded to cover and interconnect several buildings in an
area, the resulting network can be called Campus area network (CAN) or Campus
environment.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network).

Metropolitan area network (MAN), which is used for medium size area. Examples
for a city and its surrounding or a state.

3. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network (WAN) that is usually a larger network that covers a large
geographic area. It connects countries, continent even the whole world.

Other Type

• Wireless LANs and WANs(WLAN & WWAN) are the wireless equivalent of the LAN
and WAN. Using acommunications channel that combines many types of media such as
telephone lines, cables, and air waves
• PAN (personal area network) ex : Bluetooth

✓ Network Technologies

Networking technology allows for the exchange of data between large and small information systems
used primarily by businesses and educational institutions.

• IEEE802.3 Ethernet
➢ Ethernet is the most widely used standard for wired networks.

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 ➢ Ethernet operates in the data link layer and the physical layer. It is a family of
networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards.
➢ Ethernet standards define both the Layer 2 protocols and the Layer 1 technologies. For
the Layer 2 protocols, as with all 802 IEEE standards, Ethernet relies on the two
separate sub layers of the data link layer to operate, the Logical Link Control (LLC)
and the MAC sub layers.

• WI-FI(802.11)
One of the most common networking standards used with wireless LANs is WI-
FI(802.11) a family ofwireless networking standard that use the IEEE802.11 standard
– Access method: Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Avoidance(CSMA/CA ), a variation
of CSMA/CD.
– Topology: physical wireless, logical bus

• IEEE802.5 Token ring

➢ Token Ring is a LAN protocol defined in the IEEE 802.5 where all stations are
connected in a ringand each station can directly hear transmissions only from its
immediate neighbor.
➢ Permission to transmit is granted by a message (token) that circulates around the ring.
➢ A token is a special bit pattern (3 bytes long). There is only one token in the network.

• IEEE802.8 Fiber optic

This is the technology of IEEE that introduced the use of Fiber Optic cable that
enables an Internet service provider to provide higher bandwidth speeds and support
more services such as Internet, phone, and TV in large distance.

Content/Topic 2. Description of Network topology

✓ Definition of topology

A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections in a network.
Administrators can use network topology diagrams to determine the best placements for each node
and the optimalpath for traffic flow.
With a well-defined and planned-out network topology, an organization can more easily locate faults and
fix issues,improving its data transfer efficiency.

✓ Network topology types

Physical – The physical network topology refers to the actual connections (wires, cables,
etc.) of how the network is arranged.
Logical – The logical network topology is a higher-level idea of how the network is set up,
including which nodes connect to each other and in which ways, as well as how data is transmitted
through the network.

Physical Topology

1. BUS Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
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When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the receiver accepts it(verifying
the mac address attached with the data frame) and others reject it. Bus technology is mainly suited for
small networks like LAN, etc.

In this topology, the bus acts as the backbone of the network, which joins every computer and
peripherals in the network. Both ends of the shared channel have line terminators.
The data is sent only in one direction and as soon as it reaches the end, the terminator removes the
data from the communication line (to prevent signal bounce and data flow disruption).
Taps are the connectors, while droplines are the cables connecting the bus with the computer. In other
words, there is only a single transmission line for all nodes.

Following are the advantages of Bus topology:

1. Simple to use and install.

2. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
3. Less cabling is required.
4. Cost-efficient to implement.

Following are the disadvantages of Bus topology:

1. Efficiency is less when nodes are more(strength of signal decreases).

2. If the bus fails, the network will fail.
3. A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus length.
4. Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to all nodes.
5. Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of communication.

2. Ring Topology
Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to exactly two other
computers to form the ring. The message passing is unidirectional and circular in nature.

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This network topology is deterministic in nature, i.e., each computer is given access for
transmission at a fixed time interval. All the nodes are connected in a closed-loop. This topology
mainly works on a token-based system and the token travels in a loop in one specific direction.

In a ring topology, if a token is free then the node can capture the token and attach the data and
destination address to the token, and then leaves the token for communication. When this token
reaches the destination node, the data is removed by the receiver and the token is made free to carry
the next data.

For Example, Token Ring, etc.

Following are the advantages of Ring topology:

1. Easy Installation.
2. Less Cabling Required.
3. Reduces chances of data collision(unidirectional).
4. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not pass the token).
5. Each node gets the same access time.
Following are the disadvantages of Ring topology:

1. If a node fails, the whole network will fail.

2. Slow data transmission speed(each message has to go through the ring path).
3. Difficult to reconfigure(we have to break the ring).
3. Star Topology
Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are connected to a centralized
hub. The hub or switch acts as a middleware between the nodes. Any node requesting for service or
providing service, first contact the hub for communication.

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In a star topology, hub and switch act as a server, and the other connected devices act as clients.
Only one input-output port and one cable are required to connect a node to the central device. This
topology is better in terms of security because the data does not pass through every node.

For Example High-Speed LAN, etc.

Following are the advantages of Star topology:

1. Centralized control.
2. Less Expensive.
3. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not give response).
4. Good fault tolerance due to centralized control on nodes.
5. Easy to scale(nodes can be added or removed to the network easily).
6. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
7. Easy to reconfigure and upgrade(configured using a central device).
Following are the disadvantages of Star topology:

1. If the central device fails, the network will fail.

2. The number of devices in the network is limited(due to limited input-output port in a central
device).

4. Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are interconnected with each other. In
other words, direct communication takes place between the nodes in the network.

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There are mainly two types of Mesh:

1. Full Mesh: In which each node is connected to every other node in the network.
2. Partial Mesh: In which, some nodes are not connected to every node in the network.

Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1)
devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-
1)/2.

For Example, the Internet(WAN), etc.

Following are the advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.

2. No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
3. Good Fault tolerance due to the dedicated path for each node.
4. Very fast communication.
5. Maintains privacy and security due to a separate channel for communication.
6. If a node fails, other alternatives are present in the network.
Following are the disadvantages of Mesh topology:

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 1. Very high cabling required.
2. Cost inefficient to implement.
3. Complex to implement and takes large space to install the network.
4. Installation and maintenance are very difficult.

5. Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are directly or indirectly
connected to the main bus cable. Tree topology is a combination of Bus and Star topology.

In a tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments, which can be easily managed and
maintained. There is a main hub and all the other sub-hubs are connected to each other in this
topology.

Following are the advantages of Tree topology:

1. Large distance network coverage.

2. Fault finding is easy by checking each hierarchy.
3. Least or no data loss.
4. A Large number of nodes can be connected directly or indirectly.
5. Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them fails.
Following are the disadvantages of Tree topology:

1. Cabling and hardware cost is high.

2. Complex to implement.

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 3. Hub cabling is also required.
4. A large network using tree topology is hard to manage.
5. It requires very high maintenance.
6. If the main bus fails, the network will fail.

6.Hybrid Topology:
A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of two or more topologies. In
practical use, they are the most widely used.

In this topology, all topologies are interconnected according to the needs to form a hybrid. All the
good features of each topology can be used to make an efficient hybrid topology.

Following are the advantages of Hybrid topology:

1. It can handle a large volume of nodes.

2. It provides flexibility to modify the network according to our needs.
3. Very Reliable(if one node fails it will not affect the whole network).
Following are the disadvantages of Hybrid topology:

1. Complex design.
2. Expensive to implement.
3. Multi-Station Access Unit(MSAL) required.

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Some points need to be considered when selecting a physical topology:

• Ease of Installation.
• Fault Tolerance.
• Implementation Cost.
• Cabling Required.
• Maintenance Required.
• Reliable Nature.
• Ease of Reconfiguration and upgradation.

Content/Topic 3: Description of Network components

✓ Media: Network media is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it
moves fromone component to another.
Transmission medium is of two types:
(i) Physical or Wired or Guided: For example, Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable and Optical Fiber
Cable.
(ii) Logical or Wireless or Unguided: For example, Radio waves, Microwaves and Infrared.

✓ Data: In general, a message is any grouping of information at the application layer (layer
7) of theOpen Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model that is exchanged between
applications for various purposes.
✓ Protocol: A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is
transmittedbetween different devices in the same network.
✓ Devices: The devices which are used for communication between different hardware’s used in the
computer network are known as network devices. These devices are also known as physical
devices, networkinghardware, and network equipment otherwise computer networking devices.

Here are the common network devices:

o Router
o Hubs
o Switch
o NIC
o Repeater
o MAU
o Firewall
o Access point
o Gateway
o Antenna…

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 Content/Topic 4: Classification of network devices

Network device can be classified as:

✓ Interconnection devices

✓ Access devices

✓ End devices

A) Interconnection devices

Interconnection device is any device that can enable computers to exchange data on a network.

1) Repeater : Repeaters are non-intelligent network devices that receive a signal through one
port.

They regenerate that signal and then transmit the signal again on all remaining
ports.
To extend the length of a network, repeaters can be used to connect
network segments (a portion of a computer network) but they can’t be used
to connect different networks usingdifferent access methods.
Repeaters reduce the loss of signal along a cable (known as
attenuation) which in turnprovides a more stable connection to the
devices connected the repeater.

2) Bridge
They are used to connect two or more LANs of the same type, e.g. Ethernet to Ethernet.
Unlike repeaters, a bridge can extend the capacity as well as the length of a network
because each port on abridge has a MAC address.
3) Switch
A network switch connects devices (such as computers, printers, wireless access
points) in a networkto each other, and allows them to 'talk' by exchanging data packets.
4) Router:
The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to receive,
analyze, and forward data packets between computer networks. A router examines a
destination IP address of a given data packet, and it uses the headers and forwarding
tables to decide the best way to transfer thepackets.

B) Access devices

Network access device is any device that help a user (end device) to get connected on a network.

i) Network Interface Card (NIC)

Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that is present on the computer. It is
usedto connect different networking devices such as computers and servers to share data
over the connected network.

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There are the following two types of NICs -

1. Ethernet NIC

It is made by ethernet cables. This type of NIC is most widely used in the LAN, MAN, and WAN
networks.

Example: TP-LINK TG-3468 Gigabit PCI Express Network Adapter.

2. Wireless Networks NIC

It is a wireless network that allows us to connect the devices without using the cables. These types of
NICsare used to design a Wi-Fi connection.

Example: Intel 3160 Dual-Band Wireless Adapter

The NIC also contains a MAC address (also known as a hardware address) which is a unique, 48-bit
identifier used bymany networking protocols including Ethernet and 802.11 wireless.

A MAC address looks something like this: 65:85:45: F2:C3:8E

ii) Hub

Hubs are used in Ethernet networks to connect multiple Ethernet devices together, forming a network
segment (groupof computers that is a portion of a network). A hub, like a repeater has no intelligence so
simply broadcasts all networkdata across all ports.

iii) Access point

Access point An access point is a device that creates a wireless local area network, or WLAN,
usually in an office or large building. An access point connects to a wired router, switch, or
hub via an Ethernet cable, andprojects a Wi-Fi signal to a designated area.

C) End devices

What are End Network Devices?

The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices. These devices form
the interfacebetween the human network and the underlying communication network. Some
examples of end devices are:

Computers , laptops, file servers, web servers.

Network printers
VoIP phones
Security cameras
Mobile handheld devices.

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 Content/Topic 5: Description network models

The networking model describes the architecture, components, and design used to establish
communicationbetween the source and destination systems.
There are two basic types of networking models:

Protocol model - This model closely matches the structure of a particular protocolsuite.
The hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the
functionality required
to interface the human network with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol
model, because it describes the functions that occur at each layer of protocols within the
TCP/IP suite.

Reference model
A layered model, such as the TCP/IP model, is often used to help visualize the interaction
between various protocols. A layered model depicts the operation of the protocols occurring
within each layer, as well as the interaction of protocols with the layers above and below each
layer.

A reference model is not intended to be an implementation specification or to provide a

sufficient level of detail to define precisely the services of the network architecture. The
primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and
processes involved.

There are benefits to using a layered model to describe network protocols and operations. Using a layered
model:
➢ Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined
information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below.
➢ Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.
➢ Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and
below.
➢ Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.

There are 2 predominant models available.

1) Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
2) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model

OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnect. It is an open standard for establishing
communication between systems.

Application Layer: The entire process begins at the end user’s device. This can be a
phone, laptop, server, etc. The application layer provides the interface for data
exchange between the program and the user. For example, Facebook’s web
application/mobile application is the interface through which we like, share, comment,and
perform various other activities.

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Presentation Layer: The presentation layer ensures the translation of characters from the
original format in the host system to the format of the receiving system. It also addsencryption
and decryption features. Data compression is handled at this layer.
Session Layer: The inclusion of this layer enables maintaining sessions during browsing.
This helps with implementing authentication, authorization, synchronization,and dialog
control. Let us consider examples to appreciate the significance of the session layer.
o Authentication: Once a user logs in, he/she should remain logged in until he/shelogs
out. Obtaining the status of a user’s authentication happens at this layer.
o Authorization: Access rights to specific parts of a website are given to super-
users and admins.
o Dialog Control: Allows various systems running applications like WebEx to
communicate. The challenge here is to send and receive data simultaneously, thatis
overcome by half-duplex or full-duplex protocols under the session layer.
o Synchronization: The digital experience relies on audio and video being
synchronized. The session layer ensures the timestamps of the audio and video
received are in the right order.
Transport Layer: The transport layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model and enablesthe
following services:
o Reliability: This layer ensures that a packet sent is received without corruption. Ifnot,
the packet is resent. This may add a delay. But, it is suitable for applications where
data integrity is a must.
o Flow-Control: The rate of sending information is limited by the buffer size andthe
receiver capacity. The delays caused due to propagation, queueing, and
transmission are taken into account by the flow-control algorithms.
o Congestion Control: In routers, the entry of packets can be decided based on the
current traffic.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: Before the transport layer, the ports do not play a
major role. The ports can be thought of as multiple inputs to the same network
channel. The transport Layer enables multiplexing of various application inputs. On
the receiving end, the transport layer sends the packets tocorresponding ports. This
action is similar to that of demux.

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Network Layer: The network layer is one of the most important layers. It enablesmany
features such as:
o Address Assignment: IP addresses are assigned to the host. There are two waysof
assigning addresses: Static and Dynamic. Static addresses are assigned
manually and do not change under any circumstances. Dynamic IP’s, on the otherhand, are
assigned on an as-needed basis.
o Routing: Selecting the route can be done manually or automatically. Today, mostof it
is automatic. There are two predominant algorithms used for routing: Distance Vector
Routing and Link State Routing.
o Fragmentation: Within the transport layer, there is a constraint on the maximum
allowable size for data. Therefore, bits are segmented accordingly in the transportlayer.
Fragmentation is the same process applied to the segmented packets received from the
transport layer. The aim is to accommodate datagrams receivedfrom the transport layer
into frames.
Data Link Layer: The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer(DLL) is ensuringFlow
Control, Error Control, Access Control, Framing, and the reading of physical addresses.
We will go over each of the processes in detail:
o Framing: The process of taking a packet from the layer above and adding a frameto
the packet is called framing. The frame includes data such as the end of the packet,
message length, etc. to achieve accurate information at the receiving end.
o Flow Control: DLL restricts the size of the traffic and waits for the receiver to
acknowledge the first batch of frames before sending the next batch.
o Error Control: Due to long-distance transmission, sometimes the bits of
information might get corrupted. The corruption of bits leads to poor service.
Listed below are a couple approaches to handling data corruption.
▪ Discarding the data corruption bits
▪ Repairing the corrupted bits

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 o There are other error correction algorithms like Cyclic Redundancy
Check, Checksum, Parity Bits, etc.
Physical Layer: This layer deals with electrical, mechanical, functional, and
procedural characteristics of physical links.

Network topology comes under this layer. One prominent aspect of the physical layer isencoding.

Encoding refers to the representation of data. The objective of encoding is to ensure themaximum
probability that the message, being transmitted is sent without any errors.

TCP/IP Model
The network of networks that we refer to as the Internet is based on the TCP/IP model. Therefore, it is
also referred to as the TCP/IP Protocol Suite. It is a four-layered architecturespecifically built for the
internet.

The internet requires the following features:

Reliability
Security
Traffic Efficiency

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TCP/IP model uses TCP in the transport layer and IP in the network layer. The four layers ofthe
network model are as follows.

Application Layer: In the TCP/IP Model, the Application layer encompasses the firstthree
layers in the OSI model, that is, Application layer, Presentation layer, and the Session
Layer.
Transport Layer: This layer is the same as the one mentioned in the OSI model.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is used in this model. TCP ensures reliability andhelps
avoids congestion in networks.
Network Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) is used predominantly in this layer. Until recently,
IPv4 was the most common protocol in use. It provided 32 bits for assigning addresses. It
supported around 4.29 million unique devices, and therefore IPv6 was introduced. IPv6 is
the protocol that allows 4.3 billion devices. It has 128 bits assignedfor the network address.
Network Interface: It enables the transmission of data. The layer corresponds to thedata
link layer and the physical layer in the OSI Model.

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Learning Outcome 2: Apply network protocols and communications

Content/Topic 1: Description of Network Protocols

✓ Definition of network protocol

A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Network
protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received.

✓ Common network protocols models

NetBEUI
NetBEUI: Pronounced net-booey, NetBEUI is short for NetBios Extended User Interface.
It is an enhanced version of the NetBIOS protocol used by network operating systems
such as LAN Manager, LAN Server, Windows for Workgroups, Windows 95 and
Windows NT

NetBEUI is also self-tuning and implements flow control and error detection. It defines a
framing mechanism at the transport layer and implements the LLC2 protocol of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model for networking.

TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport protocol that manages the
individual conversations between web servers and web clients. TCP divides the HTTP
messages into smaller pieces, called segments. These segments are sent between the web
server and client processes running at the destination host. TCP is also responsible for
controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between the server and the
client.

Internet Protocol
IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP, encapsulating them into
packets, assigning them the appropriate addresses, and delivering them across the best
path to the destination host.

Novell NetWare
- A local-area network (LAN)operating system developed by Novell Corporation.
- It provides users and programmers with a consistent interface that is independent
of the actual hardware used to transmit messages.
- NetWare is a computer network operating system developed by Novell, Inc. It
initially used cooperative multitasking to run various services on a personal
computer, using the IPX network protocol.
IPX/SPX (IPX): Short for Internetwork Packet Exchange, a networking protocol
used by theNovell NetWare operating systems. Like UDP/IP, IPX is a datagram
protocol used for connectionless communications.
IPX provides datagram services over packet-switched
internetworks. IPX and IP are connectionless datagram
protocols.

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 Its basic operation is similar to IP (Internet Protocol), but its addressing scheme,
packet structure,and general scope are different
(SPX): Short for Sequenced Packet Exchange, a transport layer protocol (layer 4
of the OSIModel) used in Novell Netware networks.
The SPX layer sits on top of the IPX layer (layer 3) and provides connection-
oriented servicesbetween two nodes on the network. SPX is used primarily by
client/server applications.

AppleTalk
AppleTalk's purpose was to allow multiple users to share resources, such as
files and printers. AppleTalk includes a number of features that allow local area
networks to be connected with noprior setup or the need for a centralized router
or server of any sort.
OSI : The OSI model is the most widely known internetwork reference model. It is
used for data network design, operation specifications, and troubleshooting.
CISCO

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 Content/Topic 2: Identification of Network standards

✓ Definition network of standard

A standard is a set of rules or guidelines approved and monitored by an authorized organization
Networking standards ensure the interoperability of networking
technologies by defining the rules of communication among networked
devices.
Networking standards exist to help ensure products of different vendors are
able to work together in a network without risk of incompatibility.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) lays out those
standards.

✓ Importance of standards

The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and software produced by
different vendorscan work together.
to develop networks that easily share information.
Standards also mean that customers are not locked into one vendor.
They can buy hardware and software from any vendor whose equipment meets the
standard. In this way,standards help to promote more competition and hold down prices.
The use of standards makes it much easier to develop software and hardware that link
different networks because software and hardware can be developed one layer at a time.

Some of the benefits of having approved and established standards for activities, products or services
are listedbelow:

Increased safety and reliability

Protection inflammatory business interests
Enables interoperability among various devices
Encourages innovation and increases competition

Let's look at some of the ramifications that may occur without standards:

Faulty product operation

Inferior quality
Incompatibility with other devices
Increases risk for danger due to lack of safety standards
Less manufacturers - limiting selection

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✓ Internet standards
Internet standard (STD) is a specification that has been approved by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). Such standard helps to promote a consistent and universal use of the
internet worldwide.

✓ Types of standards
1. De Facto standards

De facto means by tradition or by facts. These standards are developed without any
formal planning.These standards come into existence due to historical developments.
These standards are still being used by many organizations in the world. Here are a
few examples of de facto standards:

• The QWERTY keyboard

• Microsoft’s Windows operating system, along with commonly used business
applications such as Microsoft Word and Excel
• A navigation aid used when moving through a website that indicates the current page
in relation to the website's remaining pages.

2. De Jure standards: De jure means according to law or regulation. These standards

are developed withproper research to fulfill the requirement of data communication.
The major organization to develop communication protocols and standards are as
follows:

a) American national standard institute (ANSI)

b) Institute of electrical and electronics engineers (IEEE)
c) International standard organization (ISO)

These standards are critically assessed before being approved. An example of a de jure
standard is the
ASCII character set. Some de jure hardware standards include USB, FireWire and
HDMI.

✓ Standards organizations

• Help ensure that equipment from different manufacturers can be integrated

• Key role in growth of networks and network equipment

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Page 24 of 54
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• Established in 1918
• Standards for wide range of products
• Computer industry standards:
– Screen-display attributes
– Digital telecommunications
– Fiber-optic cable transmissions

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)

International society composed of engineering professionals
Goals are to promote development and education in electrical engineering and computer science

ITU-Formally CCITT: The standardization efforts of ITU started in 1865 with the formation of the
International Telegraph Union (ITU). ITU became a specialized agency of the United Nations in
1947.
The International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (French: Comité Consultatif
International, CCITT) was created in 1956, and was renamed ITU-T in 1993. Téléphoniqueet
Télégraphique.

ISO ( International Standards Organization)

Collection of organization standards representing 146 countries• Goal is to establish international
technological standards to facilitate global exchange of information and barrier-free trade

ISOC and IETF

• ISOC ( Internet Society)
• Professional membership society that helps to establish technical standards for the Internet
– Supporter of Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
• IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) : The IETF sets the standards that govern how
much of the Internet will operate

(EIA): Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA): Trade organization composed of representatives from
electronics manufacturing firms across US – Sets standards for its members – Helps write ANSI
standards – Lobbies for legislation favorable to growth of computer and electronics industries
ITU• International Telecommunication Union• Regulates international telecommunications: –
Radio and TV frequencies – Satellite and telephony specifications – Networking infrastructure –
Tariffs applied to global communications• Typically, documents pertain more to global
telecommunications issues than to industry technical specifications

EIA: Founded in 1924, the EIA is a U.S. organization of electronics manufacturers. The primary EIA
standards for telecommunication define the serial interface between modems and computers. The
most popular are the RS-232-C, RS- 449, RS-422, and RS-423 serial interfaces.

Telcordia Is a standard uses a series of models for various categories of electronic, electrical and
electro-mechanical components to predict steady-state failure rates which environmental conditions,
quality levels, electrical stress conditions and various other parameters affect.

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 Content/Topic 3: Description of Network Media and Transmission

Network media refers to the communication channels used to interconnect nodes on a computer
network. Typical examples of network media include copper coaxial cable, copper twisted pair
cables and optical fiber cables used in wired networks, and radio waves used in wireless data
communications networks.

✓ Types of Network Media

• Logical (wireless)
• Physical

Logical (Wireless)
The term logical media is used to refer to any type of electrical or electronic operation which is done
without the use of “hard wired” connections. It is also referred to as Wireless or unbounded
transmission media. Features:
▪ The signal is broadcasted through air

▪ Less Secure
▪ Used for larger distances

There are 3 major types of Signals transmitted through logical media:

Radio waves
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range: 3 KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range: 1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile
phone communication and television distribution.

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range: 300GHz –
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Physical
Physical media refers to the physical materials that are used to transmit information in data
communications. These physical media are generally physical objects made of materials such
as copper or glass. They can be touched and felt, and have physical properties such as weight
and color. Features:
▪ High Speed

▪ Secure
▪ Used for comparatively shorter distances

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 1. Copper media
There are three main types of copper media used in networking:
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
Coaxial

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, or coax as it is commonly referred to, has been around for a long time. Coax
found success in both TV signal transmission as well as in network implementations.

Construction of coaxial cabling

Coax is constructed with a copper core at the center that carries the signal, plastic insulation,
braided metal shielding, and an outer plastic covering. Coaxial cable is constructed in this way
to add resistance to attenuation (the loss of signal strength as it travels over distance), crosstalk
(the degradation of a signal caused by signals from other cables running close to it), and EMI
(electromagnetic interference).
Advantages:
▪ High Bandwidth

▪ Better noise Immunity

▪ Easy to install and expand
▪ Inexpensive

Disadvantage: Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

There are two types of coaxial cabling.

▪ Thinnet is used for short-distance. The maximum length of thinnet is 185 meters

▪ Thicknet. It supports data transfer over longer distances than thinnet. The maximum
length of thinnet is 500 meters
Pairs of copper wires are encased in color-coded plastic insulation and twisted together.
An outer jacket, called poly-vinyl chloride (PVC), protects the bundles of twisted pairs.

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 2. Twisted-Pair Cabling
A pair of twisted wires forms a circuit that transmits data.
The twisted wires provide protection against crosstalk (electrical noise) because of the cancellation effect

Two Basic Types of Twisted-Pair Cables

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

Has two or four pairs of wires

Relies on the cancellation effect for reduction of interference caused by electromagnetic interface
(EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI)
Most commonly used cabling in
networksHas a range of 328 ft
(100 meters)

Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

Each pair is wrapped in metallic foil to better shield the wires from electrical noise and then the fourpairs
of wires are then wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.
Reduces electrical noise from within the cable.
Reduces EMI and RFI from outside the cable

BENEFITS/DISADVANTAGES
Shielded Twisted Pair
– Provides resistance to EMI and radio frequency
– Must be grounded at both end for high frequency signals
– Cancellation and twisting of wires, shielding reduces internal and external sources ofinterference.

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 – More expensive than UTP
– Cable length 100m

ScTP: Screened twisted-pair (ScTP) cabling is a hybrid of UTP and STP cable. ScTP cable
typically consists of four pairs of 100 ohm, 24 AWG wire that are unshielded, but surrounded
by a shield of foil and includes a single drain wire used for grounding.
ScTP is less susceptible to noise because of the foil shield.

Advantages:
o Cheaper and far easier to splice
o Less susceptible to electrical interference caused by nearby equipment or wires.
o In turn are less likely to cause interference themselves.
o Because it is electrically "cleaner", STP wire can carry data at a faster speed.

Disadvantages:
o STP wire is that it is physically larger and more expensive than twisted pair wire.
o STP is more difficult to connect to a terminating block.

▪ FSTP( Shielded and Foiled Twisted Pair)

A combination of the two above, with foil shielding around the individual twisted wires and
anoverall screen which can sometimes be a flexible braid. This provides the maximum level
of protection from interference and is found in the highest performance cables.

3. Fiber-Optic Cable
▪ A glass or plastic strand that transmits information using light and is made up of one or
more optical fibersenclosed together in a sheath or jacket.
▪ Not affected by electromagnetic or radio frequency interference.
▪ Signals are clearer, can go farther, and have greater bandwidth than with copper cable.
▪ Usually more expensive than copper cabling and the connectors are more costly and harder to
assemble.

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 Two types of glass fiber-optic cable:
• Single-mode
—Single-mode fiber cable allows only one mode of light to propagate through the fiber.
—It is capable of higher bandwidth and greater distances than multimode, and it is often used for campus
backbones.
— This type of fiber uses lasers as the light-generating method.
—Single-mode cable is much more expensive than multimode cable.
—Its maximum cable length is more than 10 km.
• Multimode
—Multimode fiber cable allows multiple modes of light to propagate through the fiber.
—It is often used for workgroup applications and intra building applications such as risers.
—It uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a light-generating device.
—The maximum cable length is 2 km.

Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal communications lines:
▪ Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables.
▪ An optical fiber offers low power loss
▪ Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
▪ Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
▪ Since the fiber is a dielectric, it does not present a spark hazard.
▪ Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference
▪ Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather than analogically.
The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive to install. In addition, they are
more fragilethan wire and are difficult to split.
transmission on optical fiber requires repeating at distance intervals.
Cables are expensive to install but last longer than copper cables.
Fibers can be broken or have transmission loses when wrapped around curves of only a
few centimetresradius
Optical fibers require more protection around the cable compared to copper.

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 ✓ Baseband and broadband transmission technologies

Baseband Transmission is a transmission technique that one signal requires the entire
bandwidth of the channel to send data. Broadband Transmission is a transmission technique
that many signals with multiple frequencies transmit data through a single channel
simultaneously.

Key differences between baseband and broadband transmissions

Baseband transmission Broadband transmission
Transmit digital signals Transmit analog signals
To boost signal strength, use repeaters To boost signal strength, use amplifiers
Can transmit only a single data stream at a time Can transmit multiple signal waves at a time
Support bidirectional Support unidirectional communication only
communication simultaneously
Support TDM based multiplexing Support FDM based multiplexing
Use coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic cables Use radio waves, coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables
Mainly used in Ethernet LAN networks Mainly used in cable and telephone networks

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 ✓ Wireless Transmission Techniques

Wireless transmission techniques are essential for connecting devices without physical cables. They provide
flexibility, mobility, and ease of installation. Here are some common techniques:

1. Electromagnetic waves: Transmit data through the air.

o Frequency bands: Used for various applications, such as:
o Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Provides local area network (LAN) connectivity.
o Cellular networks (GSM, 3G, 4G, 5G): Enables mobile communication.
o Bluetooth: Connects devices within a short range.
o Zigbee: Used for low-power, low-data-rate applications.

2. Infrared (IR) Transmission

o Light waves: Transmit data through the air.
o Short range: Suitable for devices in close proximity.
o Applications: Remote controls, data transfer between devices (e.g., IRDA).

3. Microwave Transmission
o High-frequency RF waves: Transmit data over long distances.
o Line-of-sight: Requires a clear path between transmitter and receiver.
o Applications: Satellite communication, point-to-point links.

4. Terahertz (THz) Transmission

o Extremely high-frequency RF waves: Promise high data rates and bandwidth.
o Research and development: Still in its early stages.
o Potential applications: Short-range, high-speed communication.

5. Optical Wireless (OW)

o Light waves: Transmit data through the air.
o Visible light communication (VLC): Uses existing lighting infrastructure.
o Infrared light communication (IR-LC): Similar to IR transmission but with longer range.

6. Ultrasound Transmission
o Sound waves: Transmit data through the air or underwater.
o Short range: Suitable for underwater communication or medical applications.
o Applications: Underwater sensors, medical imaging.

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Learning Outcome 3: Apply IP addressing (IP v4&IPv6)

Content/Topic 1: Description of IP addressing concepts

IP addressing is a Network Foundation service, which makes it core to the network design. It provides the
base for all other network and user services
By following recommended IP address management standards, you can avoid:
• Overlapping or duplicate subnets
• Unsummarized routes in the network
• Duplicate IP address device assignments
• Wasted IP address space
• Unnecessary complexity

An IP address is a unique number that is used to identify a network device

▪ An IP address is represented as a 32-bit binary number, divided into four octets (groups of
eightbits):
Example: 10111110.01100100.00000101.00110110
▪ An IP address is also represented in a dotted decimal
format.Example: 190.100.5.54
▪ When a host is configured with an IP address, it is entered as a dotted decimal number,
such as192.168.1.5.
Unique IP addresses on a network ensure that data can be sent to and received from the correct network
device

✓ IP terminologies

Client: A client is any computer hardware or software device that requests access to a service
provided by aserver.
server : A computer that provides data, services, or resources that can be accessed by other
computers on thenetwork.
Port: A logical connecting point for a process. Data is transmitted between processes through ports (or
sockets).

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Node: A node is any physical device within a network of other tools that's able to send,
receive, or forwardinformation.

Packet: A generic term used to define a unit of data including routing and other information that is sent
through aninternet.
Gateway address: Usually the address of the default route to be
used to reacha network that is not specifically known.
Medium: The communications link or network that carries protocol messages.
Message: The structured data communicated by a protocol. Parameters of a message
typically include themessage type, sequence number, control flags, and user data.
subnetting, which is a logical division of a network.
Address - The unique number ID assigned to one host or interface in a network.
Subnet - A portion of a network that shares a particular subnet address.
Subnet mask - A 32-bit combination used to describe which portion of an
address refers tothe subnet and which part refers to the host.
Interface - A network connection.

✓ IP addressing classification

▪ Class A (1 – 126)
Large networks, implemented by large companies and some countries
▪ Class B (128 – 191)
Medium-sized networks, implemented by universities
▪ Class C (192 – 223)
Small networks, implemented by ISP for customer subscriptions
▪ Class D(224 – 239)
Special use for multicasting
Class D addresses do not use a subnet mask.
▪ Class E
Used for experimental testing

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 ✓ IP addresses grouping
IP addresses grouping: Rules for Grouping IP Addresses. The original specifications for TCP/IP
grouped IP addresses into sets of consecutive addresses called IP networks. The addresses in a
single IP network have the same numeric value in the first part of all addresses in the network.

✓ IP addressing scheme
IP Addressing Scheme. The IP header has 32 bits assigned for addressing a desired device on the
network. An IP address is a unique identifier used to locate a device on the IP network. To make the
system scalable, the address structure is subdivided into the network ID and the host ID.

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Basic structure of an IP address

The basic structure of an IP address is like xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx, where each xxx can be any number between
0 and 255.

Each of these parts is stored in 8 bits. So, the maximum number of possible combinations for each
group of numberis 256 (i.e. each group can have any one value from the range of 0 to 255).

Each address can be technically divided into two parts. One of these parts is the network part, which
represents theclass of IP address that is being used in the network.

The other one is the host part, which represents the unique ID of the device in the network.

Let us consider the IP address 192.168.10.14

here 192.168.10 is the network part, and represents the network. The number 14 represents the
unique ID of thedevice in the network.

You can find out the IP address of your PC when you are connected to a network. Here’s how:

1. Click on Start button and then on Run.

2. In the box named Open, type “command” (without the quotes) and hit the Enter key.
3. In the window that appears, type “ipconfig” (minus the quotes) and hit Enter key.

An IP address (version 4) in both dot-decimal notation and binary code

An IPv4 address is typically shown as split into 4 chunks as shown above. Different ranges of IP
addresses arecategorised differently, with the first part of the IP specifying who or where the IP
address is (the network identifier), and the second part defining which host/machine it is (the host
identifier)

192.168.12.162

✓ IP addressing subnet masks

▪ Used to indicate the network portion of an IP address

▪ Is a dotted decimal number
▪ Usually, all hosts within a broadcast domain of a LAN (bounded by routers) use the same subnet
mask.

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 The default subnet masks for three classes of IP addresses:
255.0.0.0 is the subnet mask
for Class A
255.255.0.0 is the subnet
mask for Class B
255.255.255.0 is the subnet
mask for Class C

The subnet address is used to identify the network itself

The broadcast address identifies all hosts on a particular network.

Broadcasts are one of three types of IP packets:

 Unicasts are packets sent from one host to one other host
 Multicasts are packets sent from one host to a group of hosts
 Broadcasts are packets sent from one host to all other hosts on the local network

Examining the prefix length

the prefix length is another way of expressing the subnet mask. The prefix length is the number of bits
set to 1 in thesubnet mask. It is written in “slash notation”, a “/” followed by the number of bits set to 1.

For example, if the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, there are 24 bits set to 1 in the binary version of the
subnet mask, so the prefix length is 24 bits or /24. The prefix and the subnet mask are different ways of
representing the same thing - the network portion of an address.

✓ Prefix length
The prefix length is another way of expressing the subnet mask. The prefix length is the number of bits
set to 1 in the subnet mask. It is written in “slash notation”, a “/” followed by the number of bits set to 1.

For example, if the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, there are 24 bits set to 1 in the binary version of the
subnet mask, so the prefix length is 24 bits or /24. The prefix and the subnet mask are different ways of
representing the same thing - the network portion of an address.

Content/Topic 2: Identification of IP Addresses types

There are mainly four types of IP addresses:

Public,
Private,
Static
Dynamic.

Among them, public and private addresses are based on their location of the network private,
which should be used inside a network while the public IP is used outside of anetwork.

Public IP Addresses
• It is an IP address available for everyone to see.
• Public IP’s let the general public find out information about your computer and
are available to see it, for example a web server.
• User has no control over the IP address (public) that is assigned to the computer.
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 • The public IP address is assigned to the computer by the Internet Service Provider

Private IP Addresses
A private IP address is a unique IP number assigned to every device that connects to your home
internet network, which includes devices like computers, tablets, smartphones, which is used in your
household.

It also likely includes all types of Bluetooth devices you use, like printers or printers, smart devices
like TV, etc. With a rising industry of internet of things (IoT) products, the number of private IP
addresses you are likely to have in your own home is growing.

A private IP address is an IP address used on a private network (e.g. a home network) that is not
routable through the public internet.

So a private IP address is for security.

A public IP address can be either static or dynamic. A static public IP address does not change and is
used primarily for hosting web pages or services on the Internet. On the other hand, a dynamic public
IP address is chosen from a pool of available addresses and changes each time one connects to the
Internet.

Most Internet users will only have a dynamic IP assigned to their computer which goes off when the
computer is disconnected from the Internet. Thus when it is re-connected it gets a new IP

Private address blocks are:

Hosts that do not require access to the Internet can use private addresses

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8)

172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/12)
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0/16)

Dynamic IP address:
Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a device every time it
connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a collection of IP addresses that are shared
across many computers.

Static IP Addresses
A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic IP address will be
assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which is subject to change.
Static IP address never changes, but it can be altered as part of routine network administration.

Types of Website IP Addresses

Two types of website IP Addresses are 1) Share IP Address 2) Dedicated IP Address
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Shared IP Addresses:
Shared IP address is used by small business websites that do not yet get many visitors or have many
files or pages on their site. The IP address is not unique and it is shared with otherwebsites.

Dedicated IP Addresses:
Dedicated IP address is assigned uniquely to each website. Dedicated IP addresses helps you avoid
any potential backlists because of bad behavior from others on your server. The dedicated IP address
also gives you the option of pulling up your website using the IP addressalone, instead of your
domain name. It also helps you to access your website when you are waiting on a domain transfer.

Special Use IPv4 Addresses

Network and Broadcast addresses - within each network the first and last addresses cannot be
assigned to hosts
Loopback address - 127.0.0.1 a special address that hosts use to direct traffic to themselves
(addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 are reserved)
Link-Local address - 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 (169.254.0.0/16) addresses can be
automatically assigned to the local host
TEST-NET addresses - 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 (192.0.2.0/24) set aside for teaching and
learning purposes, used in documentation and network examples
Experimental addresses - 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254 are listed as reserved

✓ Methods of Assigning IP addresses

Automatic method-
DHCP
DHCP short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is a protocol which helps to
dynamically assign IPaddresses, instead of having static IP addresses .When a machine
connects to a network it receive a IP address.
The server that manages this dynamically assigned IP addresses is called Dynamic Host
ConfigurationProtocol (DHCP) server.
Static addressing method

What is a static IP address?

A static IP address is an address that is permanently assigned to you by your ISP (as long as
your contract is in good standing), and does not change even if your computer reboots
A static IP address is usually assigned to a server hosting websites, and providing email,
database and FTP services

Static IP address Advantages

Address does not change - good for web servers, email servers and other Internet servers.
Use DNS to map domain name to IP address, and use domain name to address the static IP
address.

Static IP address Disadvantages

Expensive than dynamic IP address - ISPs generally charge additional fee for static IP addresses.

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 Need additional security - Since same IP is assigned to a machine, hackers try brute
force attack on themachine over period of time.

Dynamic method

What is a dynamic IP address?

– dynamic IP address is an IP address dynamically assigned to your computer by your ISP.
– Each time your computer (or router) is rebooted, your ISP dynamically assigns
an IP address to your networking device using DHCP protocol.

Dynamic IP address Advantages

Cheaper than static IP address.

Changing IP address gives more privacy.

Dynamic IP address Disadvantages

Requires DHCP server to obtain an IP address.

Non-static. Each time IP address changes, you may have to find you IP address again.

Content/Topic 3: Application of IPv4 concepts

✓ Introduction to IPv4

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol (IP) used to
facilitate communication over a network through an addressing system
- It is currently the most popular Internet protocol used to connect devices to the Internet.
- IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing for a total of 2^32 addresses
(just over 4 billionaddresses).
- Each device connecting to the Internet requires an IP address.
-That means that each device including cell phones, office phones, game consoles and
computers each need their own IP address in order to connect and communicate over the
Internet

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✓ Anatomy of IPv4 address

32 bit address
IPv4 is a 32 bit address(binary patterns). Because it consists of 4 octet(1 octet = 1byte/8 bits)
so with a simple calculation: 4octets*8bits = 32 bits.

There are three types of addresses within the address range of each IPv4 network:
✓ Network address
✓ Host addresses
✓ Broadcast address

• Network Address
In each IPv4 addresses, some portion(high-order bits) represents Network address. It
is a group ofhosts that have identical bit patterns.
• Host Address
Every devices has a uniques IP address. Host address belongs in a certain Network
address.(usually in the rightmost in the IP address)
• Broadcast Address
The IPv4 broadcast address is a special address for each network that allows
communication to all the hosts in that network.

Network Portion and Host Portion of an IPv4 Address

▪ To define the network and host portions of an address, a devices use a separate 32-bit
pattern called a subnet mask
▪ The subnet mask does not actually contain the network or host portion of an IPv4
address, it just says where to look for these portions in a given IPv4 address

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 Valid Subnet Masks

EXERCISES
Q: What are the maximum networks and hosts in a class A, B and C network?
For Class A, there are 126 possible networks
and 16,777,214 hosts For Class B, there are
16,384 possible networks and 65,534 hosts For
Class C, there are 2,097,152 possible networks
and 254 hosts

✓ Calculation of IP addresses

• Binary to decimal conversion

• Decimal to binary conversion
• Summarization

Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A,
B, or Cnetwork.
Class A, B, or C network.

CIDR
Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) was introduced in order to improve both address space
utilization and routing scalability in the Internet. It was needed because of the rapid growth of the
Internet and growth of the IP routing tables held in the Internet routers.

Summarization
Route summarization - Also known as prefix aggregation, routes are summarized into a single route
to help reduce the size of routing tables. For instance, one summary static route can replace several
specificstatic route statements.
Super-netting - Occurs when the route summarization mask is a smaller value than the default traditional
classful mask.

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Note: A supernet is always a route summary, but a route summary is not always a supernet.
Calculating IPV4 Summary network

Step 1. List the networks in binary format.

Step 2. Count the number of far-left matching bits to determine the mask for the summary route.

Step 3. Copy the matching bits and then add zero bits to determine the summarized network address.

Fixed-length subnet mask (FLSM)

Fixed-length subnet mask (FLSM) is a subnet deployment strategy in which a block of IP addresses
is split into several subnets of identical length. It is also known as classful subnetting.

Variable-length subnet mask (VLSM) refers to a strategy that allows all the subnetworks to
have variable sizes. Network administrators can use VLSM subnetting to divide an IP address space into
subnets ofvarious lengths and assign them based on the needs of the network. It is also called classless
subnetting.

In FLSM all subnets use same subnet mask, this lead to inefficiencies.
With classful subnetting, all subnets have the identical number of host addresses. This could present
issues if you need certain subnets to have a small number of IP addresses, and you need other
subnets to have a large number of IP addresses. The solutions listed below; to
solving this issue does not however optimize the network configuration. This is mostly due to IP
addresses being wasted:
Variable length subnet masks (VLSMs) allow subnets to be further subnetted, and also
enable routers to handle different subnet masks.
VLSMs provide the flexibility needed to optimize the network configuration by allowing
you to configure network subnets that meet the requirements of your organization. No IP
addresses are wasted.
VLSMs (nonclassfulsubnetting) can be defined as the process whereby which subnets
are divided into smaller segments of various sizes.

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 The differences between FLSM and VLSM are as follows:

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation

CIDR, which stands for Classless Inter-Domain Routing, is an IP addressing scheme that
improves the allocation of IP addresses. It replaces the old system based on classes A, B,
and
C. This scheme also helped greatly extend the life of IPv4 as well as slow the growth of
routingtables.

Problems with class-based IP addressing

The old method of IP addressing came with inefficiencies that exhausted the availability of IPv4
addresses faster than it needed to. The classful routing system included classes A, B, and C:

Class A - Over 16 million host identifiers

Class B - 65,535 host identifiers
Class C - 254 host identifiers

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CIDR IP address would look like the following:
192.255.255.255/12

Representation: It is as also a 32-bit address, which includes a special number whichrepresents

the number of bits that are present in the Block Id.
a.b.c.d/n
Where, n is number of bits that are present in Block Id / Network Id.
Example:
20.10.50.100/20

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Let’s see the difference between classful routing and classless routing:

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 ✓ IP addresses Diagnostic tools
Testing IP addresses
• Diagnostic tools: Computer diagnostics tools are pieces of software that give you the
knowledge you need to be able to potentially repair your own computer. These tools
are made to find problems that may be disrupting
your computer's normal performance. Once a problem is found, you can
then plan your repair The diagnostic tools listed and discussed are the followings:
ifconfig: Provides information about the basic configuration of the interface. It is useful for detecting
bad IP addresses,
incorrect subnet masks, and improper broadcast addresses.

arp: Provides information about Ethernet/IP address translation. It can be used to detect systems on
the local network that are configured with the wrong IP address

netstat: Provides a variety of information. It is commonly used to display detailed statistics about
each network interface, the network sockets, and the network routing table.
ping: Indicates whether a remote host can be reached. ping also displays statistics about packet loss and
delivery time.

Nslookup: Provides information about the DNS name service.

Dig: Also provides information about name service and is similar to nslookup.

Traceroute: Prints information about each routing hop that packets take going from your system to a
remote system.

✓ IP address translation

IP address translation: NAT allows internal hosts to be translated to a public address for Internet
access. Network Address Translation (NAT) is the process where a network device, usually a Router
translate private IP into public IP.

✓ IP addressing forms
Data is transported over a network by three simple methods i.e. Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast.
So let’s begin to
summarize the difference between these three:
• Unicast: from one source to one destination i.e. One-to-One
• Broadcast: from one source to all possible destinations i.e. One-to-All
• Multicast: from one source to multiple destinations stating an interest in receiving the traffic
i.e. One-to-Many

Content/Topic 3: Application of IPv6 concepts

Internet protocol version 6 is the most recent version of the internet protocol, it is communications
protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on networks

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The Need for IPv6
IPv6 is designed to be the successor to IPv4
Depletion of IPv4 address space has been the motivating factor for moving to IPv6
Projections show that all five RIRs (Regional Internet Registry) will run out of IPv4
addresses between 2015 and 2020
With an increasing Internet population, a limited IPv4 address space, issues with NAT and
an Internet of things, the time has come to begin the transition to IPv6!
IPv4 has theoretical maximum of 4.3 billion addresses plus private addresses in combination with
NAT
IPv6 larger 128-bit address space providing for 340 undecillion addresses
IPv6 fixes the limitations of IPv4 and include additional enhancements such as ICMPv6

✓ Migration from IPv4 to IPv6

Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6
1.source and destination addresses are 32 1. Source and destination addresses are 128
bits.) bits.
2. Ipv4 support small address space. 2. Supports a very large address space
sufficeint for each and every people onearth.
3. Ipv4 header includes checksum. 3. ipv6 header doesn't includes the
checksum.
4. addresses are represented in dotted 4. Addresses are represented in 16-bitsegments
decimal format. (Eg. 192.168.5.1) Each segment is written in
Hexadecimal separated by colons. (Eg.
2001:0050:020c:0235:0ab4:3456:456b:e560
5. Header includes options. All optional data is moved to IPV6
extension header.
6. Broadcast address are used to 6. There is no IPV6 broadcast address.
sendtraffic to all nodes on a subnet. Instead a link local scope all-nodesmulticast
address is used.
7. No identification of packet flow for 7. Packet flow identification for QOShandling
QOS handling by
by router is present within the ipv4 routers are present within the IPv6 headerusing the
header. flow label field.
8. uses host address (A) resource records 8. Uses AAAA records in the DNS to map host
in the names to ipv6 addresses.
Domain name system (DNS) to map host
namestoipv4 addresses.
9. Both routers and the sending 9. Only the sending host fragments packets;routers
hostfragment do not.
packets.
10. ICMP Router Discovery is used to 10. ICMPv6 Router Solicitation and Router
determine the IPv4 address of the best Advertisement messages are used to determine
default gateway, and it is optional. the IP address of the best
default gateway, and they are required

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 ✓ IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence
The migration techniques can be divided into
three categories: #1 Dual-stack

Dual-stack: Allows IPv4 and IPv6 to coexist on the same network. Devices run both IPv4
and IPv6 protocol stacks simultaneously.
#2: Tunnelling

Tunnelling: A method of transporting an IPv6 packet over an IPv4 network. The IPv6 packet is
encapsulated inside an IPv4 packet.
#3 Translation

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 Translation: Network Address Translation 64 (NAT64) allows IPv6-enabled devices to
communicate with IPv4- enabled devices using a translation technique similar to NAT for IPv4.
An IPv6 packet is translated to an IPv4 packet, and vice versa.

✓ Anatomy of IPv6 address

IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and written as a string of hexadecimal values. Every 4 bits is
represented by a single hexadecimal digit; for a total of 32 hexadecimal values. IPv6 addresses are not
case sensitive and can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.
Unlike IPv4 addresses that are expressed in dotted decimal notation, IPv6 addresses are represented
using hexadecimal values
IPv4 address space (32 bits):
232 =
4294967296
addresses IPv6
address space
(128 bits):
2128 = 340282366920938463463374607431768211456 addresses

Preferred Format

The preferred format for writing an IPv6 address is x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, with each “x” consisting of four
hexadecimalvalues. When referring to 8 bits of an IPv4 address we use the term octet. In IPv6, a
hextet is the unofficial termused to refer to a segment of 16 bits or four hexadecimal values. Each
“x” is a single hextet, 16 bits or four hexadecimal digits.

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IPv6 Address Representation

Look at the binary bit patterns that match the decimal and hexadecimal values

▪ 128 bits in length and written as a string of hexadecimal values

▪ In IPv6, 4 bits represents a single hexadecimal digit, 32 hexadecimal values = IPv6 address
2001:0DB8:0000:1111:0000:0000:0000:0200FE80:0000:0000:0000:0123:4567:89AB:CDEF
▪ Hextet used to refer to a segment of 16 bits or four hexadecimals
▪ Can be written in either lowercase or uppercase
Rule 1- Omitting Leading 0s
The first rule to help reduce the notation of IPv6 addresses is any leading 0s (zeros) in any 16-bit
section or hextet can be omitted
01AB can be represented as 1AB
09F0 can be represented as 9F0

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 0A00 can be represented as A00
00AB can be represented as AB

Rule 2- Omitting All 0 Segments

A double colon (::) can replace any single, contiguous string of one or more 16-bit segments
(hextets) consisting of all 0’s
Double colon (::) can only be used once within an address otherwise the address will be
ambiguous
Known as the compressed format
Incorrect address - 2001:0DB8::ABCD::1234
Examples #1

# Examples 2

Hexadecimal values of eight 16 bit fields

– X:X:X:X:X:X:X:X (X=16 bit number, ex: A2FE)
– 16 bit number is converted to a 4 digit hexadecimal number

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IPv6 addressing structure

TYPES OF IPv6

The three types of IPv6 addresses are: unicast, anycast, and multicast.

• Unicast addresses identify a single interface.

• Anycast addresses identify a set of interfaces in such a way that a packet sent to an
anycastaddress is delivered to a member of the set.
• Multicast addresses identify a group of interfaces in such a way that a packet sent to a
multicastaddress is delivered to all of the interfaces in the group.

IPv6 has no broadcast addresses: multicast addresses took over.

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IPv6 Summary Network
Summarizing IPv6 networks into a single IPv6 prefix and prefix-length can be done in
seven steps asshown in Figures 1 to 7:

Step 1. List the network addresses (prefixes) and identify the part where the addresses differ.

Step 2. Expand the IPv6 if it is abbreviated.

Step 3. Convert the differing section from hex to binary.

Step 4. Count the number of far left matching bits to determine the prefix-length for the
summary route.

Step 5. Copy the matching bits and then add zero bits to determine the summarized
network address(prefix).

Step 6. Convert the binary section back to hex.

Step 7. Append the prefix of the summary route (result of Step 4).

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