POLYNOMIALS & RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

1) Polynomials

In mathematics, we rely on definitions, theorems, axioms, and other concepts to solve problems.
Given that mathematics is inherently symbolic, interpreting and decoding these symbols is
essential for understanding. Therefore, take your time to familiarize yourself with the general
form of a polynomial before proceeding with the following questions.

A single-variable polynomial function 𝑓 of degree 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ! ∪ {0}, is expressed as:

We also refer to 𝑎" 𝑥 " , 𝑎" and 𝑎# as the leading term, the leading coefficient, and the constant
term, respectively.

a. Identify which of the following functions is not a single-variable polynomial. Justify your
answer.

b. For those that are, determine the degree, leading coefficient, and constant term.

Note: We usually denote the degree of a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) by deg 𝑓.

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A) 𝑓(𝑥) = − % 𝑥 − 5 B) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 𝑥 & C) 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 ' + 2𝑥 &

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D) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ( − ) E) 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 + √3 𝑥 % + 𝑥 & + 9
2)
a. We call the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘, where 𝑘 is a constant and 𝑘 ≠ 0, a constant polynomial.
What is the degree of any constant polynomial?
b. We call the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 the zero polynomial. What is the degree of the zero
polynomial?

3) There are some special names for polynomials of certain degrees.

The table at right lists some names used to describe polynomials of
specific degrees.

Polynomials are also sometimes described according to the number

of terms they contain. A polynomial with one term is a monomial,
with two terms is a binomial, and with three terms is a trinomial.

Provide an example of a cubic monomial and a quartic trinomial.

4) In this problem we divide 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 % + 7𝑥 & − 𝑥 + 11 by 𝑑(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5.
a.
Step 1: Begin by setting up the division, much like integer
long division. Place the polynomial we are dividing (the dividend)
inside the division bracket, and the divisor on the left.
Step 2: Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor to find the
first term of the quotient.
Step 3: Multiply this first term of the quotient by the divisor. Align each term of this
result under the corresponding terms of the dividend, based on degree.
Step 4: Subtract the result from Step 3 from the dividend. Draw a line under this result
to clearly separate it from the next steps.
Step 5: Continue this process, starting with the result from Step 4, until you obtain both
the complete quotient and the remainder.

b. Express your answer as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) are the quotient
and remainder, respectively.
c. In general, what can you conclude about 𝑟(𝑥) and its degree? Justify your answer.

5) I divided 2𝑥 − 1 into 6𝑥 ' − 7𝑥 % + 22𝑥 & − 24𝑥 − 13 and came up with a quotient of
6𝑥 % − 𝑥 & + 21𝑥 − 3 and a remainder of −16. How could you quickly tell that I made a mistake,
and what are the correct quotient and remainder?

6) Dividing polynomials by binomials of the form 𝒙 − 𝒂 is useful, but long division can be time-
consuming. Synthetic Division offers a quicker approach.
To use it, place 𝑎 outside the division bracket and list the
polynomial's coefficients (inserting 0 for any missing terms)
within the bracket.
a. Because we are dividing by 𝑥 − 5, what should you conclude about the leading term of
the quotient? Place it below the leading coefficient of the dividend and below the line in
the synthetic division setup.
b. In the long division, after finding the first term of the quotient, we will subtract
𝑥 & (𝑥 − 5) from the dividend. We know that the 𝑥 % terms will cancel in this subtraction,
so we focus on the 𝑥 & terms.
Determine what positive value to place below the dividend's second coefficient and
above the line in synthetic division.
c. In the long division, we subtract −5𝑥 & 7𝑥 & to give us 12𝑥 & . Replicate this step by
carrying down and combining the relevant values within the synthetic setup.
d. Now, simply repeat the process until you get the final quotient and remainder.

7) Apply synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 % − 𝑥 + 7 is divided
by 𝑥 + 3?
8) The Remainder Theorem: If 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) are the quotient and remainder when a polynomial
𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎, then 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).

Could you apply The Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 $# − 2𝑥 ( + 3 is divided by 2𝑥 − 4? If yes, proceed. If not, show how you find the
remainder.

9) When the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 19, the remainder is 99, and when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided
by 𝑥 − 99, the remainder is 19.

What is the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 19)(𝑥 − 99)?

10) The Factor Theorem: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a polynomial. (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if 𝑎 is a
root or a zero of 𝑓 (i. 𝑒. 𝑓(𝑎) = 0)

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎" 𝑥 " + 𝑎"*$ 𝑥 "*$ + ⋯ + 𝑎& 𝑥 & + 𝑎$ 𝑥 + 𝑎# have roots 𝑟$ , 𝑟& , 𝑟% , … , 𝑟" .

Use The Factor Theorem to write 𝑓(𝑥) as the product of its factors.

11) The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

With tools more advanced than we will cover here, we can show that every one-variable
polynomial with degree 𝑛 has exactly 𝑛 complex roots. This fact is so fundamental to the study
of algebra that it is called The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

At right is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial.

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The only roots of the graph are (−1, 0), (1, 0) & L& , 0M and
the 𝑦-intercept is (0, 1). Find 𝑓(𝑥).

12) The Integer Root Theorem

In this problem we find the roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 % − 3𝑥 & − 11𝑥 + 6.
a. Consider 𝑓(5) = 2(5% ) − 3(5& ) − 11(5) + 6. How can we determine that 𝑓(5) ≠ 0
without evaluating 𝑓(5)?
b. Suppose that 𝑛 is an integer that is a solution to the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. Show that 𝑛 is a
divisor (positive or negative) of 6.
c. Find the roots of 𝑓(𝑥).
d. Find all values of 𝑥 such that 2𝑥 % − 3𝑥 & − 11𝑥 + 6 < 0.

This problem is an illustration of The Integer Root Theorem, which states that

Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎" 𝑥 " + 𝑎"*$ 𝑥 "*$ + ⋯ + 𝑎& 𝑥 & + 𝑎$ 𝑥 + 𝑎# , where the coefficients of 𝑓(𝑥) are
integers, and if 𝑟 is a nonzero integer root of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑟 | 𝑎# .
13) The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT): If 𝑓 is a continuous, real-valued function defined on
an interval [𝑎, 𝑏], with 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), and 𝑡 is a real number between 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏), then there
exists some 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑡.

a. Use the IVT to show that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 (# − 3𝑥 & + 5𝑥 has a root between −1 and 1. What is this
root?
b. What type of polynomial will always include the root identified in the previous part?

14) Finding the roots of a polynomial can be challenging, but with the techniques we’re learning,
along with additional tools in calculus, the process becomes manageable. We already know the
,
formula for linear equations, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0, as 𝑥 = − - , and for quadratic equations, 𝑎𝑥 & + 𝑏𝑥 +
*, ± √, ! *'-0
𝑐 = 0, with roots 𝑥 = &-
. Formulas for cubic and quartic polynomials exist (linked
below if you’re interested), but French mathematician Évariste Galois (1811–1831), whose
work founded Galois Theory in abstract algebra, proved that no general formula exists for
polynomials of degree five or higher.

Cubic Formula for Depressed Cubic How to depress a cubic The Quartic Formula

Some quintic and higher-degree polynomials can be solved by simple factorization and/or the
quadratic formula. Solve the equations below using these methods.

a. 𝑥 ( − 10𝑥 % + 9𝑥 = 0 b. 𝑥 ( + 2𝑥 ' − 16𝑥 % − 32𝑥 & = 0 c. 𝑥 1 − 3𝑥 % − 10 = 0

d. 2𝑥 1 − 9𝑥 % + 10 = 0 e. 𝑥 ( + 2𝑥 ' + 𝑥 % + 2𝑥 & − 3𝑥 − 6 = 0

15) Graphs: The graph of a polynomial function is a smooth, Continuous curve with no holes,
breaks, cusps or corners, meaning it is differentiable at all points. Continuity and
differentiability are topics that will be explored further in Calculus.

The Simplest Graphs are of the form 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)" + 𝑘, which are the transformations of the
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 " , as shown below.
 $ 2 & % % $
Use the given graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)& (𝑥 + 1)% & 𝑔(𝑥) = ' L𝑥 + &M L𝑥 + &M L𝑥 − &M
only as a visual aid to answer the questions below, but you should consider
other polynomials

a. End Behavior: The end behavior of 𝑓 is the behavior of the

graph of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches ±∞ (𝑥 → ±∞).
We denote this by lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
)→4 )→*4
What should you conclude about the end behavior of even degree
and odd degree polynomials?
Justify your answer with a clear explanation and appropriate graphs.

b. Domain & Range: What are the domain and range of even-degree
and odd-degree polynomials? Justify your answer with a clear explanation and
appropriate graphs.

c. Monotonicity: A function 𝑓 is
• Strictly increasing on an interval 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥$ ) < 𝑓(𝑥& ) whenever 𝑥$ < 𝑥& .
• Strictly decreasing on an interval 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥$ ) > 𝑓(𝑥& ) whenever 𝑥$ < 𝑥& .
• Constant on an interval 𝐼 if 𝑓(𝑥$ ) = 𝑓(𝑥& ) whenever 𝑥$ < 𝑥& .

Which behavior(s) is observed in an even-degree polynomial, an odd-degree

polynomial, and a constant polynomial? Justify your answer with a clear explanation
and appropriate graphs.

d. Extrema: A function 𝑓 is said to have

• A relative maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑚 if there exists an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) in the domain
of 𝑓 containing 𝑚 such that 𝑓(𝑚) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).
• A relative minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑛 if there exists an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) in the domain of
𝑓 containing 𝑛 such that 𝑓(𝑛) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).
• An absolute maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑀 if 𝑓(𝑀) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.
• An absolute minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑁 if 𝑓(𝑁) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.

i. Which behavior(s) is observed in an even-degree polynomial, an odd-degree

polynomial, and a constant polynomial? Justify your answer with a clear
explanation and appropriate graphs.
ii. How many extrema can a polynomial of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 have? Justify your answer
with a clear explanation and appropriate graphs.

e. Real Roots & Behavior Near the Roots: Must every polynomial have real roots?
From the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔, you may have observed three distinct types of behavior at
the roots across the two graphs. Explain the reasoning behind this.

Note: The number of times a root repeats is referred to as the root’s multiplicity.
16) Average Rate of Change

The Average Rate of Change between two points on a curve, whether from a function or a
relation not necessarily defined as a function, is the ratio of the change in 𝑦-coordinates to the
change in 𝑥-coordinates.

The average rate of change between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 on a curve

is also the slope of the Secant Line through points 𝐴 and 𝐵,
as shown in the figure.

Consider a particle moving along a number line in both directions.

Its position as a function of time 𝑡 ≥ 0, in seconds, is represented by
the function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 % − 3𝑡.

a. Find the average rate of change between the pairs (1, −2) & (2, 2) and (2, 2) & (3, 18).
For lines, the rate of change, or slope, is constant.What can you conclude about the average
rate of change for a nonlinear function?

b. You may have noticed that the rate of change between (2, 6) & (3, 18) is greater than the rate
of change (1, −2) & (2, 6). This observation suggests that the rate of change is increasing. In
fact, for the function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 % − 3𝑡, the rate of change does indeed increase as 𝑡 grows from
0 to ∞. While we could prove this algebraically, the process is quite tedious. Instead, we’ll
defer this until Calculus, where we’ll learn how to rigorously analyze the monotonicity of the
rate of change.

In the meantime, use the graph of 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 % − 3𝑡, shown at right,

to graphically confirm that the rate of change increases as 𝑡 grows
from 0 to ∞.

c. Find a simple polynomial function whose rate of change decreases

over one interval and increases over another.
Provide a graph of your function.
17) Instantaneous rate of change

Additionally, there’s the concept of Instantaneous Rate of Change—the rate of change at a

specific instant—which you’ll explore further in calculus. For any graph, the instantaneous
rate of change at a given point corresponds to the slope of the tangent line at that point.

Building on the previous problem, consider the same particle, whose position as a function of
time 𝑡 (in seconds) is given by 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 % − 3𝑡, where 𝑡 ≥ 0.

a. Find the average rate of change between h2, 𝑓(2)i and

h2 + ℎ, 𝑓(2 + ℎ)i, where ℎ ≠ 0, and simplify your answer.

Note: The point h2 + ℎ, 𝑓(2 + ℎ)i may lie above or below

the point h2, 𝑓(2)i, but considering just one case is enough.

b. Complete the following as ℎ approaches 0 (ℎ ⟶ 0)

• The point h2 + ℎ, 𝑓(2 + ℎ)i ⟶ ?

• The secant line through h2, 𝑓(2)i & h2 + ℎ, 𝑓(2 + ℎ)i ⟶ ?

c. Using part (a), find the slope of the tangent line at h2, 𝑓(2)i, then interpret this value in
the context of the particle's movement.

d. Write the equation of the tangent line at h2, 𝑓(2)i and use it to approximate 𝑓(2.01). How
accurate is this approximation compared to the exact value of 𝑓(2.01)?

e. Find the average rate of change of 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 % − 3𝑡 between h𝑡, 𝑓(𝑡)i and h𝑡 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑡 + ℎ)i,
where ℎ ≠ 0, and simplify your answer completely.

f. Use part (c) to find the instantaneous rate of change at any time 𝑡.

This is also known as the derivative of 𝑓(𝑡), often denoted as 𝑓′(𝑡). As mentioned earlier,
the concept of differentiability will be explored in more depth in calculus.

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g. Find the Instantaneous Rate of Change at 𝑡 = & and 𝑡 = 1, then interpret each value in the
context of the particle's movement.
18) The Rational Root Theorem
In this problem we find the roots of the polynomial 𝑔(𝑥) = 12𝑥 % − 28𝑥 & − 9𝑥 + 10.

a. Suppose 𝑔(𝑝/𝑞) = 0, where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers and 𝑝/𝑞 is in reduced form. Rewrite
𝑔(𝑝/𝑞) = 0 using 𝑔(𝑥) = 12𝑥 % − 28𝑥 & − 9𝑥 + 10 without fractions.
b. What terms in your equation from (a) have 𝑝? Why must 𝑝 divide 10?
c. What terms in your equation from (a) have 𝑞? Why must 𝑞 divide 12?
d. From parts (b) and (c), we conclude that the list of possible rational roots of 𝑔 is

which is a long list to try. However, applying the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) may
help narrow down the list and suggest a candidate to test first. Identify this candidate
and test it.

e. Find all roots of 𝑔.

This problem is an illustration of The Integer Root Theorem, which states that

Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎" 𝑥 " + 𝑎"*$ 𝑥 "*$ + ⋯ + 𝑎& 𝑥 & + 𝑎$ 𝑥 + 𝑎# ; 𝑎5 ∈ ℤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎# , 𝑎" ≠ 0.
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers such that 𝑝/𝑞 is in simplest terms, and 𝑓(𝑝/𝑞) = 0, then 𝑝 divides 𝑎# and 𝑞
divides 𝑎" .

19) Irrational Numbers (ℝ ∖ ℚ): An irrational number is a real number that is not rational. In
-
other words, an irrational number can’t be written as , where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ and 𝑏 ≠ 0.

The Pythagoreans, an ancient Greek society of mathematicians and philosophers led by

Pythagoras, acknowledged only positive integers and their ratios, excluding zero and
negatives. Today, these ratios are known as "rational numbers," including zero and negative
ratios, and are denoted by ℚ. Similarly, we use ℝ for real numbers, ℤ for integers, and ℕ for
natural numbers. Soon, we will also introduce ℂ, the set of complex numbers.

They also believed all numbers were rational until Hippasus proved √2 was irrational,
challenging their worldview. Legend says he was thrown overboard for this discovery, yet the
reality of irrational numbers endured. Over time, mathematicians expanded the number
system to include zero, negatives, and non-real numbers.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 % − 𝑥 − 2.

a. Show that 𝑓(𝑥) has no rational roots.

b. Show that 𝑓(𝑥) has at least one irrational root.
20) Find a polynomial with integer coefficients such that 𝑟 = √2 + √3 is a root, then show that 𝑟 is
irrational.

21) Let ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 ' − 3𝑥 & + 2.

a. Factor ℎ(𝑥) completely over the rational numbers.

b. Factor ℎ(𝑥) completely over the reals.

22) Complex Numbers (ℂ)

Throughout history, mathematical breakthroughs have often stemmed from exploring the
seemingly impossible. One such challenge was solving 𝑥 & = −1. Since squaring any real
number yields a non-negative result, this equation puzzled mathematicians for centuries.
Eventually, bold thinkers imagined a new type of number that, when squared, equals −1.

René Descartes dismissed these numbers as imaginary, believing they had no real-world
existence. However, Gerolamo Cardano first used them in 1545 while solving cubic equations,
laying the groundwork for complex numbers. Later, Leonhard Euler formalized the symbol 𝑖 to
represent √−1, where 𝑖 & = −1.

a. If 𝑖 is one of the solutions to 𝑥 & + 1 = 0, what is the other solution?

b. Find all solutions to 𝑥 ' − 4 = 0.

23) An imaginary number is a number whose square is a real number that is not positive.
A complex number is a number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑖 & =
−1. We call 𝑎 the real part of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and we call 𝑏 the imaginary part.

Express the following as a complex number in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.

a. −3 + 4𝑖 − (2 + 3𝑖) b. (5 − 𝑖)(−1 + 2𝑖) c. (1 − 𝑖)(1 + 𝑖)

$ %*5
d. % ! &5 e. *& ! (5 f. 𝑖$##(

24) Find all the roots, complex and real, of each of the following:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 % − 2𝑥 & + 3𝑥 − 18
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 % − 8
c. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 1 − 1
25) Rational Functions
6())
A rational function is a function of the form of 𝑓(𝑥) = 9()), where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials
and 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0.

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Use the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = ) below as a guide to help you answer the following questions.

a. Find the domain and range of 𝑓.

b. Find lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥)
)→*4 )→4
c. Find lim" 𝑓(𝑥) and lim# 𝑓(𝑥)
)→# )→#

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26) Use the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = below as a guide to help you answer the following questions.
)!

a. Find the domain and range of 𝑓.

b. Find lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥)
)→*4 )→4
c. Find lim" 𝑓(𝑥) and lim# 𝑓(𝑥)
)→# )→#

27) Horizontal & Vertical Asymptotes

• Horizontal Asymptotes: A function 𝑓 has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 𝑐 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐

)→±4

• Vertical Asymptotes: A function 𝑓 has a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 𝑘 if lim± 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞

)→-

Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes for each of the following rational functions.

%) * ' ) ! ! %) * ' &) * %

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = )!(
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = ) ! * ') ! %
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = ) ! ! $
)! ! $ )% ! :
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = )*$
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = )*&

6())
28) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 9()), where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials and 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0.
a. How can you determine when a rational function has vertical asymptotes?
b. How can you determine when a rational function has horizontal asymptotes?

) $ &
29) Find all solutions to ) – & + ) – ' = ) ! * 1) ! :

)*% (*)
30) Find all values of 𝑥 such that ) ! ' + 2 ≥ ) ! $
 *')()*&)()!')
31) Which of the graphs below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = ()*')()!&)!
. Justify your answer.

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32) Which of the graphs below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = ) ! ! $ . Justify your answer.