Your Linux

Interview
Cheat Sheet:
Mas te r Sy st e m
& N e tw o rk
Fund a m en tals page 01

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1. What is Linux?

Linux is a free, open-source, Unix-like operating system developed by

Linus Torvalds. It uses a monolithic kernel and powers everything from
servers and cloud infrastructure to mobile devices and embedded
systems. It supports multiple hardware platforms like x86, ARM, and
SPARC.

2. Explain the basic features of Linux OS

Free and Open Source: No licensing cost; fully customizable.

Secure: Uses user permissions, firewalls, SELinux, and auditing tools.
Multi-language support: Ideal for global teams.
Dual Interfaces: Offers both CLI (for automation) and GUI (for
accessibility).
Software Repositories: Easy to install/update packages securely via apt,
yum, or dnf.

3. Name some popular Linux distributions

Ubuntu & Debian: Common in cloud and DevOps labs.

RedHat & CentOS: Enterprise-grade, often used in production.
Fedora: Cutting-edge features, upstream of RHEL.

4. What are the major differences between Linux and Windows?

Feature Linux Windows

Cost Free and open-source Paid, proprietary
Security Strong user-based per More exposed to malw
File System Case-sensitive Case-insensitive
Path Syntax Uses / Uses \
Kernel Type Monolithic kernel Hybrid/microkernel
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5. Define the basic components of
Linux

Kernel: Core of the OS, interfaces with hardware.

Shell: Command-line interpreter (e.g., bash).
GUI: Optional graphical interface (like GNOME).
Application Programs: Tools like vim, docker, ssh.
System Utilities: Services and helpers (cron, systemctl,
journalctl).

6. Explain file permissions in Linux

There are three permissions:

Read (r): View file contents.
Write (w): Modify or delete.
Execute (x): Run scripts or binaries.
Permissions are defined for:
User (owner)
Group
Others
Example: chmod 755 = owner (rwx), group (rx), others (rx)

7. What is the Linux Kernel? Is it legal to edit it?

The Linux kernel is the core of the OS — it manages memory,

processes, hardware, and I/O. It’s open-source and licensed
under the GPL (General Public License) — meaning you can
legally view, modify, and redistribute it.

8. Explain LILO

LILO (Linux Loader) is a legacy boot loader for Linux. It loads the
Linux kernel into memory and starts the OS during boot. Today,
it’s largely replaced by GRUB, which supports more modern
features.
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9. What is Shell in Linux?

A shell is the interface between the user and the Linux kernel. Popular
shells include:
bash: Most common, default in many distros.
zsh: Feature-rich, modern shell.
csh/ksh: Script-friendly, older shells.
fish: Beginner-friendly with smart suggestions.
🔧 DevOps relevance:
You’ll write scripts, automate tasks, and configure pipelines using
the shell daily.

10. What is a root account?

The root account is the superuser in Linux with unrestricted system

access. It can install packages, modify system files, and manage all
users.
🔐 Pro Tip:
In production, use sudo instead of logging in directly as root — safer
and auditable.

11. Describe CLI and GUI in Linux

CLI (Command Line Interface): Text-based interface where users

interact using commands (e.g. Bash, Zsh). Ideal for automation,
scripting, and remote management.
GUI (Graphical User Interface): Visual interface with windows,
menus, icons (e.g. GNOME, KDE). Easier for beginners, but less
efficient for DevOps tasks.

12. What is Swap Space?

Swap is virtual memory on disk used when RAM is full. It allows

Linux to keep running by offloading inactive pages, preventing
crashes.
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13. Difference Between Hard Links and Soft Links

Feature Hard Link Soft (Symbolic) Link

Points to File’s data/inode File name/path
Inode Same as original Different
Works if original deleted? Yes No (becomes broken)
Can link directories? No Yes
Memory usage Lower Slightly higher

14. How to Create a Symbolic Link in Linux

Use ln -s <target_file> <link_name>

Example:

ln -s /var/log/nginx/access.log nginx-log

15. What Are Standard Streams in Linux?

stdin (0): Input — usually from keyboard or a file

stdout (1): Output — normally to terminal
stderr (2): Errors — separate from stdout
Used in redirection:
command > out.txt 2> err.txt

16. How to Mount and Unmount Filesystems

Identify disk: lsblk or fdisk -l

Create mount point: mkdir /mnt/data
Mount: sudo mount /dev/sdb1 /mnt/data
Unmount: sudo umount /mnt/data
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17. How to Troubleshoot Network Issues in Linux
Check interface: ip a or ifconfig
Test connectivity: ping 8.8.8.8, ping google.com
Check gateway: ip route
DNS: Inspect /etc/resolv.conf
Firewall: ufw status, iptables -L
Restart network: sudo systemctl restart NetworkManager or
ifup/ifdown

18. How to List Running Processes

Basic: ps aux or ps -ef

Tree view: ps auxf
Real-time: top
Enhanced view: htop (color-coded, sortable)

19. What is the chmod Command in Linux?

chmod changes file permissions.

Examples:
Symbolic: chmod u+x script.sh (give execute to user)
Numeric: chmod 755 script.sh (rwxr-xr-x)

20. How to Check Disk Space Usage

Overall: df -h
Directory level: du -sh /var/log
Interactive: ncdu (must be installed)

21. How do you find the PID of a running process?

pgrep nginx → directly returns the PID

ps aux | grep nginx → shows full process details
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22. What is rsync and how is it used for synchronization?

rsync -avz --delete src/ dest/

-a: archive (preserves permissions)
-v: verbose
-z: compress
--delete: sync only what exists in source

23. How do you create a user account?

useradd devops_user && passwd devops_user

Or: adduser devops_user (more interactive)

24. How do you format a disk in Linux?

Identify: lsblk
Unmount: umount /dev/sdb1
Format: mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdb1
Mount: mount /dev/sdb1 /mnt/data

25. How do you change a user’s password?

passwd username
The system prompts for new and confirmation password.

26. Difference between a process and a thread?

Factor Process Thread

Independence Independent Dependent, share

Resource usage High Low

Performance Slower to create/terminate Faster

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27. What is ulimit and how is it used?
ulimit -u 50 → limits user to 50 processes
Use ulimit -a to view current limits
Set in /etc/security/limits.conf for persistent configs

28. What is find and how is it used?

find /var/log -name "*.log"
Search by name, size, type, or modified time
Combine with exec to delete or archive files
29. What is RAID in Linux?

RAID Level Description

RAID 0 Striping — fast, no redundancy
RAID 1 Mirroring — redundancy, no speed boost
RAID 5 Striping + parity — balance of speed + safety
RAID 6 Like RAID 5, but with double parity
RAID 10 RAID 0 + RAID 1 — fast and redundant

30. Challenges of using Linux?

Driver & hardware compatibility (esp. laptops, GPUs)
Gaming support still behind Windows
Steep learning curve for beginners
Some firmware support is vendor-dependent
31. What is the /proc File System?
/proc is a virtual file system that exposes real-time kernel data and
process information as files. It’s used for:
Monitoring processes (/proc/<PID>)
Viewing system stats (/proc/meminfo, /proc/cpuinfo)
Tuning kernel parameters (/proc/sys/)
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32. How Do You Secure a Linux Server?

Use key-based SSH with disabled password auth.

Apply security patches regularly.
Harden firewall rules using ufw or iptables.
Disable unused services.
Monitor logs (journalctl, /var/log/).
Enforce least-privilege access.
Use tools like Fail2Ban, AIDE, or SELinux/AppArmor.
Schedule regular backups and audits.

33. What Is strace?

strace traces system calls made by a process. It shows how programs

interact with the kernel — useful for:
Debugging crashes
Identifying missing files
Profiling behavior
Example: strace ls

34. How Do You Optimize Linux Performance?

Tune kernel parameters via sysctl.

Use tools: top, htop, iotop, vmstat, perf, pcp.
Disable unnecessary services.
Clean up disk usage (du, ncdu).
Use caching, compression, and swap wisely.
Monitor regularly and automate alerts.

35. How Do You Administer a Linux Server?

Manage users: adduser, usermod, passwd
Configure services: systemctl, firewalld, crontab
Monitor with tools like Prometheus, Nagios, or Zabbix
Apply backups and automate with tools like rsnapshot, BorgBackup
Secure access: SSH configs, firewall, intrusion detection
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Keep recovery plans ready and tested

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36. What Is Linux Virtual Memory?

Virtual memory allows Linux to use disk space as temporary RAM via
swap. It ensures processes don’t crash when physical RAM is full.

37. What Is Process Scheduling in Linux?

Linux uses a preemptive, priority-based scheduler. The kernel

dynamically assigns CPU time to processes based on:
Priority (static/dynamic)
CPU usage
Scheduling class (e.g., CFS)

38. Most Important Linux Commands

Some essential daily-use commands:

ls, cd, pwd, mkdir, rm
ps, top, htop, kill
grep, cat, less, tail -f
df, du, free
wget, curl
chmod, chown, man

39. What Is iptables and How Is It Used?

iptables configures the Netfilter firewall in Linux. It filters, redirects, or

blocks packets based on user-defined rules.
View rules: iptables -L
Add rule:
iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT
Make persistent:
iptables-save > /etc/iptables/rules.v4
🛡️ In DevOps: Use iptables or nftables in self-managed
environments. Cloud-native equivalents like AWS SGs work similarly.
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40. How to Troubleshoot Linux Boot Failure

Read error messages on screen or from logs: journalctl -xb

Boot into recovery mode or a Live CD
Inspect GRUB configs: /etc/default/grub, /boot/grub/grub.cfg
Try older kernel versions
Check disk integrity: fsck
Undo recent system changes or check failed services

41. What is the init process in Linux?

The init process (PID 1) is the first user-space process that starts
during system boot. It brings the system to a usable state by initializing
services and system targets.
Modern Linux systems now use systemd — a faster, parallel, and
dependency-aware replacement for older SysVinit.

42. What is SMTP?

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a standard protocol used to

send emails between servers.
End-to-end model: For external communication
Store-and-forward model: Used within internal networks

43. What is LVM in Linux?

LVM (Logical Volume Manager) allows flexible and dynamic disk

management.
You can resize volumes, take snapshots, and manage storage without
unmounting or downtime.
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 44. Difference Between TCP and UDP

Feature TCP UDP

Type Connection-oriented Connectionless
Reliability Guaranteed delivery, ordered packets No delivery guarantees
Use Cases HTTP, FTP, SMTP, SSH DNS, VoIP, video streaming, games

45. What is /etc/resolv.conf?

This config file defines DNS servers used by the Linux system for
domain name resolution.
It contains:
nameserver: IP of DNS server
search: Domain suffix to auto-complete hostnames

46. Absolute vs Relative Paths in Linux

Type Description Example

Absolute Starts from root / /var/www/html/index.html
Relative Based on current directory ../scripts/run.sh

47. What is the grep command used for?

grep searches for patterns in files or output streams.

Example: grep "error" /var/log/syslog

48. How to Check the Status of a Service in Linux

Use systemctl (on systemd systems):

systemctl status nginx

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 49. Difference Between /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow

File Description Access

/etc/passwd Stores user info: UID, shell, home dir Readable
/etc/shadow Stores encrypted passwords + expiry settings Root-only

50. How to Compress and Decompress Files in Linux

Compress: tar -czvf backup.tar.gz myfolder/

Decompress: tar -xzvf backup.tar.gz

51. Difference Between a Process and a Daemon

A process is any running instance of a program. It can be

interactive (foreground) or background.
A daemon is a background process that starts at boot and runs
independently, typically with no terminal interaction. Example:
sshd, cron, nginx.

52. How to Schedule Recurring Tasks in Linux

Use the crontab -e command and define time-based jobs like:

30 3 * * * /path/to/geeks.sh
This runs daily at 3:30 AM.

🧠 DevOps Pro Tip: Always redirect logs in cron jobs to debug later:
/path/script.sh >> /var/log/script.log 2>&1
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53. What is sed used for in Linux?

sed is a stream editor used to search, find, and replace text in files.

Example: sed 's/foo/bar/g' file.txt

Replaces all “foo” with “bar” in file.txt.

54. What Are Runlevels in Linux?

Runlevels represent system states:

0 – Halt
1 – Single-user mode
3 – Multi-user, no GUI
5 – Multi-user with GUI
6 – Reboot
Modern distros use systemd targets (graphical.target, multi-
user.target) as a replacement.

55. What is sudo in Linux?

sudo stands for Superuser Do. It allows permitted users to run

commands with elevated (root) privileges after password verification.
Example: sudo apt update

56. What is umask?

umask defines default permission restrictions for newly created

files/directories.
Example:
Default file permission: 666
umask 022 → actual permission = 644
🧠 In automation scripts, always validate file permissions by
checking umask.
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57. How to Find and Kill a Process in Linux
1.Find the process: ps aux | grep nginx
2.Kill by PID: kill 1234
3.Kill by name: pkill nginx
🧠 DevOps Note: Use kill -9 only if graceful termination fails.
58. What is Network Bonding in Linux?
Network bonding combines multiple NICs into one virtual interface to:
Increase bandwidth (mode 0 – round robin)
Add redundancy (mode 1 – active-backup)
Configure via /etc/network/interfaces or nmcli.
🎯 Used in production servers and cloud VMs for high availability.
59. What is SELinux?
SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux) enforces mandatory access
controls based on defined policies. It can run in:
Enforcing: applies rules
Permissive: logs violations
Disabled
⚠️ Warning: Incorrect settings can break apps. Use getenforce
and audit2allow for debugging.
60. What is SSH and How to Use It
SSH (Secure Shell) creates an encrypted connection to a remote
system: ssh user@ip_address

To harden SSH:
1.Use key-based authentication
2.Disable root login (PermitRootLogin no)
3.Change default port from 22
🔐 In DevOps: SSH is used daily for remote server access, CI/CD
runners, and infrastructure automation.
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61. How do you check the contents of a file without
opening it in Linux?

Use the cat command: cat geeks.txt

Other useful commands:
head -n 10 geeks.txt → shows the first 10 lines
tail -n 10 geeks.txt → shows the last 10 lines
🎯 Tip: Use less or more for large files you want to scroll through
without editing.

62. What is the purpose of the crontab file in Linux?

crontab schedules recurring tasks using time expressions.

To run a script daily at 5 AM: crontab -e
Add: 0 5 * * * /path/to/jayesh.sh
🧠 In DevOps: Automate backups, health checks, or cleanup scripts
via cron.

63. How do you find and replace text using sed?

sed 's/true/False/g' file_name

This replaces all instances of “true” with “False”.
🎯 Use case: Replace environment variables or update configs inline
during deployments.

64. What is the purpose of the sudoers file?

It controls who can use sudo and which commands they’re allowed
to run.
Edit it safely with: sudo visudo
To give full access to jayesh: jayesh ALL=(ALL) ALL
🧠 Security Note: Always use visudo to prevent syntax errors that
could lock out sudo access.
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65. How do you change file ownership using chown?

Syntax: chown jayesh:users file.txt

Changes owner to jayesh and group to users.
🔐 Tip: Use -R to change ownership recursively for directories.
66. What is the purpose of ping in Linux?

ping tests network connectivity by sending ICMP echo requests.

Example: ping 192.168.1.10
🎯reachability.
In DevOps: It’s your first step in debugging server or VM network

67. How to recursively copy files/directories using cp?

cp -R source_dir/ dest_dir/
-R: Recursively copies all files, subfolders, and contents.
🧠 In scripting: Ensure -R is used to avoid silent failures with folders.
68. What is netstat, and how do you view network info?

netstat -tuln → shows all listening TCP/UDP ports

-t: TCP
-u: UDP
-l: Listening
-n: Show numbers, not DNS names
🛠️ DevOps use: Check open ports, diagnose service bindings or
firewall blocks.
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69. How to set a static IP in Linux from CLI?

Debian/Ubuntu-style: Edit /etc/network/interfaces:

iface eth0 inet static
address 192.168.1.100
netmask 255.255.255.0
gateway 192.168.1.1
dns-nameservers 8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4
Then: sudo systemctl restart networking
🧠 Note: Use nmcli or nmtui for NetworkManager-managed
systems (e.g., RHEL/CentOS 7+).

70. How to copy a file to multiple directories in Linux?

Using a loop: for dir in /dir1 /dir2 /dir3; do cp file.txt "$dir"; done
Using find + xargs: find /dirs -type d -name "target*" | xargs -I {} cp
file.txt {}
🎯 Real-world use: Deploying scripts/configs to multiple container
volumes or test environments.

71. How Are Files Organized in Linux?

Linux uses a hierarchical file system, starting from the root

directory /. Everything — including devices, users, and system files
— branches from this root:
/bin – essential binaries
/etc – config files
/home – user directories
/var – logs, spool
/dev – device files
🎯 In DevOps: Knowing this helps you debug config paths, script
automation, and troubleshoot services.
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72. How to Find the IP Address of a Linux System

ip a
Or legacy: ifconfig
🧠 Pro Tip: Use hostname -I for just the IP address (good for
scripts).

73. Hard Link vs Symbolic Link

Feature Hard Link Symbolic Link

Points to File's data (inode) File path
Breaks if file deleted? No Yes (broken link)
Can link dirs? No Yes
Inode Same as original Different

🎯HardUselinksCase: Symbolic links are flexible for config management.

are faster, but less used.

74. How to Check Disk Space in Linux

df -h
Shows used/available disk space in human-readable format.
🧠specific
DevOps Tip: Use du -sh /path to check space used by a
directory.

75. How to Start and Stop a Service in Linux

sudo systemctl start nginx

sudo systemctl stop nginx
🔁
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Also useful: restart, enable, disable, status subcommands.

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76. Common Causes of File Permission Issues

Wrong ownership (chown)

Incorrect permissions (chmod)
umask set too restrictively
Missing execute (x) permission on scripts
SELinux or AppArmor restrictions
🎯 DevOps Reality: Misconfigured permissions break
deployments and cause build failures. Always check with ls -l.

77. How to Troubleshoot Network Connectivity in

Linux

ping the remote server

Check IP & routing: ip a, ip route
Check DNS: cat /etc/resolv.conf
View firewall: ufw status or iptables -L
Check logs: /var/log/syslog or dmesg
🧠 Use tools like traceroute, curl, or nc to go deeper.

78. Steps to Fix Network Connectivity Issues

1.Check cables or virtual NIC status

2.Verify IP config: ip a, nmcli, /etc/netplan/ or
/etc/network/interfaces
3.Test DNS with dig, nslookup
4.View firewall rules: iptables, firewalld
5.Use:
ping – check reachability
traceroute – trace route to host
tcpdump – analyze traffic
🎯 In DevOps: Automate checks using healthcheck scripts in
cron or monitoring agents.
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79. How to Check System Logs in Linux

Most logs are stored in /var/log/

Common logs:
/var/log/syslog or /var/log/messages – system-wide
logs
/var/log/auth.log – login/authentication
/var/log/dmesg – kernel messages
Commands:
tail -f /var/log/syslog
less /var/log/auth.log
🧠logs.Pro Tip: Use journalctl on systemd systems for detailed service
80. Why Would a Linux System Run Out of Memory?

Master Answer:
Memory leaks in long-running apps
Misconfigured processes consuming excessive RAM
High memory demand (large databases, builds)
Lack of swap space
Zombie processes or runaway scripts
Use:
top, htop to identify memory hogs
free -m for RAM/swap usage
vmstat for memory pressure
🎯OOMDevOps Pro Tip: Always have alerts on memory usage and
events.
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81. How Would You Troubleshoot a Slow-Performing
Linux Server?

Start with system metrics:

Use top, htop, iotop, vmstat to find CPU, memory, or disk I/O
bottlenecks
Check disk space: df -h, du -sh /var/*
Review logs: /var/log/syslog, dmesg, app-specific logs
Check running services: systemctl, ps aux, and memory/cpu-
heavy apps
Analyze network latency: ping, netstat, ss
🧠timeProinsight.
Tip: Set up monitoring with Prometheus + Grafana for real-

82. What Are Common Causes of Disk Space Issues in

Linux?

Log files growing unchecked (/var/log)

Old backups or cached data
Temp files in /tmp, /var/tmp
Containers or images (Docker volumes)
Failed rm operations (deleted files still held by processes)
Use:
du -sh /*
lsof | grep deleted
🎯prevent
In DevOps: Set up log rotation (logrotate) and alerting to
outages.
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83. How to Identify and Kill High CPU Usage
Process in Linux?

top
or
ps -eo pid,ppid,cmd,%mem,%cpu --sort=-%cpu | head
To kill: kill -9 <PID>
🧠 Tip: Avoid kill -9 unless necessary. Start with kill -15
(graceful shutdown).

84. How to Troubleshoot a Linux System That Won’t Boot

1.Check boot error messages

2.Use GRUB to boot into an older kernel or recovery mode
3.Boot via a Live CD and inspect:
/etc/fstab for disk mount issues
Filesystem health: fsck
4. Review logs: /var/log/boot.log, journalctl -xb
🧠 Pro Tip: Maintain bootable rescue media and regular config
snapshots.

85. What Does ifconfig Do?

Displays or configures network interfaces — shows IP

addresses, MAC addresses, and status.
Example: ifconfig eth0
🔄is deprecated
Modern Replacement: Use ip a or ip addr show — ifconfig
in some distros.
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86. How to Set a Static IP in Linux

Edit /etc/network/interfaces or /etc/netplan/:

iface eth0 inet static
address 192.168.1.100
netmask 255.255.255.0
gateway 192.168.1.1
Then restart networking: sudo systemctl restart networking
🧠 RedHat-based:
scripts/ifcfg-eth0
Use /etc/sysconfig/network-

87. How to Configure a DNS Server in Linux

Edit /etc/named.conf — define zones

Add zone files in /var/named/
Set forwarders and options
Start BIND: systemctl start named
🧠 In DevOps: Internal DNS servers often resolve cluster or
service domain names.

88. What Is a Firewall in Linux and How Do You Set It Up?

A firewall filters inbound and outbound network traffic based

on rules.
Set rules with:
iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT
iptables -A INPUT -j DROP
Or use modern:
nftables
Simple distros: ufw or firewalld
🎯 Use in production: Restrict access by IP, port, and protocol.
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Always backup firewall configs.

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 89. How to Check Network Connectivity Between Two
Linux Systems

Use: ping <remote_host>

traceroute <remote_host>
nc -zv <host> <port>
🧠 Pro Tip: telnet, curl, and ss can test service-level connectivity.

90. What Is the Purpose of the route Command?

route displays or modifies the kernel's IP routing table.

View routes: route -n
Add a route: route add -net 10.0.0.0/24 gw 192.168.1.1
🔁 Modern Replacement: Use ip route instead of route.

91. How Do You Configure a Linux System to Act as a Router?

To turn a Linux machine into a router:

1.Enable IP forwarding:
echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward
Or make it persistent by editing /etc/sysctl.conf:
net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1
Then reload:
sysctl -p
2. Set up NAT (if routing between private and public networks):
iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE
3. Configure routing tables if needed:
ip route add <destination> via <gateway> dev <interface>
🎯building
Use Case: This setup is often used in labs, gateways, or when
internal Kubernetes or Docker networking layers.
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Thank You for
Reading
“You don’t need
to memorize
Linux. You need to
understand how it
thinks.”

— Jyoti Sahu
page 26

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