PCRAT302

Microcontrollers and Embedded Systems

 Welcome!
Why Embedded Systems?

• The 'brains' behind smart devices

 Course Motivation
• What’s common in a smartwatch, pacemaker,
and drone?
• All are powered by embedded systems
• Learn the fundamentals that make these
possible
 Course Roadmap
1. ARM Cortex-M Architecture & Programming

2. ARM Cortex-M Instruction Set (Assembly

Language)

3. Embedded System Components

4. Embedded System Design Concepts

 Module 1
ARM Cortex-M Microcontrollers

Introduction to the architecture, Programmer’s

model, Behavior of the application program status
register (APSR), Memory system, Exceptions and
interrupts, System control block (SCB), Debug, Reset
and reset sequence.
 Module 2
ARM Cortex-M Instruction Set
(Assembly Language)

Understanding the assembly language syntax,

Use of a suffix in instructions, Unified assembly
language (UAL), Instruction set, Barrel shifter,
Accessing special instructions and special
registers in programming.
 Module 3
Embedded System Components
Embedded Systems vs. General Computing
Systems, Classification of Embedded Systems,
Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems,
Purpose of Embedded Systems, Core of the
Embedded System, Memory, Sensors and
Actuators, Communication Interface, Embedded
Firmware, Other System Components.
 Module 4
Embedded System Design Concepts

Characteristics of an Embedded System, Quality

Attributes of Embedded Systems, Application-Specific
Embedded System, Domain Specific Examples of
Embedded System, Fundamental Issues in Hardware
Software Co-Design, Computational Models in
Embedded Design, Embedded Firmware Design
Approaches, Embedded Firmware Development
Languages.
 Course Outcome
Bloom’s
Knowledge
Level (KL)
CO1 Explain ARM Cortex-M3 microcontroller
K1
architecture

CO2 Use ARM Cortex-M3 instruction set K3

CO3 Describe embedded system components K1

CO4 Explain embedded system design concepts K2

 What is a Microprocessor?
- Central Processing Unit (CPU) on a single chip
- Performs arithmetic, logic, and control
operations
- Requires external components: RAM, ROM,
I/O, Timers
- Used in general-purpose computing systems
Examples: Intel 8085, Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen
 What is a Microcontroller?
- Mini-computer on a single chip
- Includes CPU, memory (RAM/ROM), I/O ports,
timers
- Designed for specific control tasks
- Used in embedded systems
Examples: ARM Cortex-M, 8051, ATmega328,
ESP32
Microprocessor vs Microcontroller
Microprocessor:
- Needs external components
- Higher cost and power
- Used in PCs, laptops

Microcontroller:
- All-in-one chip
- Low cost and power
- Used in appliances, embedded devices
 Applications
• Microprocessors:
- Computers, Servers, Gaming Consoles

Microcontrollers:
- Smart appliances, IoT devices, Automotive
systems,
Drones, Wearables, Industrial controllers
History of Microprocessors
1971 – First Microprocessor: Intel 4004
• World's first commercial microprocessor.
• 4-bit processor designed for calculators
(Busicom).
• Could perform 60,000 operations per second.
1974 – Intel 8080
• 8-bit processor; used in early computers (e.g.,
Altair 8800).
• More powerful and versatile than 4004.
 1978 – Intel 8086 / x86 Architecture
• 16-bit processor; began the x86 series.
• Foundation of modern PC processors.
1980s–1990s
• Rise of 32-bit processors (e.g., Intel 80386).
• Used in personal computers, servers.
2000s–Present
• Multi-core processors (Intel Core, AMD Ryzen).
• Advanced features: pipelining, hyper-threading,
integrated graphics.
 History of Microcontrollers
1971 – TMS1000 by Texas Instruments
• First true microcontroller.
• Included CPU, ROM, RAM, and I/O ports on a single
chip.
• Used in calculators and appliances.
1976 – Intel 8048
• 8-bit MCU with integrated memory and I/O.
• Used in early keyboards (e.g., IBM PC keyboard).
 1980 – Intel 8051
• Became one of the most popular MCUs.
• Still used today in modified forms.
1990s – Rise of RISC-based MCUs
• Introduction of ARM architecture.
• Efficient for battery-powered and embedded systems.
2000s–Present
• 32-bit MCUs like ARM Cortex-M become dominant.
• Widely used in IoT, automotive, wearables, and robotics.
History of ARM Processors

1983 – Birth of Acorn RISC Machine

• Developed by Acorn Computers (UK) to power their desktop machines.
• Project was initiated to create a simple, low-cost, efficient processor.

1985 – ARM1
• First prototype ARM processor.
• 32-bit RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture.

1990 – ARM Ltd. Founded

• ARM Ltd. (now Arm Holdings) formed as a joint venture between Acorn,
Apple, and VLSI Technology.
• Goal: Develop low-power, high-efficiency processors for embedded systems.
 1993–2000: Mobile Revolution
• ARM7 and ARM9 became popular in early mobile phones and
PDAs.
• Licensed by manufacturers like Nokia and Samsung.

2004 Onward: Cortex Series

• Cortex-M (for microcontrollers), Cortex-A (for applications), and
Cortex-R (for real-time).
• Widely used in smartphones, embedded systems, IoT,
automotive, and wearables.
2016–Present: Dominance in Embedded and Mobile
• 95%+ of smartphones use ARM-based processors.
• Used in Raspberry Pi, ESP32, Apple Silicon (M1, M2), etc.
ARM Design Philosophy

RISC-Based Architecture
• Simple, fixed-length instructions.
• Fewer instruction types → faster execution.

Low Power Consumption

• Optimized for battery-powered devices.
• Ideal for embedded and mobile devices.
 High Performance per Watt
• Efficient design → More work with less energy.

Licensing Model
• ARM designs processors but does not manufacture them.
• Instead, it licenses the architecture to companies like
Qualcomm, Apple, and NVIDIA.
• Partners can customize ARM cores for their own products.
Feature Benefit
Simpler, faster, easier to
RISC Architecture
implement
Ideal for mobile and embedded
Low Power
devices
Scalable Design From microcontrollers to servers
Used in billions of devices
Wide Adoption
worldwide
• Smartphones: iPhone (Apple A-series), Android
(Snapdragon, Exynos)

• Microcontrollers: STM32, NXP LPC, Nordic nRF

• IoT Devices: Smart home gadgets, wearables
• Single Board Computers: Raspberry Pi, BeagleBone
• Apple Silicon Chips: M1, M2, M3
What is RISC? (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
• Simple instructions that execute in a single clock cycle.
• Focuses on efficiency and performance per watt.
• Example Architectures: ARM, RISC-V, MIPS

Features:
• Few, simple instructions
• Fixed instruction length
• Load/store architecture
• Easier to pipeline and parallelize
• Requires more lines of code (but faster execution)
What is CISC? (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
• Large instruction set, with many specialized instructions.
• Aims to do more per instruction to reduce the number of
instructions per program.
• Example Architectures: x86, Intel 8086, AMD Ryzen

Features:
• Many complex instructions
• Variable instruction length
• Some instructions may take multiple clock cycles
• Designed to reduce memory access
• Hardware is more complex
Feature RISC CISC
Instruction
Small, simple Large, complex
Set
Execution One instruction per Multiple cycles per instruction
Time cycle (sometimes)
Hardware
Simpler, smaller Complex, larger
Complexity
Power High (ideal for
Lower
Efficiency embedded/mobile)
Code Size Larger Smaller
Pipelining Easier More difficult
Examples ARM, RISC-V, MIPS Intel x86, AMD Ryzen
Which is Better?
• RISC is better for mobile, embedded, low-power
applications.
(e.g., smartphones, IoT, microcontrollers)

• CISC is better for desktop, high-performance

computing.
(e.g., laptops, gaming PCs, servers)
ARM Family of Processors

ARM offers a wide range of processor families categorized by

their application domain. The three major families are:

1. ARM Cortex-A Series (Application Processors)

2. ARM Cortex-R Series (Real-Time Processors)
3. ARM Cortex-M Series (Microcontrollers)
1. ARM Cortex-A Series (Application Processors)
• "A" for Application
• High performance and feature-rich
• Used in smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, laptops

Features:
• Runs full OS (e.g., Linux, Android)
• Virtual memory support (MMU)
• Multimedia and graphics support

Examples:
• ARM Cortex-A7, A9, A53, A72
• Used in smartphones, Raspberry Pi, and Apple M1/M2 (based on ARM
architecture)
2. ARM Cortex-R Series (Real-Time Processors)
• "R" for Real-Time
• Used in real-time, safety-critical systems such as automotive control, medical
devices

Features:
• Deterministic behavior
• Low-latency interrupt handling
• High reliability

Examples:
• Cortex-R5, R7
• Used in automotive ECUs, robotics, hard disk controllers
3. ARM Cortex-M Series (Microcontrollers)
• "M" for Microcontroller
• Designed for embedded systems, low power applications
• Widely used in IoT devices, wearables, smart appliances

Features:
• Compact, low-cost, low-power
• No MMU (uses simpler MPU)
• Ideal for bare-metal or RTOS

Examples:
• Cortex-M0 / M0+ → Ultra-low power
• Cortex-M3 → General-purpose embedded
• Cortex-M4 → With DSP and FPU (used in STM32)
• Cortex-M7 / M33 → High-performance embedded systems
ARM Neoverse (Infrastructure CPUs)
• Designed for cloud computing, data centers, and 5G base stations
• High performance, multi-core scalable designs

Other ARM Technologies

• SecurCore – for smartcards and trusted devices (used in banking)
• Ethos – for AI/ML acceleration
• Mali – ARM's GPU architecture (used with Cortex-A series)
Series Focus Used In
Cortex-A Applications Smartphones, Raspberry Pi, TVs
Cortex-R Real-time systems Automotive, Robotics, HDDs
IoT, wearables, embedded
Cortex-M Microcontrollers
systems
Neoverse Infrastructure Cloud, 5G, data centers
Latest ARM Processors (as of 2025)

1. ARM Cortex-X4
• Latest in the Cortex-X high-performance line.
• Designed for flagship smartphones (e.g., Samsung Galaxy, Google
Pixel).
• Offers very high clock speeds and AI acceleration.
• Often used in custom SoCs by Qualcomm, MediaTek, and
Samsung.
Latest ARM Processors (as of 2025)

2. ARM Cortex-A720 & A520

• A720: Successor to Cortex-A715; balances performance and
power.
• A520: Power-efficient core used in big.LITTLE architecture.
• Together form the CPU cluster in 2024–2025 Android phones.

3. ARM Cortex-M85
• Newest Cortex-M series (announced in 2022, shipping in 2023–
2024).
• Supports Helium (MVE) for enhanced DSP and ML performance.
• Used in advanced microcontrollers for edge AI, IoT, wearables.
Most Widely Used ARM Processors
1. Cortex-M0 / M0+
• Ultra-low power, ultra-low cost.
• Used in billions of microcontrollers worldwide.
• Found in IoT nodes, sensors, small appliances.

2. Cortex-M3 / M4
• Widely used in STM32, NXP LPC, Silicon Labs MCUs.
• Great balance between cost and performance.
• Popular in education, prototyping, and consumer devices.

3. Cortex-A53
• One of the most shipped application processors ever.
• 64-bit, energy-efficient.
• Used in budget smartphones, Raspberry Pi 3, Set-top boxes.
Processor Use Case Notes
Cortex- Tiny embedded,
Most used in volume
M0/M0+ ultra-low power
Cortex- General embedded, Very popular in
M3/M4 IoT, wearables education/industry
Budget mobile, Still widely used in
Cortex-A53
embedded Linux billions of devices
Advanced MCUs with
Cortex-M85 Latest in the M series
ML/DSP
Flagship smartphone
Cortex-X4 High-end performance
CPUs
Chronological Evolution of ARM Processor Series
1. Classic ARM Series (Legacy Cores)
These are the earliest ARM cores, mainly used in embedded systems and early mobile
devices.

Processor Architecture
Introduced Examples Remarks
Series Version
ARM1, Early RISC
1985 –
ARM2, ARMv1 – ARMv2 ARM2, ARM3 processors, basic
1990s
ARM3 use
Very popular legacy
ARM7 ARMv4T 1994 ARM7TDMI
core
Enhanced DSP and
ARM9 ARMv5TE 1998 ARM926EJ-S
MMU
ARM10 ARMv5TE ~2000 ARM1020E Used in networking
Used in early
ARM1176JZ
ARM11 ARMv6 2002 smartphones (e.g.,
(F)-S
iPhone 2G)
2. Cortex Series (Modern ARM Cores)
Introduced after 2005, these are categorized into Cortex-A, Cortex-R, and Cortex-M
families.

Processor Architecture
Introduced Target Examples
Family Version
Application
ARMv7-A / 2005 Cortex-A7,
processors
Cortex-A ARMv8-A / A53, A72,
onwards (smartphone,
ARMv9-A A76
tablets)
Real-time
ARMv7-R / 2005 systems Cortex-R5,
Cortex-R
ARMv8-R onwards (automotive, R8
safety critical)
ARMv6-M / 2006 Cortex-M0,
Microcontroll
Cortex-M ARMv7-M / M3, M4, M7,
onwards ers (MCUs)
ARMv8-M M23, M33
3. Neoverse Series (For Infrastructure)
| Neoverse | ARMv8 / ARMv9 | 2018 onwards | Servers, cloud, HPC |
Neoverse N1, V1, N2 |
4. ARMv9 Processors (Latest)
Introduced in 2021+, ARMv9 adds enhanced security (Confidential
Compute), AI performance, and 64-bit by default.

Series Architecture Examples

Cortex-A series Cortex-A710, Cortex-
ARMv9-A
(ARMv9) X2
Neoverse (ARMv9) ARMv9 Neoverse V2