Atomic Structure

Instructor:
Md. Ariful Islam
Lecturer
Department of pharmacy
SUB
The atomic structure is the foundation of matter and chemistry. It describes how atoms, the smallest
units of an element, are composed and organized. Here are the basic components and concepts:
1. Atoms
Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties of an element. They consist of three
main subatomic particles:
•Protons:
• Positively charged particles.
• Found in the nucleus (center) of the atom.
• The number of protons defines the atomic number and determines the type of element (e.g.,
hydrogen has 1 proton, carbon has 6).
•Neutrons:
• Neutral (no charge) particles.
• Found in the nucleus alongside protons.
• Contribute to the mass of the atom but not its charge.
•Electrons:
• Negatively charged particles.
• Orbit around the nucleus in regions called electron shells or energy levels.
• The number of electrons usually equals the number of protons in a neutral atom.
ATOM & DEMOCRITUS:
Every matter consists of basic entities called elements.
Each element is composed of smallest particles called 'ATOM'.
Atom- the name is derived from Greek language Atomos means
'Not to be cut’ or Indivisible.
DEMOCRITUS was a Greek philosopher who began search for
description of matter more than 2400 years ago (4th century B,C.).
Democritus was the person who first suggested the existence of
ATOM & coined the name ATOMOS' means Not to be cut or
Indivisible.
Atomic Structure:
Atom consists of positively charged
NUCLEUS at the centre and negatively
charged Electrons revolving around it.
➢ Radius of an atom – 10-10 m.
➢ Radius of the nucleus – 10-15 m.
Nucleus consists of Protons and
Neutrons together called Nucleons.
Most of the mass of an Atom is
possessed by Nucleus.
Representation of an Atom:
Fundamental particles of the atom:
The fundamental particles of an atom are the subatomic particles that make up its structure. These include protons,
neutrons, and electrons. Here's a detailed breakdown:

1. Protons
•Charge: Positive (+1).
•Mass: Approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu) or 1.67×10−27 kg.
•Location: Found in the nucleus (the dense central part of the atom).
•Role:
• The number of protons determines the element's identity (its atomic number, Z).
• Protons contribute to the overall mass of the atom.

2. Neutrons
•Charge: Neutral (0).
•Mass: Similar to a proton, approximately 1 amu or 1.67×10−27 kg.
•Location: Found in the nucleus alongside protons.
•Role:
• Neutrons contribute to the mass of the atom but not its charge.
• They help stabilize the nucleus by reducing the repulsive force between positively charged protons.
• Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.
3. Electrons
•Charge: Negative (-1).
•Mass: Negligible compared to protons and neutrons (9.11×10−31 kg or about 1/1836 of a proton's mass).
•Location: Move around the nucleus in regions called orbitals or electron clouds.
•Role:
• Electrons determine the chemical properties and reactivity of an atom.
• They are involved in chemical bonding and the formation of ions.

Particle Charge Mass Location

Proton +1 1 amu Nucleus

Neutron 0 1 amu Nucleus

Electron -1 about 1/1836 of a Orbitals

proton's mass
Theories of Atomic models:

John Dalton
1. Matter is made of indivisible atoms, they are indestructible.
2. All atoms of a given(same) element are identical in their physical and chemical properties.
3. Atoms of different elements differ in their physical and chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-numbers ratios to form Molecules
5. Chemical reactions consist of the combination separation or rearrangement of atoms
Limitations: It could not explain
1. Why and how do atoms combine together to form compound atoms (molecules).
2. The nature of forces which hold atoms together in compound atoms
3. Why atoms cannot exist in free state and why compound atoms can exist freely.
 JJ.THOMPSON
Plum pudding model (1904)

1. Negative particles are evenly scattered throughout

an atom with a positively charged mass of matter.
2. Similar to that of chocolate chip ice cream
3. Later proved to be incorrect.

Limitations:
1. It could not explain the result of scattering experiment explained by Rutherford experiment.
2. It did not have any experimental evidence in its support .
Rutherford Atomic Theory:
Rutherford, a student of J. J. Thomson, modified the atomic structure with the discovery of another
subatomic particle called “Nucleus”. His atomic model is based on the Alpha ray scattering experiment.

Alpha Ray Scattering Experiment

Construction:
1. A very thin gold foil of 1000 atoms thick is taken.
2. Alpha rays (doubly charged Helium He2+)
were made to bombard the gold foil.
3. ZnS screen is placed behind the gold foil.

Observations:
1. Most of the rays just went through the gold foil, making scintillations (bright spots) in the ZnS screen.
2. A few rays got reflected after hitting the gold foil.
3. One in 20,000 rays got reflected by an angle of 180° (retraced path) after hitting the gold foil.
Conclusions:
1. Since most rays passed through, Rutherford concluded that most of the space inside the atom is empty.
2. A few rays got reflected because of the repulsion of its positive with some other positive charge inside the
atom.
3. 1/1000th of the rays got strongly deflected because of a very strong positive charge in the centre of the
atom. He called this strong positive charge “nucleus”.
He said most of the charge and mass of the atom resides in the nucleus.

Rutherford’s Structure of Atom:

Postulates of Rutherford’s Atomic Model

1.Atoms have a dense, positively charged nucleus – The entire positive charge and most of the atom’s mass
are concentrated in a tiny central region called the nucleus.
2.Electrons revolve around the nucleus – Electrons orbit the nucleus in circular paths, similar to planets
around the Sun.
3.Most of the atom is empty space – Since most alpha particles in the gold foil experiment passed through
undeflected, Rutherford concluded that atoms are mostly empty space.
4.The electrostatic force holds electrons in orbit – The attractive force between the positively charged
nucleus and negatively charged electrons keeps the electrons in motion.
Limitations of the Rutherford Atomic Model:
1. If electrons have to revolve around the nucleus, they will spend energy and that too against the strong
force of attraction from the nucleus, a lot of energy will be spent by the electrons, and eventually, they
will lose all their energy and will fall into the nucleus so the stability of atom is not explained.
2. If electrons continuously revolve around the ‘nucleus, the type of spectrum expected is a continuous
spectrum. But in reality, what we see is a line spectrum.
Bohr’s Atomic Theory:
Neils Bohr put forth his model of the atom in the year 1915.
Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Theory:

1. Bohr’s atomic structure works only for single electron species such as H, He +, Li2+, Be3+, ….

2. When the emission spectrum of hydrogen was observed under a more accurate spectrometer,
each line spectrum was seen to be a combination of a number of smaller discrete lines.

3. Both Stark and Zeeman’s effects couldn’t be explained using Bohr’s theory.
Quantum numbers:
The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in an atom are called
quantum numbers. There are four quantum numbers,

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

Specifies the main energy level (orbit)

2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)

Information about the sub-energy level (orbital)

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

Spatial orientations of an orbital

4. Spin Quantum Number (s)

Spin movement of electrons
Principal Quantum Number:
1. Principal quantum numbers are denoted by the symbol ‘n’. They designate the principal electron
shell of the atom. Since the most probable distance between the nucleus and the electrons is
described by it, a larger value of the principal quantum number implies a greater distance between
the electron and the nucleus (which, in turn, implies a greater atomic size).

2. The value of the principal quantum number can be any integer with a positive value that is equal
to or greater than one. The value n=1 denotes the innermost electron shell of an atom, which
corresponds to the lowest energy state (or the ground state) of an electron.

3. Thus, it can be understood that the principal quantum number, n, cannot have a negative value
or be equal to zero because it is not possible for an atom to have a negative value or no value for a
principal shell.

4. When a given electron is infused with energy (excited state), it can be observed that the electron
jumps from one principle shell to a higher shell, causing an increase in the value of n. Similarly,
when electrons lose energy, they jump back into lower shells and the value of n also decreases.
5. The increase in the value of n for an electron is called absorption, emphasizing the photons or
energy being absorbed by the electron. Similarly, the decrease in the value of n for an electron is
called emission, where the electrons emit their energy.
Principal Quantum Number (n):
Total No. of Electrons in an orbit = 2n2

Value of n Name of Shell Total No. of Electrons in

an orbit = 2n2

n=1 K 2(1)2 =2

n=2 L 2(2)2 =8

n=3 M 2(3)2 =18

n=4 N 2(4)2 =32

Azimuthal Quantum Number (Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number):
1. The azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number describes the shape of a given orbital. It is
denoted by the symbol ‘l’ and its value is equal to the total number of angular nodes in the orbital.

2. A value of the azimuthal quantum number can indicate either an s, p, d, or f subshell which vary in shape.
This value depends on (and is capped by) the value of the principal quantum number, i.e. the value of the
azimuthal quantum number ranges between 0 and (n-1).
For example, if n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take on the following values 0,1, and 2. When l=0,
the resulting subshell is an ‘s’ subshell. Similarly, when l=1 and l=2, the resulting subshells are ‘p’ and ‘d’
subshells (respectively). Therefore, when n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p, and 3d.

In another example where the value of n is 5, the possible values of l are 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. If l = 3, then there
are a total of three angular nodes in the atom.
l Sub level Name No. of
electrons
0 s Sharp 2
1 p Principal 6
2 d Diffused 10
3 f Fundamental 14
Relationship between Principal Quantum Number & Azimuthal Quantum Number:
the value of the azimuthal quantum number ranges between 0 and (n-1).

Orbit n l Orbitals No. of electrons

K 1 0 1s 2

L 2 0,1 2s,2p 2+6=8

M 3 0,1,2 3s,3p,3d 2+6+10=18

N 4 0,1,2,3 4s,4p,4d,4f 2+6+10+14=32

Magnetic Quantum Number:
The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the orientation of these orbitals are determined by the magnetic
quantum number. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ml’. This number yields the projection of the angular momentum
corresponding to the orbital along a given axis.
The value of the magnetic quantum number is dependent on the value of the azimuthal (or orbital angular
momentum) quantum number. For a given value of l, the value of ml ranges between the interval -l to +l.
Therefore, it indirectly depends on the value of n.
For example, if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the possible values of the magnetic quantum number are -3, -2, -1,
0, +1, +2, and +3.
The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is a function of the ‘l’ value of that orbital. It is given by the
formula (2l + 1). For example, the ‘3d’ subshell (n=3, l=2) contains 5 orbitals (2*2 + 1). Each orbital can
accommodate 2 electrons. Therefore, the 3d subshell can hold a total of 10 electrons.

Azimuthal Quantum Corresponding Number

Possible Values of ml
Number Value of Orbitals (2l + 1)
0 (‘s’ subshell) 2*0 + 1 = 1 0
1 (‘p’ subshell) 2*1 + 1 = 3 -1, 0, and 1

2 (‘d’ subshell) 2*2 + 1 = 5 -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2

3 (‘f’ subshell) 2*3 + 1 = 7 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3

Electron Spin Quantum Number:
1. The electron spin quantum number is independent of the values of n, l, and ml. The value
of this number gives insight into the direction in which the electron is spinning, and is
denoted by the symbol ms.
2. The value of ms offers insight into the direction in which the electron is spinning. The
possible values of the electron spin quantum number are +½ and -½.

3. The positive value of ms implies an upward spin on the electron which is also called ‘spin
up’ and is denoted by the symbol ↑. If ms has a negative value, the electron in question is
said to have a downward spin, or a ‘spin down’, which is given by the symbol ↓.

4. The value of the electron spin quantum number determines whether the atom in question
has the ability to produce a magnetic field. The value of ms can be generalized to ±½.
s = -1/2 ( t ) for clockwise
s = +1/2 ( J. ) for anticlockwise
The de Broglie equation is one of the equations that is commonly used to define the wave
properties of matter. It basically describes the wave nature of the electron.
Electromagnetic radiation exhibits the dual nature of a particle (having a momentum) and wave
(expressed in frequency and wavelength). Microscopic particle-like electrons also proved to
possess this dual nature property.
De Broglie Equation Derivation and de Broglie Wavelength:
Very low-mass particles moving at speeds less than that of light behave like particles and waves.
De Broglie derived an expression relating the mass of such smaller particles and their wavelength.
Plank’s quantum theory relates the energy of an electromagnetic wave to its wavelength or
frequency.
E=hv=hc/λ……….(1)
Einstein related the energy of particle matter to its mass and velocity as E = mc2……..(2)
As the smaller particle exhibits dual nature, and energy being the same, de Broglie equated both
these relations for the particle moving with velocity ‘v’ as,
E= hc/λ=mv2
Then,
λ=h/mv
where ‘h’ is the Plank’s constant. h= 6.634×10-34 J/Hz
This equation relating the momentum of a particle with its wavelength is the de Broglie equation,
and the wavelength calculated using this relation is the de Broglie wavelength.
 Math:
If the velocity of the electron is 25 m/s and mass of electron is 9.11×10-28
g. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with this electron.
Electron configuration:
The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic
orbitals.
For example, the electron configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

This principle can be stated as “no two electrons in the same atom have the same values for
all four quantum numbers”.
Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers are the same for two electrons,
they must have opposite spins.
Aufbau Principle
This principle is named after the German word ‘Aufbau’ which means ‘build up’.
The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having lower energies before
occupying higher energy orbitals.
The energy of an orbital is calculated by the sum of the principal and the azimuthal quantum numbers.
According to this principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,
4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
The order in which electrons are filled in atomic orbitals as per the Aufbau principle is illustrated below.
Hund’s Rule
It states that every orbital in a given subshell is singly occupied by electrons before a second electron is
filled in an orbital.
In order to maximize the total spin, the electrons in the orbitals that only contain one electron all have the
same spin (or the same values of the spin quantum number).