OSCILLATOR

Objectives

 Describe the basic concept of an oscillator

 Discuss the basic principles of operation of an oscillator
 Describe the operation of Phase-Shift Oscillator, Wien Bridge
Oscillator, Crystal Oscillator and Relaxation Oscillator
 Introduction

Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous

signal of some type without the need of an input.
These signals serve a variety of purposes such as
communications systems, digital systems (including
computers), and test equipment
The Oscillator

 An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal

from a dc voltage.
 The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback
of the output to maintain the oscillations.
 The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing
circuit to generate a non-sinusoidal signal such as square
wave.
The Oscillator
Types of Oscillator
1. RC Oscillator - Wien Bridge Oscillator
- Phase-Shift Oscillator
2. LC Oscillator - Crystal Oscillator
3. Relaxation Oscillator
 Feedback Oscillator Principles

Positive feedback circuit used as an oscillator

 When switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs.
 Consider Vi,, results in Vo=AVi (after amplifier stage) and Vf = (AVi)
(after feedback stage)
 Feedback voltage Vf = (AVi) where A is called the loop gain.
 In order to maintain Vf = Vi , A must be in the correct magnitude
and phase.
Feedback Oscillator Principles

Positive feedback circuit used as an oscillator

 When the switch is closed and Vi is removed, the circuit will

continue operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to
drive the amplifier and feedback circuit, resulting in proper input
voltage to sustain the loop operation.
Feedback Oscillator Principles
 An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.

Ve = Vi + Vf (1)
Vo = AVe (2)
Vf = (AVe)=Vo (3)

From (1), (2) and (3), we get

Vo A
Af  
Vs 1  Aβ  where A is loop gain
Feedback Oscillator Principles
In general A and  are functions of frequency and thus
may be written as;

As 
A f s   s  
Vo
Vs 1  As β s 

As βs  is known as loop gain

Feedback Oscillator Principles
Writing T s   As β s  the loop gain becomes;

As 
A f s  
1  T s 
Replacing s with j;
A jω
A f  jω 
1  T  jω

and T  jω  A jωβ  jω

Feedback Oscillator Principles
At a specific frequency f0;

T  jω0   A jω0 β  jω0   1

At this frequency, the closed loop gain;

A jω0  A jω0 
A f  jω0    
1  A jω0 β  jω0  (1  1)

will be infinite, i.e. the circuit will have finite output

for zero input signal – thus we have oscillation
 Design Criteria for oscillators

1) |A| equal to unity or slightly larger at the

desired oscillation frequency.
- Barkhaussen criterion, |A|=1

2) Total phase shift, of the loop gain must be 0°

or 360°.
Build-up of steady- state oscillations

 The unity gain condition

must be met for oscillation to
be sustained
 In practice, for oscillation to
begin, the voltage gain
around the positive feedback
loop must be greater than 1
so that the amplitude of the
output can build up to the
desired value.
 If the overall gain is greater
Build-up of steady-state than 1, the oscillator
oscillations
eventually saturates.
Build-up of steady- state oscillations

Then voltage gain

decreases to 1 and maintains
the desired amplitude of
waveforms.
 The resulting waveforms
are never exactly sinusoidal.
 However, the closer the
value A to 1, the more
nearly sinusoidal is the
waveform.

Buildup of steady-state
oscillations
Factors that determine the frequency of oscillation

 Oscillators can be classified into many types depending on the

feedback components, amplifiers and circuit topologies used.

 RC components generate a sinusoidal waveform at a few Hz to

kHz range.

 LC components generate a sine wave at frequencies of 100 kHz

to 100 MHz.

 Crystals generate a square or sine wave over a wide range,i.e.

about 10 kHz to 30 MHz.
1. RC Oscillators
1. RC Oscillators

 RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to

frequencies of 1MHz or less
 The types of RC oscillators that we will discuss are the
Wien-Bridge and the Phase Shift
Wien-Bridge Oscillator

 It is a low frequency oscillator which ranges

from a few kHz to 1 MHz.
 Structure of this oscillator is
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 Based on op amp
 Combination of R’s and C’s in
feedback loop so feedback factor
βf has a frequency dependence.
 Analysis assumes op amp is ideal.
 Gain A is very large

 Input currents are negligibly

R2 small (I+  I_  0).
R1  Input terminals are virtually
shorted (V+  V_ ).
V0  Analyze like a normal feedback
Vi amplifier.
If ZS
 Determine input and output
loading.
 Determine feedback factor.
ZP
 Determine gain with feedback.

 Shunt-shunt configuration.
Wien Bridge Oscillator

Define
R1 R2 1 1  sRC
Z S  R  ZC  R  
V0 sC sC
1 1
Vi ZS 1 1  1 
If Z P  R Z C       sC 
 R Z C  R 
ZP
R

1  sCR
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
Oscillation condition
Phase of  f Ar equal to 180o. It already is since  f Ar  0.
 R  sCR
Then need only  f Ar  1  2  1
 R1  sCR  (1  sCR) 2
Rewriting
 R  sCR
 f Ar  1  2 
 R1  sCR  (1  sCR) 2
 R2  sCR
 1  
 
R1  sCR  1  2 sCR  s 2C 2 R 2 
 R2  sCR  R  1
 1    1  2 
 R1  1  3sCR  s C R
2 2 2
 R1  3  1  sCR
sCR
 R  1
 1  2 
 R1   1 
3  j  CR  
 CR 
Then imaginary term  0 at the oscillatio n frequency
1
  o 
RC
Then, we can get  f Ar  1 by selecting the resistors R1 and R2
appropriat ely using
 R 1 R
1  2   1 or 2  2
 R1  3 R1
Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Multiply the top and bottom by jωC1, we get

V1 jC1 R2

Vo 1  jC1 R1 1  jC2 R2   jC1 R2

Divide the top and bottom by C1 R1 C2 R2

V1 j

Vo  1  R1C1  R2C2  R2C1  

R1C2   j     
2

 R1C1 R2C2  R1C1 R2C2  

 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Now the amp gives

V0
'
K
V1

Furthermore, for steady state oscillations, we want the feedback

V1 to be exactly equal to the amplifier input, V1’. Thus
'
V1 1 V
  1
Vo K Vo
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
Hence 1 j

K  1  R C  R2C2  R2C1  
R1C2   j  1 1    2 
 R1C1 R2C2  R1C1 R2C2  

jK  1  R1C1  R2C2  R2C1  

  j 
 
   
2

R1C2  R1C1 R2C2  R1C1 R2C2  

Equating the real parts,

1 R1C1  R2C2  R2C1

2  0 K
R1C1 R2C2 R2C1
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C

Acl
K 3
1 1
 fr 
RC 2RC
- Gain > 3 : growing oscillations
- Gain < 3 : decreasing oscillations

K = 3 ensured the loop gain of unity - oscillation

Wien-Bridge Oscillator
V in V out

A lead-lag circuit

 The fundamental part of the Wien-Bridge oscillator is

a lead-lag circuit.
 It is comprise of R1 and C1 is the lag portion of the
circuit, R2 and C2 form the lead portion
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 The lead-lag circuit of a Wien-
bridge oscillator reduces the
input signal by 1/3 and yields a
response curve as shown.
The response curve indicate
that the output voltage peaks at a
frequency is called frequency
resonant.
The frequency of resonance can
Response Curve be determined by the formula
below.
1
fr 
2RC
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 The lead-lag circuit is in the
positive feedback loop of Wien-
bridge oscillator.
 The voltage divider limits
gain (determines the
closed-loop gain). The lead
lag circuit is basically a band-
pass with a narrow bandwidth.
The Wien-bridge oscillator
circuit can be viewed as a
noninverting amplifier
configuration with the input
Basic circuit signal fed back from the output
through the lead-lag circuit.
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Conditions for sustained oscillation

 The0o phase-shift condition is met when the frequency is fr
because the phase-shift through the lead lag circuit is 0o
 The unity gain condition in the feedback loop is met when Acl = 3
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 Since there is a loss of about 1/3 of the signal in the
positive feedback loop, the voltage-divider ratio must be
adjusted such that a positive feedback loop gain of 1 is
produced.
This requires a closed-loop gain of 3.
The ratio of R1 and R2 can be set to achieve this. In order
to achieve a closed loop gain of 3, R1 = 2R2

R1
2
R2

To ensure oscillation, the ratio R1/R2 must be slightly

greater than 2.
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 To start the oscillations an
initial gain greater than 1 must be
achieved.
The back-to-back zener diode
arrangement is one way of
achieving this with additional
resistor R3 in parallel.
 When dc is first applied the
zeners appear as opens. This
places R3 in series with R1, thus
increasing the closed loop gain of
the amplifier.

Self-starting Wien-bridge oscillator using back-to-back Zener diodes

 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 The lead-lag circuit permits only a signal with a frequency
equal to fr to appear in phase on the noninverting input. The
feedback signal is amplified and continually reinforced, resulting
in a buildup of the output voltage.
 When the output signal reaches the zener breakdown
voltage, the zener conduct and short R3. The amplifier’s closed
loop gain lowers to 3. At this point, the total loop gain is 1 and
the oscillation is sustained.
Phase-Shift Oscillator
Rf


0V C C C Vo
.
R
+
R R

Phase-shift oscillator
 The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to
provide 180º phase shift that when coupled with the 180º of
the op-amp itself provides the necessary feedback to
sustain oscillations.
 The frequency for this type is similar to any RC circuit oscillator :

1
f 
2RC 6
where  = 1/29 and the phase-shift is 180o

 For the loop gain A to be greater than unity, the gain of the amplifier
stage must be greater than 29.

 If we measure the phase-shift per RC section, each section would not

provide the same phase shift (although the overall phase shift is 180o).

 In order to obtain exactly 60o phase shift for each of three stages,
emitter follower stages would be needed for each RC section.
The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the oscillation
Phase-Shift Oscillator

The transfer function of the RC network is

Phase-Shift Oscillator

If the gain around the loop equals 1, the circuit oscillates at this
frequency. Thus for the oscillations we want,

Putting s=jω and equating the real parts and imaginary parts,
we obtain
 Phase-Shift Oscillator

From equation (1) ;

Substituting into equation (2) ;

# The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the oscillations.

Phase Shift Oscillator – Practical

The last R has been incorporated into the summing resistors

at the input of the inverting op-amp.

1  Rf
fr  K  29
2 6 RC R3
2. LC Oscillators
Oscillators With LC Feedback
Circuits

 For frequencies above 1 MHz, LC feedback oscillators

are used.
 We will discuss the crystal-controlled oscillators.
 Transistors are used as the active device in these
types.
Crystal Oscillator

The crystal-controlled oscillator is the most stable and

accurate of all oscillators. A crystal has a natural frequency
of resonance. Quartz material can be cut or shaped to have
a certain frequency. We can better understand the use of a
crystal in the operation of an oscillator by viewing its
electrical equivalent.
 Crystal Oscillator
The crystal appears as a resonant circuit
(tuned circuit oscillator).

The crystal has two resonant frequencies:

Series resonant condition

• RLC determine the resonant frequency
• The crystal has a low impedance

Parallel resonant condition

• RLC and CM determine the resonant
frequency
• The crystal has a high impedance

The series and parallel resonant frequencies

are very close, within 1% of each other.
Series-Resonant Crystal
Oscillator
 RLC determine the resonant
frequency

 The crystal has a low

impedance at the series
resonant frequency
 Parallel - Resonant Crystal
Oscillator
 RLC and CM
determine the
resonant frequency

 The crystal has a

high impedance at
parallel resonance
3. Relaxation Oscillators
Relaxation Oscillator

Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing and a device

that changes states to generate a periodic waveform (non-
sinusoidal) such as:

1. Triangular-wave
2. Square-wave

3. Sawtooth
 Triangular-wave Oscillator

Triangular-wave oscillator circuit is a combination of a

comparator and integrator circuit.

1  R2   R3   R3 
fr    VUTP  Vmax   VLTP  Vmax  
4CR1  R3   R2   R2 
Square-wave Oscillator
 A square wave relaxation oscillator is like the Schmitt trigger
or Comparator circuit.
 The charging and discharging of the capacitor cause the
op-amp to switch states rapidly and produce a square wave.
 The RC time constant determines the frequency.
Sawtooth Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
Sawtooth VCO circuit is a combination of a Programmable
Unijunction Transistor (PUT) and integrator circuit.
 Sawtooth Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
Operation
Initially, dc input = -VIN
• Volt = 0V, Vanode < VG
• The circuit is like an
integrator.
• Capacitor is charging.
• Output is increasing
positive going ramp.
Sawtooth Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
Operation
When Vout = VP
• Vanode > VG , PUT turn ‘ON’
• The capacitor rapidly
discharges.
• Vout drop until Vout = VF.
• Vanode < VG , PUT turn
‘OFF’
VP-maximum peak value
VF-minimum peak value
Sawtooth Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
Oscillation frequency is

VIN  1 
f   
Ri C  VP  VF 
Summary
 Sinusoidal oscillators operate with positive feedback.
 Two conditions for oscillation are 0º feedback phase
shift and feedback loop gain of 1.
 The initial startup requires the gain to be momentarily
greater than 1.
 RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge and phase shift.

 LC oscillators include the Crystal Oscillator.

Summary
 The crystal actually uses a crystal as the LC tank circuit
and is very stable and accurate.
 A voltage controlled oscillator’s (VCO) frequency is
controlled by a dc control voltage.