Introduction to

MATLAB
Hans-Petter Halvorsen

https://www.halvorsen.blog
Introduction to MATLAB
University of South-Eastern Norway

MATLAB
Introduction to MATLAB
Hans-Petter Halvorsen, 2025.06.24

http://www.halvorsen.blog
Preface
Copyright You cannot distribute or copy this document without permission from the
author. You cannot copy or link to this document directly from other sources, web
pages, etc. You should always link to the proper web page where this document is
located, typically http://www.halvorsen.blog

In this MATLAB Course, you will learn basic MATLAB and how to use MATLAB in Control
and Simulation applications. An introduction to Simulink and other Tools will also be
given.

MATLAB is a tool for technical computing, computation and visualization in an

integrated environment. MATLAB is an abbreviation for MATrix LABoratory, so it is well
suited for matrix manipulation and problem solving related to Linear Algebra, Modelling,
Simulation and Control applications.

This is a self-paced course based on this document and some short videos on the way.
This document contains lots of examples and self-paced tasks that the users will go
through and solve on their own. The user may go through the tasks in this document in
their own pace and the instructor will be available for guidance throughout the course.

The MATLAB Course consists of 3 parts:

1. Introduction to MATLAB
2. Modelling, Simulation and Control
3. Simulink and Advanced Topics

In part 1 you will be familiar with the MATLAB environment and learn basic MATLAB
programming.

The course consists of lots of Tasks you should solve while reading this course manual
and watching the videos referred to in the text.

Make sure to bring your headphones for the videos in this course. The
course consists of several short videos that will give you an introduction to the different
topics in the course.

ii
Prerequisites

You should be familiar with undergraduate-level mathematics and have experience with
basic computer operations.

What is MATLAB? MATLAB is a tool for technical computing, computation and

visualization in an integrated environment. MATLAB is an abbreviation for MATrix
LABoratory, so it is well suited for matrix manipulation and problem solving related to
Linear Algebra.

MATLAB is developed by MathWorks. MATLAB is a short-term for MATrix LABoratory.

MATLAB is in use world-wide by researchers and universities. For more information, see
www.mathworks.com

For more information about MATLAB, etc., please visit http://www.halvorsen.blog

Here you will find MATLAB for Students resources:

http://www.halvorsen.blog/documents/teaching/courses/matlab.php

On these web pages you find video solutions, complete step by step solutions,
downloadable MATLAB code, additional resources, etc.

iii
Table of Contents
Preface ...................................................................................................................... ii

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... iv

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1

2 The MATLAB Environment .................................................................................... 2

Command Window ................................................................................................. 3

2.1 Command History ........................................................................................ 4

2.2 Workspace................................................................................................... 5

2.3 Files............................................................................................................. 6

2.4 Editor ........................................................................................................... 7

3 Using the Help System in MATLAB ........................................................................ 9

4 MATLAB Basics.................................................................................................. 11

4.1 Basic Operations ........................................................................................ 11

Task 1: Basic Operations .......................................................................... 13

Task 2: Statistics functions ...................................................................... 14

4.2 Arrays; Vectors and Matrices ...................................................................... 15

4.2.1 Colon Notation .................................................................................... 16

Task 3: Vectors and Matrices .................................................................... 17

4.3 Tips and Tricks ........................................................................................... 18

4.3.1 Array Operations ................................................................................. 19

5 Linear Algebra ................................................................................................... 22

5.1 Vectors ...................................................................................................... 22

5.2 Matrices..................................................................................................... 25

5.2.1 Transpose ........................................................................................... 25

iv
v Table of Contents

5.2.2 Diagonal ............................................................................................. 25

5.2.3 Triangular ............................................................................................ 26

5.2.4 Matrix Multiplication ............................................................................ 27

5.2.5 Matrix Addition .................................................................................... 28

5.2.6 Determinant ........................................................................................ 28

5.2.7 Inverse Matrices .................................................................................. 29

5.3 Eigenvalues ................................................................................................ 30

Task 4: Matrix manipulation...................................................................... 30

5.4 Solving Linear Equations ............................................................................. 31

Task 5: Solving Linear Equations ............................................................... 34

6 Scripts and Functions ........................................................................................ 35

6.1 Scripts vs. function Files ............................................................................. 35

6.2 Scripts ....................................................................................................... 36

Task 6: Script ........................................................................................... 38

6.3 Functions ................................................................................................... 39

Task 7: User-defined function................................................................... 42

Task 8: User-defined function................................................................... 42

7 Plotting ............................................................................................................. 45

Task 9: Plotting ........................................................................................ 46

7.1 Plotting Multiple Data Sets in One Graph ..................................................... 48

Task 10: Plot of dynamic system................................................................. 51

7.2 Displaying Multiple Plots in one Figure – Sub-Plots ....................................... 52

Task 11: Sub-plots ..................................................................................... 53

7.3 Customizing ............................................................................................... 53

7.4 Other Plots ................................................................................................. 57

Task 12: Other Plots ................................................................................... 57

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

vi Table of Contents

8 Flow Control and Loops ..................................................................................... 58

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 58

8.2 If-else Statement ........................................................................................ 58

Task 13: If-else Statements ........................................................................ 60

8.3 Switch and Case Statement ........................................................................ 61

Task 14: Switch-Case Statements .............................................................. 61

8.4 For loop ..................................................................................................... 62

Task 15: Fibonacci Numbers ...................................................................... 62

8.5 While loop .................................................................................................. 63

Task 16: While Loop ................................................................................... 64

8.6 Additional Tasks ......................................................................................... 64

Task 17: For Loops ..................................................................................... 64

Task 18: If-else Statement .......................................................................... 64

9 Mathematics ..................................................................................................... 66

9.1 Basic Math Functions ................................................................................. 66

Task 19: Basic Math function...................................................................... 66

9.2 Statistics.................................................................................................... 66

Task 20: Statistics...................................................................................... 66

9.3 Trigonometric Functions ............................................................................. 67

Task 21: Conversion .................................................................................. 67

Task 22: Trigonometric functions on right triangle ....................................... 67

Task 23: Law of cosines ............................................................................. 69

Task 24: Plotting ........................................................................................ 69

9.4 Complex Numbers ..................................................................................... 69

Task 25: Complex numbers ........................................................................ 72

Task 26: Complex numbers ........................................................................ 73

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

vii Table of Contents

9.5 Polynomials ............................................................................................... 73

Task 27: Polynomials ................................................................................. 74

Task 28: Polynomials ................................................................................. 74

Task 29: Polynomial Fitting ......................................................................... 75

10 Additional Tasks ............................................................................................ 76

Task 30: User-defined function................................................................... 76

Task 31: MATLAB Script .............................................................................. 76

Task 32: Cylinder surface area ................................................................... 77

Task 33: Create advanced expressions in MATLAB ...................................... 77

Task 34: Solving Equations ......................................................................... 78

Task 35: Pre-allocating of variables and vectorization.................................. 78

Task 36: Nested For Loops ......................................................................... 80

Task 37: Prime Numbers ............................................................................ 80

Task 38: Prime Number Function................................................................ 81

Appendix A: MATLAB Functions ................................................................................. 82

Built-in Constants ................................................................................................. 82

Basic Functions .................................................................................................... 82

Linear Algebra ....................................................................................................... 83

Plotting ................................................................................................................. 83

Logical Operators ................................................................................................. 84

Complex Numbers ................................................................................................ 84

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

1 Introduction
Additional Resources, Videos, etc. are available from:

http://www.halvorsen.blog/documents/programming/matlab
Part I: Introduction to MATLAB consists of the following topics:

• The MATLAB Environment

• Using the Help System in MATLAB
• MATLAB Basics
• Linear Algebra; Vectors and Matrices
• M files; Scripts and User-defined functions
• Plotting
• Flow Control and Loops; For and While Loops, If and Case statements
• Mathematics
• Additional Tasks

1
2 The MATLAB Environment
The MATLAB Environment consists of the following main parts:

• Command Window
• Command History
• Workspace
• Current Folder
• Editor

Below we see the MATLAB environment:

Before you start, you should watch the video “Start using MATLAB”.

The video is available from:

https://www.halvorsen.blog/documents/teaching/courses/matlab/matlab1.php

You can use “Open Panel” to select and choose which panels that shall be visible or
not.

2
3 2 The MATLAB Environment

Some of the most used windows/panels are presented below.

Command Window
The Command Window is the main window in MATLAB. Use the Command Window to
enter variables and to run functions and M-files scripts (more about m-files later).

You type all your commands after the command Prompt “>>”, e.g., defining the
following matrix:

1 2
𝐴=[ ]
0 3
The MATLAB syntax is as follows:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

4 2 The MATLAB Environment

>> A = [1 2;0 3]

Or

>> A = [1,2;0,3]

If you, for an example, want to find the answer to

𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 3

Type like this:

>>a = 4
>>b = 3
>>a + b

MATLAB then responds:

ans =
7

2.1 Command History

Statements you enter in the Command Window are logged in the Command History.
From the Command History, you can view and search for previously run statements, as
well as copy and execute selected statements. You can also create an M-file from
selected statements.

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5 2 The MATLAB Environment

2.2 Workspace
The Workspace window list all your variables used as long you have MATLAB opened.

You could also use the following command

>>who

This command lists all the commands used.

or

>>whos

This command lists all the command with the current values, dimensions, etc.

The command clear, will clear all the variables in your workplace.

>>clear

Save your data:

You may also save all your variables and data to a text file (.mat file), this is useful if you
want to save your data and use it for later.

Select the variables you want to save and right-click and select “Save Selection…”:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

6 2 The MATLAB Environment

MATLAB also has commands for this: save/load and diary.

2.3 Files
The “Files” window lists all m files, etc. available in the current directory.

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

7 2 The MATLAB Environment

You should set your working folder as the Current Directory or set your working folder as
part of the search path. If you don’t, MATLAB will not find your files.

Search Path:

You need to use this if you want MATLAB to find your scripts and functions you want to
use.

2.4 Editor
The Editor is used to create scripts and m-files. Click the “New Script” button in the
Toolbar.

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

8 2 The MATLAB Environment

Script Editor:

When you learn about m-files (scripts and functions) in a later chapter you will be using
this Script Editor to enter your MATLAB code and save them.

Note! In the beginning of the course (chapter 1-5) we will only use the Command
Window. In chapter 6 we will start using the Script Editor.

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

3 Using the Help System in
MATLAB
The Help system in MATLAB is quite comprehensive, so make sure you are familiar with
how the help system works.

when clicking the “Help” button, the following window appears:

You may also type “Help” in the Command window. MATLAB answers with links to lots
of Help topics. You may also type more specific, e.g., “Help elfun” (Elementary Math
Functions), and MATLAB will list all functions according to the specific category.

If you type “help <functionname>” you will get specific help about this function.

9
10 3 Using the Help System in MATLAB

You may also type “doc <topic>” to open the Help window on the specific topic of
interest.

Searching:

We can use the help keyword when we want to get help for a specific function, but if we
want to search for all functions, etc. with a specific keyword you may use the lookfor
command.

Example:

lookfor plot

[End of Example]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

4 MATLAB Basics
Before you start, you should watch the video “Getting Started with MATLAB”

The video is available from:

https://www.halvorsen.blog/documents/teaching/courses/matlab/matlab1.php

4.1 Basic Operations

Variables:

Variables are defined with the assignment operator, “=”. MATLAB is dynamically typed,
meaning that variables can be assigned without declaring their type, and that their type
can change. Values can come from constants, from computation involving values of
other variables, or from the output of a function.

Example:

>> x = 17
x =
17
>> x = 'hat'
x =
hat
>> x = [3*4, pi/2]
x =
12.0000 1.5708
>> y = 3*sin(x)
y =
-1.6097 3.0000

[End of Example]

Note! MATLAB is case sensitive! The variables 𝑥 and 𝑋 are not the same.

Note! Unlike many other languages, where the semicolon is used to terminate
commands, in MATLAB the semicolon serves to suppress the output of the line that it
concludes.

11
12 4 MATLAB Basics

>> a=5
a =
5
>> a=6;
>>

As you see, when you type a semicolon (;) after the command, MATLAB will not respond.
This is very useful because sometimes you want MATLAB to respond, while in other
situations that is not necessary.

Built-in constants:

MATLAB has several built-in constants. Some of them are explained here:

Name Description
i, j Used for complex numbers, e.g., z=2+4i
pi 𝜋
inf ∞, Infinity
NaN Not A Number. If you, e.g., divide by zero, you get NaN

Naming a Variable Uniquely:

To avoid choosing a name for a new variable that might conflict with a name already in
use, check for any occurrences of the name using the which command:

which -all variablename

Example:
>> which -all pi

built-in (C:\Matlab\R2007a\toolbox\matlab\elmat\pi)

You may also use the iskeyword command. This command causes MATLAB to list all
reserved names.

>> iskeyword
ans =
'break'
'case'
'catch'
'classdef'
'continue'
'else'
'elseif'
'end'

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

13 4 MATLAB Basics

'for'
'function'
'global'
'if'
'otherwise'
'persistent'
'return'
'switch'
'try'
'while'

Note! You cannot assign these reserved names as your variable names.

Note! MATLAB allows you to reassign built-in function names as variable names, but
that is not recommended! – so be carefully when you select the name of your variables!

Example:

>> sin = 4
sin =
4
>> sin(3)
??? Index exceeds matrix dimensions.

In this example you have defined a variable “sin” – but “sin” is also a built-in function –
and this function will no longer work!

If you accidently do so, use the clear command to reset it back to normal.

[End of Example]

Task 1: Basic Operations

Type the following in the Command window:

>> y = 16;
>> z = 3;
>> y + z

Note! When you use a semicolon, no output will be displayed. Try the code above with
and without semicolon.

Note! Some functions display output even if you use semicolon, like plot, etc.

Other basic operations are:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

14 4 MATLAB Basics

>>16-3
>>16/3
>>16*3

→ Try them.

[End of Task]

Built-in Functions:

Here are some descriptions for the most used basic built-in MATLAB functions.

Function Description Example

>>help
help MATLAB displays the help information available
>>help plot
help Display help about a specific function
<function>
>>who
who, whos who lists in alphabetical order all variables in the currently
>>whos
active workspace.
>>clear
clear Clear variables and functions from memory.
>>clear x
>>x=[1 2 ; 3 4];
size Size of arrays, matrices
>>size(A)
>>x=[1:1:10];
length Length of a vector
>>length(x)

format Set output format

>>A=[1 2;3 4];
disp Display text or array
>>disp(A)
>>x=[1:1:10];
plot This function is used to create a plot
>>plot(x)
>>y=sin(x);
>>plot(x,y)
>>cls
clc Clear the Command window
>>rand
rand Creates a random number, vector or matrix
>>rand(2,1)
>>x=[1:1:10]
max Find the largest number in a vector
>>max(x)
>>x=[1:1:10]
min Find the smallest number in a vector
>>min(x)
>>x=[1:1:10]
mean Average or mean value
>>mean(x)
>>x=[1:1:10]
std Standard deviation
>>std(x)

Before you start, you should use the Help system in MATLAB to read more about these
functions. Type “help <functionname>” in the Command window.

Task 2: Statistics functions

Create a random vector with 100 random numbers between 0 and 100. Find the
minimum value, the maximum value, the mean and the standard deviation using some
of the built-in functions in MATLAB listed above.

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

15 4 MATLAB Basics

4.2 Arrays; Vectors and Matrices

Before you start, you should watch the video “Working with Arrays”.

The video is available from:

https://www.halvorsen.blog/documents/teaching/courses/matlab/matlab1.php

Matrices and vectors (Linear Algebra) are the basic elements in MATLAB and also the
basic elements in control design theory. So, it is important you know how to handle
vectors and matrices in MATLAB.

A general matrix 𝐴 may be written like this:

𝑎11 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑚
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚
𝑎𝑛1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚

In MATLAB we type vectors and matrices like this:

1 2
𝐴=[ ]
3 4
>> A = [1 2; 3 4]
A = 1 2
3 4

or:

>> A = [1, 2; 3, 4]
A = 1 2
3 4

→ To separate rows, we use a semicolon “;”

→ To separate columns, we use a comma “,” or a space “ “.

To get a specific part of a matrix, we can type like this:

>> A(2,1)
ans =
3

or:

>> A(:,1)
ans =

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

16 4 MATLAB Basics

1
3

or:

>> A(2,:)
ans =
3 4

From 2 vectors x and y we can create a matrix like this:

>> x = [1; 2; 3];

>> y = [4; 5; 6];
>> B = [x y]
B = 1 4
2 5
3 6

4.2.1 Colon Notation

The “colon notation” is very useful for creating vectors:

Example:
This example shows how to use the colon notation creating a vector and do some
calculations.

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

17 4 MATLAB Basics

[End of Example]

Task 3: Vectors and Matrices

Type the following vector in the Command window:

1
𝑥 = [2]
3
Type the following matrix in the Command window:

0 1
𝐴=[ ]
−2 −3
Type the following matrix in the Command window:

−1 2 0
𝐶=[ 4 10 −2]
1 0 6
→ Use Use MATLAB to find the value in the second row and the third column of matrix 𝐶.

→ Use MATLAB to find the second row of matrix 𝐶.

→ Use MATLAB to find the third column of matrix 𝐶.

[End of Task]

Deleting Rows and Columns:

You can delete rows and columns from a matrix using just a pair of square brackets [].

Example:

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18 4 MATLAB Basics

Given:

0 1
𝐴=[ ]
−2 −3
To delete the second column of a matrix 𝐴, use:

>>A=[0 1; -2 -3];
>>A(:,2) = []
A =
0
-2

[End of Example]

4.3 Tips and Tricks

Naming conversions:

When creating variables and constants, make sure you create a name that does not
already exist in MATLAB. Note also that MATLAB is case sensitive! The variables x and X
are not the same.

Use the which command to check if the name already exists:

>> which –all <your name>

Example:

>> which -all sin

built-in (C:\Matlab\R2007a\toolbox\matlab\elfun\@double\sin) %
double method
built-in (C:\Matlab\R2007a\toolbox\matlab\elfun\@single\sin) %
single method

[End of Example]

Large or small numbers:

If you need to write large or small numbers, like 2 𝑥 105 , 7.5 𝑥 10−8 you can use the
“e” notation, e.g.:

>> 2e5
ans =
200000

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19 4 MATLAB Basics

>> 7.5e-8
ans =
7.5000e-008

Line Continuation:

For large arrays, it may be difficult to fit one row on one command line. We may then
split the row across several command lines by using the line continuation operator “...”.

Example:

>> x = [1 2 3 4 5 ...
6 7 8 9 10]
x =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

[End of Example]

Multiple commands on same line:

It is possible to type several commands on the same line. In some cases, this is a good
idea to save space.

Example:

>> x=1, y=2, z=3

x =
1
y =
2
z =
3

[End of Example]

4.3.1 Array Operations

We have the following basic matrix operations:

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20 4 MATLAB Basics

The basic matrix operations can be modified for element-by-element operations by

preceding the operator with a period. The modified operations are known as array
operations.

Given

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏11 𝑏12

𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] , 𝐵 = [ ]
21 𝑏21 𝑏22

Then

𝑎11 𝑏11 𝑎12 𝑏12

𝐴.∗ 𝐵 = [ ]
𝑎21 𝑏21 𝑎22 𝑏22

The elements of A.*B are the products of the corresponding elements of A and B.

We have the following array operators:

Example:

>> A = [1; 2; 3]
A =
1
2
3
>> B = [-6; 7; 10]
B =
-6
7
10
>> A*B
??? Error using ==> mtimes
Inner matrix dimensions must agree.

>> A.*B
ans =

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21 4 MATLAB Basics

-6
14
30

[End of Example]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

5 Linear Algebra
Linear Algebra is a branch of mathematics concerned with the study of matrices,
vectors, vector spaces (also called linear spaces), linear maps (also called linear
transformations), and systems of linear equations.

MATLAB are well suited for Linear Algebra. This chapter assumes you have some basic
understanding of Linear Algebra and matrices and vectors.

Here are some useful functions for Linear Algebra in MATLAB:

Function Description Example

>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
rank Find the rank of a matrix. Provides an estimate of the
>>rank(A)
number of linearly independent rows or columns of a matrix
A.
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
det Find the determinant of a square matrix
>>det(A)
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
inv Find the inverse of a square matrix
>>inv(A)
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
eig Find the eigenvalues of a square matrix
>>eig(A)
>>ones(2)
ones Creates an array or matrix with only ones
>>ones(2,1)
>>eye(2)
eye Creates an identity matrix
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
diag Find the diagonal elements in a matrix
>>diag(A)

Type “help matfun” (Matrix functions - numerical linear algebra) in the Command
Window for more information, or type “help elmat” (Elementary matrices and matrix
manipulation).

You may also type “help <functionname>” for help about a specific function.

Before you start, you should use the Help system in MATLAB to read more about these
functions. Type “help <functionname>” in the Command window.

5.1 Vectors
Given a vector 𝑥:
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑥 = [ ⋮ ] ∈ 𝑅𝑛
𝑥𝑛

22
23 5 Linear Algebra

Example:
Given:

1
𝑥 = [2]
3
>> x=[1; 2; 3]
x =
1
2
3

The Transpose of vector x:

𝑥 𝑇 = [𝑥1 𝑥2 ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 ] ∈ 𝑅1𝑥𝑛

>> x'
ans =
1 2 3

[End of Example]

The Length of vector x:

‖𝑥‖ = √𝑥 𝑇 𝑥 = √𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛2

Example:
The length of a vector only makes sense for 2 or 3 dimensional vectors.

Given the following vector:

𝑣 = [3, 4]

Note! Sometimes you also see it like this: 𝑣⃑

It can be visualized like this:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

24 5 Linear Algebra

To find the length of 𝑣 we use Pythagoras like this:

|𝑣| = √32 + 42 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5

MATLAB:

>> v = [3,4]'
>> l = sqrt(3^2 + 4^2)
l =
5

Or using the general formula shown above (which works for any dimensions):

>> l = sqrt(v'*v)
l =
5

Note!

>> length(v)
ans =
2

The built-in function length() doesn’t give the actual length of the vector but finds
number of elements in the vector or array, i.e., the size of the array.

[End of Example]

Orthogonality:

𝑥𝑇𝑦 = 0

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25 5 Linear Algebra

5.2 Matrices
Given a matrix 𝐴:
𝑎11 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑚
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚
𝑎𝑛1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚

Example:
0 1
𝐴=[ ]
−2 −3
>> A=[0 1;-2 -3]
A =
0 1
-2 -3

[End of Example]

5.2.1 Transpose
The Transpose of matrix 𝐴:
𝑎11 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛1
𝐴 =[ ⋮
𝑇 ⋱ ⋮ ] ∈ 𝑅𝑚𝑥𝑛
𝑎1𝑚 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚

Example:

0 1 𝑇 0 −2
𝐴𝑇 = [ ] =[ ]
−2 −3 1 −3
>> A'
ans =
0 -2
1 -3

[End of Example]

5.2.2 Diagonal
The Diagonal elements of matrix A is the vector

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26 5 Linear Algebra

𝑎11
𝑎22
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝐴) = [ ⋮ ] ∈ 𝑅𝑝=min (𝑥,𝑚)
𝑎𝑝𝑝

Example:

>> diag(A)
ans =
0
-3

[End of Example]

The Diagonal matrix Λ is given by:

𝜆1 0 ⋯ 0
0 𝜆2 ⋯ 0
Λ=[ ] ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑛
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 𝜆𝑛

Given the Identity matrix I:

1 0 ⋯ 0
0 1 ⋯ 0
𝐼=[ ] ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 1

Example:

>> eye(3)
ans =
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

[End of Example]

5.2.3 Triangular
Lower Triangular matrix L:

. 0 0
𝐿 = [⋮ ⋱ 0]
. ⋯ .

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27 5 Linear Algebra

Upper Triangular matrix U:

. ⋯ .
𝑈 = [0 ⋱ ⋮]
0 0 .

5.2.4 Matrix Multiplication

Given the matrices 𝐴 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚 and 𝐵 ∈ 𝑅𝑚𝑥𝑝 , then

𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑝

where
𝑛

𝑐𝑗𝑘 = ∑ 𝑎𝑗𝑙 𝑏𝑙𝑘

𝑙=1

Example:

>> A = [0 1; -2 -3]
A =
0 1
-2 -3
>> B = [1 0;3 -2]
B =
1 0
3 -2
>> A*B
ans =
3 -2
-11 6

→ Check the answer by manually calculating using pen & paper.

[End of Example]

Note!

Note!

𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

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28 5 Linear Algebra

𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶

(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶

𝐶(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐶𝐴 + 𝐶𝐵

5.2.5 Matrix Addition

Given the matrices 𝐴 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚 and 𝐵 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚 , then

𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚

Example:

>> A = [0 1; -2 -3]
>> B = [1 0; 3 -2]
>> A + B
ans =
1 1
1 -5

→ Check the answer by manually calculating using pen & paper.

[End of Example]

5.2.6 Determinant
Given a matrix 𝐴 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑛 , then the Determinant is given by:

𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = |𝐴|

Given a 2𝑥2 matrix:

𝑎11 𝑎12 2𝑥2
𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] ∈ 𝑅
21

Then

𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = |𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12

Example:

A =
0 1
-2 -3

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29 5 Linear Algebra

>> det(A)
ans =
2

→ Check the answer by manually calculating using pen & paper.

[End of Example]

Notice that

det(𝐴𝐵) = det(𝐴) det(𝐵)

and

det(𝐴𝑇 ) = det (𝐴)

Example:

>> det(A*B)
ans =
-4
>> det(A)*det(B)
ans =
-4
>> det(A')
ans =
2
>> det(A)
ans =
2

[End of Example]

5.2.7 Inverse Matrices

The inverse of a quadratic matrix 𝐴 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑛 is defined by:

𝐴−1

if

𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼

For a 2𝑥2 matrix we have:

𝑎11 𝑎12 2𝑥2
𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] ∈ 𝑅
21

The inverse 𝐴−1 is then given by

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

30 5 Linear Algebra

1 𝑎22 −𝑎12
𝐴−1 = [−𝑎 𝑎11 ] ∈ 𝑅
2𝑥2
𝑑𝑒𝑡 (𝐴) 21

Example:

A =
0 1
-2 -3
>> inv(A)
ans =
-1.5000 -0.5000
1.0000 0

→ Check the answer by manually calculating using pen & paper.

Notice that:

𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼

[End of Example]

5.3 Eigenvalues
Given 𝐴 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑛 , then the Eigenvalues is defined as:

𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴) = 0

Example:

A =
0 1
-2 -3
>> eig(A)
ans =
-1
-2

→ Check the answer by manually calculating using pen & paper.

[End of Example]

Task 4: Matrix manipulation

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31 5 Linear Algebra

In this task we will practice entering matrices and perform basic matrix operations.

Given the matrices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶:

0 1 1 0 1 −1
𝐴=[ ], 𝐵=[ ], 𝐶=[ ]
−2 −3 3 −2 −2 2
→ Solve the following basic matrix operations using MATLAB:

• 𝐴+𝐵
• 𝐴−𝐵
• 𝐴𝑇
• 𝐴−1
• 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝐴), 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝐵)
• 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴), 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐵)
• 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵)
• 𝑒𝑖𝑔(𝐴)

where eig = Eigenvalues, diag = Diagonal, det = Determinant

→ Use MATLAB to “prove” the following:

• 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
• 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶
• (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶
• 𝐶(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐶𝐴 + 𝐶𝐵
• det(𝐴𝐵) = det(𝐴) det(𝐵)
• det(𝐴𝑇 ) = det (𝐴)
• 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼

where 𝐼 is the unit matrix

By “proving”, I mean enter the left side in MATLAB, then enter the right side, then check
if you get the same results or not. In that way you have “proved” it.

[End of Task]

5.4 Solving Linear Equations

MATLAB can easily be used to solve a large number of linear equations using built-in
functions.

When dealing with large matrices (finding inverse of A is time-consuming) or the inverse
doesn’t exist other methods are used to find the solution, such as:

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32 5 Linear Algebra

• Least Square method

• LU factorization
• Singular value Decomposition
• Etc.

In MATLAB we can also simply use the backslash operator “\” in order to find the
solution like this:

x = A\b

Example:
Given the following equations:

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 5

3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 6

7𝑥1 + 8𝑥2 = 9

We can set in on matrix form:

𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏

But as you know, it only works when 𝐴 is a square matrix.

From the equations we find:

1 2
𝐴 = [3 4]
7 8
5
𝑏 = [6]
9
Normally we can find the solution by taking the inverse of the A matrix:

𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

As you can see, the 𝐴 matrix is not a quadratic matrix, meaning we cannot find the
inverse of 𝐴, thus 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 will not work (try it in MATLAB and see what happens).

Let’s try (just to verify that it is not working):

>> A = [1 2; 3 4; 7 8];
>> b = [5;6;9];
>> x = inv(A)*b
Error using inv

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33 5 Linear Algebra

Matrix must be square.

As expected, MATLAB cannot solve this because the 𝐴 matrix is not square.

So, we can solve it using the backslash operator “\”:

A = [1 2; 3 4; 7 8];
b = [5;6;9];
x = A\b

This gives the answer:

x=

-3.5000

4.1786

Meaning 𝑥1 = −3.5 and 𝑥2 = 4.1786

When using the backslash operator “\” in MATLAB it uses the LU factorization as part of
the algorithm to find the solution.

We could have used the known Least Square Method formula as well.

Given:

𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏

Then the Least Square Method formula is given by (how we can derive this equation will
not be shown here):

𝑥𝐿𝑆 = (𝐴𝑇 𝐴)−1 𝐴𝑇 𝑏

Let’s try:

A = [1 2; 3 4; 7 8];
b = [5;6;9];
x_ls = inv(A'*A)*A'*b

This gives the same answer:

x=

-3.5000

4.1786

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34 5 Linear Algebra

This means using the Least Square formula also works fine in this case. It gives same
results as using the backslash. "\" operator in this case. In general, the backslash
operator is better to use because it finds the best way to solve the equations. MATLAB
does the "dirty work" for you.

[End of Example]

Task 5: Solving Linear Equations

Given the equations:

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 5
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 6

Set the equations on the following form:

𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏

→ Find 𝐴 and 𝑏 and define them in MATLAB.

Solve the equations, i.e., find 𝑥1, 𝑥2 , using MATLAB. It can be solved like this:

𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 → 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

6 Scripts and Functions
Scripts or m-files are text files containing MATLAB code. Use the MATLAB Editor or
another text editor to create a file containing the same statements you would type at the
MATLAB command line. Save the file under a name that ends with “.m”.

We can either create a Script or a Function. The difference between a script and a
function will be explained below. Both will be saved as m-files, but the usage will be
slightly different.

Before you start, you should watch the video “Writing a MATLAB Program”.

The video is available from:

https://www.halvorsen.blog/documents/teaching/courses/matlab/matlab1.php

Below we see the MATLAB Editor that we use to create Scripts and Functions (both are
saved as .m files):

6.1 Scripts vs. function Files

It is important to know the difference between a Script and a Function.

Scripts:

• A collection of commands that you would execute in the Command Window

35
36 6 Scripts and Functions

• Used for automating repetitive tasks

Functions:

• Operate on information (inputs) fed into them and return outputs

• Have a separate workspace and internal variables that is only valid inside the
function
• Your own user-defined functions work the same way as the built-in functions you
use all the time, such as plot(), rand(), mean(), std(), etc.

MATLAB has lots of built-in functions, but very often we need to create our own
functions (these are called user-defined functions)

Below we will learn more about Scripts and Functions.

6.2 Scripts
A Script is a collection of MATLAB commands and functions that is bundled together in a
m-file. When you run the Script, all the commands are executed sequentially.

The built-in Editor for creating and modifying m-files are shown below:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

37 6 Scripts and Functions

In the Editor you create a sequence of MATLAB commands that you save as a m-file (the
file extension ends with .m). Push the “Run” button when you want to run your program.

If the code contains errors or warning the MATLAB compiler will let you know by
displaying some colors symbols to the right in the Editor, as shown on the Figure above.

Running a m-file in the Command window (just type the name of the m-file and hit Enter
to run the m-file):

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38 6 Scripts and Functions

You may open or edit a m-file using the open button in the toolbar.

An alternative is to type “Edit <name of m-file>” from the Command window.

Task 6: Script

Create a Script (M-file) where you create a vector with random data and find the average
and the standard deviation

Run the Script from the Command window.

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

39 6 Scripts and Functions

6.3 Functions
MATLAB includes more than 1000 built-in functions that you can use, but sometimes
you need to create your own functions.

To define your own function in MATLAB, use the following syntax:

function outputs = function_name(inputs)

% documentation
…

Or in more detail:

The first line of a function M-file starts with the keyword function. It gives the function
name and order of arguments. In example above, we have 3 input arguments (i.e, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)
and 2 output arguments (i.e, 𝑥, 𝑦).

The first line of the help text is the H1 line, which MATLAB displays when you use the
lookfor command or the help command.

Note! It is recommended that you use lowercase in the function name. You should
neither use spaces; use an underscore “_” if you need to separate words.

A Function can have one or more inputs and one or more outputs.

Below we see how to declare a function with one input and one output:

Below we see how to declare a function with multiple inputs and multiple outputs:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

40 6 Scripts and Functions

Example:
Here is a simple Example:

function answer = add(x,y)

% this function adds 2 numbers
answer = x + y;

Note! The function name (add) and the name of the file (“add.m”) need to be identical.

You may use the function like this:

% Example 1:
add(2,3)

% Example 2:
a = 4;
b = 6;
add(a,b);

% Example 3:
answer = add(a,b)

[End of Example]

You may create your own functions and save them as an m-file. Functions are M-files
that can accept input arguments and return output arguments. Functions operate on

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41 6 Scripts and Functions

variables within their own workspace, separate from the workspace you access at the
MATLAB command prompt.

Note! The name of the M-file and of the function should be the same!

Example:

Create a function called “linsolution” which solve 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 → 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

Below we see how the m-file for this function looks like:

You may define 𝐴 and 𝑏 in the Command window and the use the function on order to
find 𝑥:

>> A=[1 2;3 4];

>> b=[5;6];
>> x = linsolution(A,b)
x =
-4.0000
4.5000
After the function declaration (function [x] = linsolution(A,b)) in the m.file,
you may write a description of the function. This is done with the Comment sign “%”
before each line.

From the Command window you can then type “help <function name>” in order
to read this information:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

42 6 Scripts and Functions

>> help linsolution

Solves the problem Ax=b using x=inv(A)*b
Created By Hans-Petter Halvorsen

[End of Example]

Naming a Function Uniquely:

To avoid choosing a name for a new function that might conflict with a name already in
use, check for any occurrences of the name using this command:

which -all functionname

Task 7: User-defined function

Create a function calc_average that finds the average of two numbers.

Test the function afterwards as follows:

>> x = 2;
>> y = 4;
>> z = calc_average(x,y)

[End of Task]

Task 8: User-defined function

Create a function circle that finds the area in a circle based on the input parameter 𝑟
(radius).

Run and test the function in the Command window.

[End of Task]

Example: Multiple Return Values

Assume the following algebraic equation:

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0

We can find the solution x by using the following general term:

Given the second order algebraic equation:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

43 6 Scripts and Functions

The solution (roots) is as follows (𝑎 ≠ 0):

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Then we can create a function that finds the solution for x based on different input
values for a, b and c, e.g.,

function [x1,x2] = solveeq(a,b,c)

x1 = (-b+sqrt(b^2-4*a*c))/(2*a);
x2 = (-b-sqrt(b^2-4*a*c))/(2*a);

Note! This function has 3 input arguments and 2 return values.

We can define values for a, b and c:

>> a = 1;
>> b = 4;
>> c = 3,

Then we can use the function like this:

>> [x1, x2] = solveeq(a,b,c)

Then MATLAB responds with the following results:

x1 =
-1
x2 =
-3

Of course, a better solution in this case may be to use vectors instead (because
MATLAB has built-in features for vectors and matrices), like this:

function x = solveeq(a,b,c)
x(1,1) = (-b+sqrt(b^2-4*a*c))/(2*a);
x(2,1) = (-b-sqrt(b^2-4*a*c))/(2*a);

We define values for a, b and c:

>> a = 1;
>> b = 4;
>> c = 3,

Then we can use the function like this:

>> x = solveeq(a,b,c)

Then MATLAB responds with the following results:

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44 6 Scripts and Functions

x =
-1
-3

[End of Example]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

7 Plotting
Plotting is a very important and powerful feature in MATLAB. In this chapter we will learn
the basic plotting functionality in MATLAB.

Plots functions: Here are some useful functions for creating plots:

Function Description Example

>X = [0:0.01:1];
plot Generates a plot. plot(y) plots the columns of y against the
>Y = X.*X;
indexes of the columns. >plot(X, Y)
>>figure
figure Create a new figure window
>>figure(1)
>>subplot(2,2,1)
subplot Create subplots in a Figure. subplot(m,n,p) or
subplot(mnp), breaks the Figure window into an m-by-n
matrix of small axes, selects the p-th axes for the current
plot. The axes are counted along the top row of the Figure
window, then the second row, etc.
>>grid
grid Creates grid lines in a plot.
>>grid on
“grid on” adds major grid lines to the current plot. >>grid off
“grid off” removes major and minor grid lines from the
current plot.
>>axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax])
axis Control axis scaling and appearance. “axis([xmin xmax
>>axis off
ymin ymax])” sets the limits for the x- and y-axis of the >>axis on
current axes.
>>title('this is a title')
title Add title to current plot
title('string')
>> xlabel('time')
xlabel Add xlabel to current plot
xlabel('string')
>> ylabel('temperature')
ylabel Add ylabel to current plot
ylabel('string')
>> legend('temperature')
legend Creates a legend in the corner (or at a specified position) of
the plot
>>hold on
hold Freezes the current plot, so that additional plots can be
>>hold off
overlaid

Type “help graphics” in the Command Window for more information, or type “help
<functionname>” for help about a specific function.

Before you start, you should use the Help system in MATLAB to read more about these
functions. Type “help <functionname>” in the Command window.

Example:
Here we see some examples of how to use the different plot functions:

45
46 7 Plotting

[End of Example]

Before you start using these functions, you should watch the video “Using Basic
Plotting Functions”.

The video is available from:

https://www.halvorsen.blog/documents/teaching/courses/matlab/matlab1.php

Task 9: Plotting

In the Command window (or use the Script Editor) in MATLAB window input the time
from 𝑡 = 0 seconds to 𝑡 = 10 seconds in increments of 0.1 seconds as follows:

>>t = [0:0.1:10];

Then, compute the output y as follows:

>>y = cos(t);

Use the Plot command:

>>plot(t,y)

[End of Task]

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47 7 Plotting

Example: Find solution for 2.order equation by

plotting
Assume the following algebraic equation:

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0

We can find the solution x by using the following general term:

Given the second order algebraic equation:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

The solution (roots) is as follows (𝑎 ≠ 0):

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Then we can create a function that finds the solution for x based on different input
values for a, b and c, e.g.,

function x = solveeq(a,b,c)
x(1,1) = (-b+sqrt(b^2-4*a*c))/(2*a);
x(2,1) = (-b-sqrt(b^2-4*a*c))/(2*a);

We define values for a, b and c:

>> a = 1;
>> b = 4;
>> c = 3,

Then we can use the function like this:

>> x = solveeq(a,b,c)

Then MATLAB responds with the following results:

x =
-1
-3

But we can also make a plot and then find the solution:

x = -4:0;
y = x.^2 + 4.*x + 3;

plot(x,y, 'o-')
grid

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48 7 Plotting

Which gives the following plot:

Then we can easily see the solution from the plot, i.e., 𝑦 = 0 when 𝑥 = −3 and 𝑥 =
−1.

[End of Example]

7.1 Plotting Multiple Data Sets in One

Graph
In MATLAB it is easy to plot multiple data set in one graph.

Example:

x = 0:pi/100:2*pi;
y = sin(x);
y2 = sin(x-.25);
y3 = sin(x-.5);
plot(x,y, x,y2, x,y3)

This gives the following plot:

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49 7 Plotting

Another approach is to use the hold command:

x=0:0.01:2*pi;

plot(x, sin(x))
hold on

plot(x, cos(x))
hold off

This gives the following plot:

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50 7 Plotting

[End of Example]

You can also do the plotting in different plots using the figure() command.

Example:

x=0:0.01:2*pi;
figure(1)
plot(x, sin(x))
figure(2)
plot(x, cos(x))

The results will be like this:

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51 7 Plotting

[End of Example]

Task 10: Plot of dynamic system

Given the following differential equation:

𝑥̇ = 𝑎𝑥
1
where 𝑎 = − ,where 𝑇 is the time constant
𝑇

The solution for the differential equation is:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥0

Set 𝑇 = 5 and the initial condition 𝑥(0) = 1

→ Create a Script in MATLAB (.m file) where you plot the solution 𝑥(𝑡) in the time
interval 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 25

→ Add Grid, and proper Title and Axis Labels to the plot.

[End of Task]

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52 7 Plotting

7.2 Displaying Multiple Plots in one

Figure – Sub-Plots
The subplot command enables you to display multiple plots in the same window or print
them on the same piece of paper. Typing “subplot(m,n,p)” partitions the figure window
into an m-by-n matrix of small subplots and selects the pth subplot for the current plot.
The plots are numbered along the first row of the figure window, then the second row,
and so on.

The syntax is as follows:

subplot(m,n,p)

Example: Subplots

t = 0:pi/10:2*pi;
[X,Y,Z] = cylinder(4*cos(t));
subplot(2,2,1); mesh(X)
subplot(2,2,2); mesh(Y)
subplot(2,2,3); mesh(Z)
subplot(2,2,4); mesh(X,Y,Z)

This gives:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

53 7 Plotting

[End of Example]

Task 11: Sub-plots

Plot Sin(x) and Cos(x) in 2 different subplots.

Add Titles and Labels.

[End of Task]

7.3 Customizing
There is lots of customizing you can do with plots, e.g., you can add a title, x- and y-axis
labels, add a legend and customize line colors and line-styles.

The functions for doing this is; title, xlabel, ylabel, legend, etc.

Example:

x=0:0.1:2*pi;
plot(x, sin(x))

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54 7 Plotting

%Customize the Plot:

title('This is a Title')
xlabel('This is a X label')
ylabel('This is a y label')
legend('sin(x)')
grid on

This gives the following plot:

[End of Example]

For line colors and line-styles we have the following properties we can use for the plot
function:

Line Styles:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

55 7 Plotting

Marker specifiers:

Colors:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

56 7 Plotting

Example:

>> x=0:0.1:2*pi;
>> plot(x, sin(x), 'r:o')

This gives the following plot:

[End of Example]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

57 7 Plotting

7.4 Other Plots

MATLAB offers lots of different plots.

Task 12: Other Plots

Check out the help for the following 2D functions in MATLAB: loglog, semilogx, semilogy,
plotyy, polar, fplot, fill, area, bar, barh, hist, pie, errorbar, scatter.

→ Try some of them, e.g., bar, hist and pie.

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

8 Flow Control and Loops
8.1 Introduction
You may use different loops in MATLAB

• For loop
• While loop

If you want to control the flow in your program, you may want to use one of the following:

• If-else statement
• Switch and case statement

It is assumed you know about For Loops, While Loops, If-Else and Switch statements
from other programming languages, so we will briefly show the syntax used in MATLAB
and go through some simple examples.

8.2 If-else Statement

The “if” statement evaluates a logical expression and executes a group of statements
when the expression is true. The optional “elseif” and else keywords provide for the
execution of alternate groups of statements. An “end” keyword, which matches the “if”,
terminates the last group of statements. The groups of statements are delineated by the
four keywords—no braces or brackets are involved.

The general syntax is as follows:

if expression1
statements1
elseif expression2
statements2
else
statements3
end

Example:
Here are some simple snippets using the if sentence:

58
59 8 Flow Control and Loops

n = 5
if n > 2
M = eye(n)
elseif n < 2
M = zeros(n)
else
M = ones(n)
end

or:

n = 5
if n == 5
M = eye(n)
else
M = ones(n)
end

Note! You have to use “if n == 5” – not ”if n = 5”

[End of Example]

Example:

if A == B, ...

Note! If A and B are scalars this works – but If A and B are matrices this might not work
as expected!

→ Try it!

Use instead:

if isequal(A, B), ...

→ Try it!

[End of Example]

Operators:

You may use the following operators in MATLAB:

Mathematical Operator Description MATLAB Operator

< Less Than <
≤ Less Than or Equal To <=
> Greater Than >
≥ Greater Than or Equal To >=
= Equal To ==
≠ Not Equal To ~=

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

60 8 Flow Control and Loops

Logical Operators:

You may use the following logical operators in MATLAB:

Logical Operator MATLAB Operator

AND &
OR |

Task 13: If-else Statements

Given the second order algebraic equation:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

The solution (roots) is as follows:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
, 𝑎≠0
2𝑎
𝑐
𝑥= − , 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑏
∅, 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 ≠ 0
{ ℂ, 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 0

where ∅ - there is no solution, ℂ - any complex number is a solution

→ Create a function that finds the solution for x based on different input values for a, b
and c, e.g.,

function x = solveeq(a,b,c)
…

→ Use if-else statements to solve the problems

→ Test the function from the Command window to make sure it works as expected, e.g.,

>> a = 0, b = 2, c = 1
>> solveeq(a,b,c)

Compare the results using the built-in function roots.

Tip! For ∅, you can just type disp(‘there is no solution’) and for ℂ you can type
disp(‘any complex number is a solution’) – or something like that.

[End of Task]

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61 8 Flow Control and Loops

8.3 Switch and Case Statement

The switch statement executes groups of statements based on the value of a variable or
expression. The keywords case and otherwise delineate the groups. Only the first
matching case is executed. There must always be an end to match the switch.

The general syntax is as follows:

switch variable
case case_value1
statements1
case case_value2
statements2
…
otherwise
statements
end

Example: Switch-Case

n=2
switch(n)
case 1
M = eye(n)
case 2
M = zeros(n)
case 3
M = ones(n)
end

[End of Example]

Task 14: Switch-Case Statements

Create a function that finds either the Area or the circumference of a circle using a
Switch-Case statement

You can, e.g., call the function like this:

>> r = 2;
>> calccircl(r,1) % 1 means area
>> calccircl(r,2) % 2 means circumference

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

62 8 Flow Control and Loops

8.4 For loop

The For loop repeats a group of statements a fixed, predetermined number of times. A
matching end delineates the statements.

The general syntax is as follows:

for variable = initval:endval

statement
...
statement
end

Example:

m=5
for n = 1:m
r(n) = rank(magic(n));
end
r

[End of Example]

Task 15: Fibonacci Numbers

In mathematics, Fibonacci numbers are the numbers in the following sequence:

0, 1, 1, 2 ,3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …

The first two Fibonacci numbers are 0 and 1, and each subsequent number is the sum of
the previous two. Some sources omit the initial 0, instead beginning the sequence with
two 1s.

In mathematical terms, the sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers is defined by the

recurrence relation:

𝑓𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛−1 + 𝑓𝑛−2

with seed values:

𝑓0 = 0, 𝑓1 = 1

→ Write a function in MATLAB that calculates the N first Fibonacci numbers, e.g.,

>> N=10;
>> fibonacci(N)

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

63 8 Flow Control and Loops

ans =
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34

→ Use a For loop to solve the problem.

Fibonacci numbers are used in the analysis of financial markets, in strategies such as
Fibonacci retracement, and are used in computer algorithms such as the Fibonacci
search technique and the Fibonacci heap data structure. They also appear in biological
settings, such as branching in trees, arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruitlets of a
pineapple, the flowering of artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a
pinecone.

[End of Task]

8.5 While loop

The while loop repeats a group of statements an indefinite number of times under
control of a logical condition. A matching end delineates the statements.

The general syntax is as follows:

while expression
statements
end

Example:

m=5;
while m > 1
m = m - 1;
zeros(m)
end

[End of Example]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

64 8 Flow Control and Loops

Task 16: While Loop

Create a Script or Function that creates Fibonacci Numbers up to a given number, e.g.,

>> maxnumber = 2000;

>> fibonacci(maxnumber)

Use a While Loop to solve the problem.

[End of Task]

8.6 Additional Tasks

Here are some additional tasks about Loops and Flow control.

Task 17: For Loops

Extend your calc_average function from a previous task so it can calculate the average
of a vector with random elements. Use a For loop to iterate through the values in the
vector and find sum in each iteration:

mysum = mysum + x(i);

Test the function in the Command window

[End of Task]

Task 18: If-else Statement

Create a function where you use the “if-else” statement to find elements larger than a
specific value in the task above. If this is the case, discard these values from the
calculated average.

Example discarding numbers larger than 10 gives:

x =
4 6 12
>> calc_average(x)
ans =
5

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

65 8 Flow Control and Loops

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

9 Mathematics
MATLAB is a powerful tool for mathematical calculations.

Type “help elfun” (elementary functions) in the Command window for more information
about basic mathematical functions.

9.1 Basic Math Functions

Some Basic Math functions in MATLAB: exp, sqrt, log, etc.→ Look up these functions in
the Help system in MATLAB.

Task 19: Basic Math function

Create a function that calculates the following mathematical expression:

𝑧 = 3𝑥 2 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑒 ln (𝑥)

Test with different values for 𝑥 and 𝑦.

[End of Task]

9.2 Statistics
Some Statistics functions in MATLAB: mean, max, min, std, etc.

→ Look up these functions in the Help system in MATLAB.

Task 20: Statistics

Create a vector with random numbers between 0 and 100. Find the following statistics:
mean, median, standard deviation, minimum, maximum and the variance.

[End of Task]

66
67 9 Mathematics

9.3 Trigonometric Functions

MATLAB offers lots of Trigonometric functions, e.g., sin, cos, tan, etc. → Look up these
functions in the Help system in MATLAB.

Note! Most of the trigonometric functions require that the angle is expressed in radians.

Example:

>> sin(pi/4)
ans =
0.7071

[End of Example]

Task 21: Conversion

Since most of the trigonometric functions require that the angle is expressed in radians,
we will create our own functions in order to convert between radians and degrees.

It is quite easy to convert from radians to degrees or from degrees to radians. We have
that:

2𝜋 [𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠] = 360 [𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠]

This gives:

180
𝑑 [𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠] = 𝑟[𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠] ∙ ( )
𝜋
𝜋
𝑟[𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠] = 𝑑[𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠] ∙ ( )
180
→ Create two functions that convert from radians to degrees (r2d(x)) and from degrees
to radians (d2r(x)) respectively.

Test the functions to make sure that they work as expected.

[End of Task]

Task 22: Trigonometric functions on right triangle

Given right triangle:

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68 9 Mathematics

→ Create a function that finds the angle 𝐴 (in degrees) based on input arguments
(𝑎, 𝑐), (𝑏, 𝑐) and (𝑎, 𝑏) respectively.

Use, e.g., a third input “type” to define the different types above.

→ Use you previous function r2d() to make sure the output of your function is in degrees
and not in radians.

Test the functions to make sure it works properly.

Tip! We have that:

𝑎 𝑎
sin 𝐴 = , 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑐 𝑐
𝑏 𝑏
cos 𝐴 = , 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝑐 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎
tan 𝐴 = , 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑏 𝑏
We may also need the Pythagoras' theorem:

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Testing the function can be done like this in the Command Window:

>> a = 5, b = 8, c = sqrt(a^2+b^2);
>> A = right_triangle(a,c,'sin')
A =
32.0054
>> A = right_triangle(b,c,'cos')
A =
32.0054
>> A = right_triangle(a,b,'tan')
A =

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

69 9 Mathematics

32.0054

We also see that the answer in this case is the same, which is expected.

[End of Task]

Task 23: Law of cosines

Given:

Create a function where you find c using the law of cosines.

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶

Test the functions to make sure it works properly.

[End of Task]

Task 24: Plotting

Plot 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) and 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 in the same plot.

Make sure to add labels and a legend and use different line styles and colors for the
plots.

[End of Task]

9.4 Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are important in modelling and control theory.

A complex number is defined like this:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

70 9 Mathematics

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏

or

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏

The imaginary unit 𝑖 or 𝑗 is defined as:

𝑖 = √−1

Where 𝑎 is called the real part of 𝑧 and 𝑏 is called the imaginary part of 𝑧, i.e.:

𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 𝑎, 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑏

You may also imaginarily numbers on exponential/polar form:

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

71 9 Mathematics

where:

𝑟 = |𝑧| = √ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

𝑏
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑎
Note that 𝑎 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑏 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

Example:
Given the following complex number:

𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖3

In MATLAB we may type:

>> z = 2 + 3i

or:

>> z = 2 + 3j

[End of Example]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

72 9 Mathematics

The complex conjugate of z is defined as:

𝑧 ∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏

To add or subtract two complex numbers, we simply add (or subtract) their real parts
and their imaginary parts.

In Division and multiplication, we use the polar form.

Given the complex numbers:

𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2

Multiplication:

𝑧3 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃1 +𝜃2)

Division:

𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑟1 𝑗(𝜃 −𝜃 )
𝑧3 = = = 𝑒 1 2
𝑧2 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 𝑟2

MATLAB functions:

Some Basic functions for complex numbers in MATLAB: abs, angle, imag, real, conj,
complex, etc.

Function Description Example

>>z=2+4i
i,j Imaginary unit. As the basic imaginary unit SQRT(-1), i and j
>>z=2+4j
are used to enter complex numbers. For example, the
expressions 3+2i, 3+2*i, 3+2j, 3+2*j and 3+2*sqrt(-1) all
have the same value.
>>z=2+4i
abs abs(x) is the absolute value of the elements of x. When x is
>>abs(z)
complex, abs(x) is the complex modulus (magnitude) of the
elements of X.
>>z=2+4i
angle Phase angle. angle(z) returns the phase angles, in radians
>>angle(z)
>>z=2+4i
imag Complex imaginary part. imag(z) is the imaginary part of z.
>>b=imag(z)
>>z=2+4i
real Complex real part. real(z) is the real part of z.
>>a=real(z)
>>z=2+4i
conj Complex conjugate. conj(x) is the complex conjugate of x.
>>z_con=conj(z)
>>a=2;
complex Construct complex result from real and imaginary parts. c =
>>b=3;
complex(a,b) returns the complex result A + Bi >>z=complex(a,b)

Look up these functions in the Help system in MATLAB.

Task 25: Complex numbers

Given two complex numbers

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

73 9 Mathematics

𝑐 = 4 + 𝑗3, 𝑑 = 1 − 𝑗

Find the real and imaginary part of c and d in MATLAB.

→ Use MATLAB to find 𝑐 + 𝑑, 𝑐 − 𝑑, 𝑐𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐/𝑑.

Use the direct method supported by MATLAB and the specific complex functions abs,
angle, imag, real, conj, complex, etc. together with the formulas for complex numbers
that are listed above in the text (as you do it when you should calculate it using pen &
paper).

→ Find also 𝑟 and 𝜃. Find also the complex conjugate.

[End of Task]

Task 26: Complex numbers

Find the roots of the equation:

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 13

We can e.g., use the solveeq function we created in a previous task. Compare the
results using the built-in function roots.

Discuss the results.

Add the sum of the roots.

[End of Task]

9.5 Polynomials
A polynomial is expressed as:

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝1 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑝2 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑝𝑛+1

where 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … are the coefficients of the polynomial.

MATLAB represents polynomials as row arrays containing coefficients ordered by

descending powers.

Example:
Given the polynomial:

𝑝(𝑥) = −5.45𝑥 4 + 3.2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 5.6

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

74 9 Mathematics

In MATLAB we write:

>> p = [-5.45 0 3.2 8 5.8]

p =
-5.4500 0 3.2000 8.0000 5.8000

[End of Example]

MATLAB offers lots of functions on polynomials, such as conv, roots, deconv, polyval,
polyint, polyder, polyfit, etc. → Look up these functions in the Help system in MATLAB.

Task 27: Polynomials

Define the following polynomial in MATLAB:

𝑝(𝑥) = −2.1𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 11

→ Find the roots of the polynomial (𝑝(𝑥) = 0) (and check if the answers are correct)

→ Find 𝑝(𝑥 = 2)

Use the polynomial functions listed above.

[End of Task]

Task 28: Polynomials

Given the following polynomials:

𝑝1 (𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2

𝑝2 (𝑥) = 2 + 𝑥 3

→ Find the polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝1 (𝑥) ∙ 𝑝2 (𝑥) using MATLAB and find the roots

→ Find the roots of the polynomial (𝑝(𝑥) = 0)

→ Find 𝑝(𝑥 = 2)

→ Find the differentiation/derivative of 𝑝2 (𝑥), i.e., 𝑝2 ′

Use the polynomial functions listed above.

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

75 9 Mathematics

Task 29: Polynomial Fitting

Find the 6. order Polynomial that best fits the following function:

𝑦 = sin (𝑥)

Use the polynomial functions listed above.

→ Plot both the function and the 6. order Polynomial to compare the results.

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

10 Additional Tasks
If you have time left or need more practice, solve the tasks below. Its highly
recommended to solve these tasks as well since some of these will most likely be part
of the final test.

Task 30: User-defined function

Create a function that uses Pythagoras to calculate the hypotenuse of a right-angled

triangle, e.g.:

function h = pyt(a,b)
% ..
…
h = …

Pythagoras theorem is as follows: 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Note! The function should handle that 𝑎 and 𝑏 could be vectors.

[End of Task]

Task 31: MATLAB Script

Given the famous equation from Albert Einstein:

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

The sun radiates 385 𝑥 1024 𝐽/𝑠 of energy.

→ Calculate how much of the mass on the sun is used to create this energy per day.

76
77 10 Additional Tasks

→ How many years will it take to convert all the mass of the sun completely? Do we need
to worry if the sun will be used up in our generation or the next?

The mass of the sun is 2 𝑥 1030 𝑘𝑔

[End of Task]

Task 32: Cylinder surface area

Create a function that finds the surface area of a cylinder based on the height (ℎ) and
the radius (𝑟) of the cylinder.

[End of Task]

Task 33: Create advanced expressions in MATLAB

Create the following expression in MATLAB:

ln(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) − sin (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)

𝑓(𝑥) =
4𝜋𝑥 2 + cos (𝑥 − 2)(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)

Given 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = 5

→ Find 𝑓(9)

(The answer should be 𝑓(9) = 0.0044)

Tip! You should split the expressions into different parts, such as:

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

78 10 Additional Tasks

poly = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

num =…

den =….

f =…

This makes the expression simpler to read and understand, and you minimize the risk of
making an error while typing the expression in MATLAB.

[End of Task]

Task 34: Solving Equations

Find the solution(s) for the given equations:

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 5

3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 6

7𝑥1 + 8𝑥2 = 9

[End of Task]

Task 35: Pre-allocating of variables and vectorization

Here we will use pre-allocating of variables and vectorization and compare with using a
For Loop.

We will use the functions tic and toc to find the execution time.

We will create a simple program that calculates 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡) for t=1 to 100 000.

Create the following Script:

% Test 1: Using a For Loop

clear
tic
tmax = 100000;
for t = 1:tmax
y(t,1) = cos(t);
end

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

79 10 Additional Tasks

toc

→ What was the execution time?

We will improve the Script by pre-allocating space for the variable y. Create the
following Script:

% Test 2: For Lopp with preallocating

clear
tic
tmax = 100000;

y = zeros(tmax,1); % preallocating

for t = 1:tmax
y(t,1) = cos(t);
end
toc

→ What was the execution time?

We will improve the Script further by removing the For Loop by using vectorization
instead:

% Test 3: Vectorization
clear
tic
tmax = 100000;

t = 1:tmax; %vectorization

y = cos(t);

toc

→ What was the execution time?

Discuss the result.

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

80 10 Additional Tasks

Task 36: Nested For Loops

Given the matrices 𝐴 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑚 and 𝐵 ∈ 𝑅𝑚𝑥𝑝 , then

𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 ∈ 𝑅𝑛𝑥𝑝

where
𝑛

𝑐𝑗𝑘 = ∑ 𝑎𝑗𝑙 𝑏𝑙𝑘

𝑙=1

In MATLAB it is easy to multiply two matrices:

>> A = [0 1;-2 -3]

A =
0 1
-2 -3
>> B = [1 0;3 -2]
B =
1 0
3 -2
>> A*B
ans =
3 -2
-11 6

But her you will create your own function that multiply two matrices:

function C = matrixmult(A,B)
…

Tip! You need to use 3 nested For Loops.

[End of Task]

Task 37: Prime Numbers

The first 25 prime numbers (all the prime numbers less than 100) are:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

81 10 Additional Tasks

A prime number has both 1 and itself as a divisor. If it has any other divisor, it cannot be
prime.

A natural number (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.) is called a prime number (or a prime) if it is greater
than 1 and cannot be written as a product of two natural numbers that are both smaller
than it.

Create a MATLAB Script where you find all prime numbers between 1 and 200.

Tip! I guess this can be done in many ways, but one way is to use 2 nested For Loops.

[End of Task]

Task 38: Prime Number Function

The first 25 prime numbers (all the prime numbers that are less than 100) are:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97

By definition, a prime number has both 1 and itself as a divisor. If it has any other divisor,
it cannot be prime.

A natural number (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.) is called a prime number (or a prime) if it is greater
than 1 and cannot be written as a product of two natural numbers that are both smaller
than it.

Create a MATLAB function where you check if a given number is a prime number or not.

You can check the function in the Command Window like this:

>> number = 4
>> checkifprime(number)

[End of Task]

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

Appendix A: MATLAB
Functions
This Appendix gives an overview of the most used functions in this course.

Built-in Constants
MATLAB has several built-in constants. Some of them are explained here:

Name Description
i, j Used for complex numbers, e.g., z=2+4i
pi 𝜋
inf ∞, Infinity
NaN Not A Number. If you, e.g., divide by zero, you get NaN

Basic Functions
Here are some descriptions for the most used basic MATLAB functions.

Function Description Example

>>help
help MATLAB displays the help information available
>>help plot
help Display help about a specific function
<function>
>>who
who, whos who lists in alphabetical order all variables in the currently
>>whos
active workspace.
>>clear
clear Clear variables and functions from memory.
>>clear x
>>x=[1 2 ; 3 4];
size Size of arrays, matrices
>>size(A)
>>x=[1:1:10];
length Length of a vector
>>length(x)

format Set output format

>>A=[1 2;3 4];
disp Display text or array
>>disp(A)
>>x=[1:1:10];
plot This function is used to create a plot
>>plot(x)
>>y=sin(x);
>>plot(x,y)
>>cls
clc Clear the Command window
>>rand
rand Creates a random number, vector or matrix
>>rand(2,1)
>>x=[1:1:10]
max Find the largest number in a vector
>>max(x)
>>x=[1:1:10]
min Find the smallest number in a vector
>>min(x)

82
83 Appendix A: MATLAB Functions
>>x=[1:1:10]
mean Average or mean value
>>mean(x)
>>x=[1:1:10]
std Standard deviation
>>std(x)

Linear Algebra
Here are some useful functions for Linear Algebra in MATLAB:

Function Description Example

>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
rank Find the rank of a matrix. Provides an estimate of the
>>rank(A)
number of linearly independent rows or columns of a matrix
A.
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
det Find the determinant of a square matrix
>>det(A)
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
inv Find the inverse of a square matrix
>>inv(A)
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
eig Find the eigenvalues of a square matrix
>>eig(A)
>>ones(2)
ones Creates an array or matrix with only ones
>>ones(2,1)
>>eye(2)
eye Creates an identity matrix
>>A=[1 2; 3 4]
diag Find the diagonal elements in a matrix
>>diag(A)

Type “help matfun” (Matrix functions - numerical linear algebra) in the Command
Window for more information, or type “help elmat” (Elementary matrices and matrix
manipulation).

You may also type “help <functionname>” for help about a specific function.

Plotting
Plots functions: Here are some useful functions for creating plots:

Function Description Example

>X = [0:0.01:1];
plot Generates a plot. plot(y) plots the columns of y against the
>Y = X.*X;
indexes of the columns. >plot(X, Y)
>>figure
figure Create a new figure window
>>figure(1)
>>subplot(2,2,1)
subplot Create subplots in a Figure. subplot(m,n,p) or
subplot(mnp), breaks the Figure window into an m-by-n
matrix of small axes, selects the p-th axes for the current
plot. The axes are counted along the top row of the Figure
window, then the second row, etc.
>>grid
grid Creates grid lines in a plot.
>>grid on
“grid on” adds major grid lines to the current plot. >>grid off
“grid off” removes major and minor grid lines from the
current plot.
>>axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax])
axis Control axis scaling and appearance. “axis([xmin xmax
>>axis off
ymin ymax])” sets the limits for the x- and y-axis of the >>axis on
current axes.
>>title('this is a title')
title Add title to current plot
title('string')

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

84 Appendix A: MATLAB Functions
>> xlabel('time')
xlabel Add xlabel to current plot
xlabel('string')
>> ylabel('temperature')
ylabel Add ylabel to current plot
ylabel('string')
Creates a legend in the corner (or at a specified position) of >> legend('temperature')
legend
the plot
>>hold on
hold Freezes the current plot, so that additional plots can be
>>hold off
overlaid

Type “help graphics” in the Command Window for more information, or type “help
<functionname>” for help about a specific function.

Operators:

You may use the following operators in MATLAB:

Mathematical Operator Description MATLAB Operator

< Less Than <
≤ Less Than or Equal To <=
> Greater Than >
≥ Greater Than or Equal To >=
= Equal To ==
≠ Not Equal To ~=

Logical Operators
You may use the following logical operators in MATLAB:

Logical Operator MATLAB Operator

AND &
OR |

Complex Numbers
Functions used to create or manipulate complex numbers.

Function Description Example

>>z=2+4i
i,j Imaginary unit. As the basic imaginary unit SQRT(-1), i and j
>>z=2+4j
are used to enter complex numbers. For example, the
expressions 3+2i, 3+2*i, 3+2j, 3+2*j and 3+2*sqrt(-1) all
have the same value.
>>z=2+4i
abs abs(x) is the absolute value of the elements of x. When x is
>>abs(z)
complex, abs(x) is the complex modulus (magnitude) of the
elements of X.
>>z=2+4i
angle Phase angle. angle(z) returns the phase angles, in radians
>>angle(z)
>>z=2+4i
imag Complex imaginary part. imag(z) is the imaginary part of z.
>>b=imag(z)

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

85 Appendix A: MATLAB Functions
>>z=2+4i
real Complex real part. real(z) is the real part of z.
>>a=real(z)
>>z=2+4i
conj Complex conjugate. conj(x) is the complex conjugate of x.
>>z_con=conj(z)
>>a=2;
complex Construct complex result from real and imaginary parts. c =
>>b=3;
complex(a,b) returns the complex result A + Bi >>z=complex(a,b)

MATLAB Course - Part I: Introduction to MATLAB

 Hans-Petter Halvorsen

E-mail: hans.p.halvorsen@usn.no
Blog: http://www.halvorsen.blog

University of South-Eastern Norway

www.usn.no
Introduction to MATLAB