Data vs information

Data

DATA is raw facts and figures. E.g. a date such as 12/03/2010

Information
Information is data that have been processed, organized and communicated in a
coherent and meaningful manner.
e.g Botswana has a population of 2 million

The three stages of doing tasks

• Data is put into the information system. (INPUT)

• The data is processed. (PROCESS)
• Information comes out of the information system. (OUTPUT)

Differences between data and information

Data Information
Raw facts and figures Processed data
Meaningless It has a meaning attached to it

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Computer Hardware and Software

What is a computer?

A computer is a digital electronic machine that can store, process, retrieve, and
enable you to manage information, perform repetitive tasks so quickly that in can
execute user commands in a short period of time.

What is a computer peripheral?

It is a device attached to a host computer(System Unit) but not part of it and works
under the control of the central processing unit to give the computer additional
functionality.

Advantages of a computer system

 It is extremely fast in processing data

 Accurate when provided with correct input (GIGO-garbage in, garbage out)
incorrect data input in to the computer, the computer won’t realise that it is
incorrect so it will give undesirable answer.
 Keeps large amount of information in small physical space: without computers
every thing was done manually on papers and files. All these took up a lot of
space.
 A computer can work 24/7, 365 days and does not get tired.
 It also does job impossible for humans. Jobs such weather forecasting and
measuring the strength of an earthquake.
 Computers can be made to work in dangerous places where human beings can
not work.

Disadvantages of a computer

 Requires trained staff

 Expensive to buy
 Creates unemployment
 There may be easy misuse of personnel information
 There can be a break down and there will not be a way to access information
 If there is power cuts information cannot be accessed at that time.

Computer Hardware and Software

Define the term hardware

This refers to the physical components or tangible parts of a computer. E.g Mouse,
keyboard, Printer e.t.c

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What is a Device?
This term refers to a single hardware item.

Define Software
This refers to a computer program or set of computer instructions that are designed to
enable the computer to tackle some task and cannot be touched. Examples; Operating
systems, word processors, spreadsheet, graphics software e.t.c

Hardware components of a Computer System

 System Unit

This is a unit that houses Central processing unit, Cooling fan, Power supply,
Motherboard and also some storage devices like hard disk drive and Compact disk
drive.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

This is the area of circuitry in a digital computer, which fetches instructions,

encode them to a language recognized by the computer and execute them by
carrying out processing such as adding, multiplying, comparing and tasks such as
controlling peripherals.

Parts of Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU) has three main components. These are:

 The immediate access store

 The arithmetic logic unit
 The control unit.

IMMEDIATE ACCESS STORE

Functions

- It stores the results of the processing or

- temporarily stores the instructions or data to be processed in the CPU

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

Functions

- It manipulates data and executes or processes instructions

- It carries out mathematical calculations and logic operations

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CONTROL UNIT
Functions

- It interprets or decodes instructions

- It moves instructions from immediate access store to the arithmetic logic unit
and also moves processed instructions back to the immediate access store.
- It coordinates input and output devices

Categories of Computers

State the factors used to classify computers

Computers are classified according to characteristics such as

 Physical Size
 Cost of purchase
 Processing power or processing speed
 Numbers of terminals or users that can connect to a computer at the same time
 storage capacity

CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS

There are four categories of computers which include.

 Micro Computers
 Mini computers
 Main Frame Computers
 Super Computers

Micro computers

These computers are typically used in homes, offices and schools. Processing is done by
a microprocessor and can also be used by one person at a time. Essential characteristics
are:
 Small in physical size
 One user can operate it at a time
 Low processing power
 Cheap to buy or purchase
 Commonly used for personnel applications

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Examples of micro computers

Desk top computer, laptop computers, Palm tops and Personal Digital assistants,
tablets, Smartphones.

Mini Computers

Mini computers are a medium sized computer which have processing power that lies
between that of a microcomputers and main frame computer.

Characteristics are;
 Bigger in physical size than Micro computers
 More expensive to buy that Micro computers but cheaper that mainframe
computers in terms of cost of purchase
 More than one user at the same time ( Usually 10 to 60 users)
 More processing power than Micro computers
 More storage capacity that micro computers
 Commonly used in medium sized business organisations, colleges, libraries and
small banks.

Main Frame Computers

These are large, powerful computers which are capable of supporting large number
of terminals. They use multiple microprocessors to run many programs at the same
time. A main frame can address thousands of gigabytes of RAM (random access
memory and connect too high speed storage system that can hold terabytes of data.

It can be connected to hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. It is

mainly used in large organisation such as banks for critical application; typically bulk
processing such as consumer statistics, company management systems and financial
processing. Cost millions to buy and install.

Super Computers

The more powerful Mainframes are called super computers which have been
developed from the processing requirement of advanced research projects by
scientists. It is called super computer because of its processing power which well
exceeds those of the fastest mainframe and it focus is processing data and
manipulation of data. A significant difference between mainframe and super
computer is the primary focus of super computer on processing capabilities
independent of many varied input and output devices expected on a mainframe.
Example is Cray XMP from Cray Brand

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Applications of computers

Micro computers are normally used at homes and offices for

 Typing letters through word processors
 Playing games and music
 Sending and receiving e-mail etc

Mini computers
 Where up to 100 users may use the same system simultaneously
 Where high computing power is required.
 Where a large amount of data has to be processed

Main Frame computer

 Used in big companies and organisations petroleum companies to detect oil and
gas fields in the sea.
 Weather forecasting for complex calculations and huge storage.

Super computer
 Used in advanced research
 Used in space exploration

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Input Devices

An input device is a peripheral that captures the data and sends it to the central
processing unit.

Input devices are categorised as Manual input devices and Direct / Automatic input
devices

Manual input devices

What are manual input devices?

Manual input devices are input devices that require a lot of physical effort from the
user to capture the data and send it to the central processing unit.

Manual input devices examples

1. The keyboard of a micro computer.

 A Braille keyboard.
 A concept keyboard.
 A musical keyboard.
2. A game controller (Joystick)
3. A light pen.
4. A mouse.
5. Touch screen
6. Graphics tablet
7. Track ball
8. Touch screen

Direct / automatic input devices

What are direct input devices?
These are input devices that capture the data and have it sent to the central processing
unit without a lot of physical effort being required from the user.

Examples of direct/automatic input devices

 Barcode reader
 Optical mark reader

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  Magnetic ink character reader
 Optical character reader
 Magnetic strip reader
 Digital camera
 Microphone
 Sensor

1.OMR ( Optical mark Reader)

An optical mark reader is a special type of an optical scanner that is used to read and
recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil on a paper. E.g An optical mark
reader is used to assess multiple choice examination answer sheets.

2.Barcode Reader

A Barcode reader is a direct input device that is used for reading bar coded data that is
used in labeling goods, numbering the books, etc.

e.g. Barcode readers are used in supermarket, libraries, luggage and handling systems
at airport etc to read barcoded data labelling goods.

3.OCR ( Optical Character Reader)

An optical character reader is a direct input device that is used to read and recognize
printed text by scanning text from a hardcopy optically character by character,
converting them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory. E.g. This device can be used to used to scan a hardcopy and transfer
characters into the computer such that the captured text can be edited or changed
with ease.

4.MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader)

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This is a direct input device that recognises characters formed from magnetic ink on a
document. E.g. The device is used in banks to read and recognise characters formed on
bank cheques using magnetic ink.

5. Sensors

Sensors are used to measure and detect changes in the physical or chemical
environment and convert them into electrical signals.

6.Magnetic Strip Reader

Magnetic strips are thin strips of magnetic tape which are usually found on the back of
plastic credit and debit cards. When the card is inserted into a reader (in an Automatic
Teller Machine or ATM for example) the tapes slides past a playback head similar to
that used in a tape recorder. This reads the data from the stripe and passes it to a
computer

Examples of cards with magnetic stripes

 Credit card or bank card,

 Botswana Power Corporation metre card,
 Botswana Telecommunication Corporation card.

Advantages of magnetic stripes

 They are simple to produce.

 They are not easily damaged.
 Each can store a large number of characters.
 They can down the amount of writing involved in a transaction.
Disadvantages of magnetic stripes
 The data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields.
 Scratching can damage the stripe.
 Very limited storage capacity.
 Not very secure as thieves can obtain the readers and alter the data.

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Input devices helping people with disabilities

Foot Mouse – People without hands or limited arm movement

Braille Keyboard – People who are blind or partially bind
Microphone used with voice recognition software – People with limited arm movement
Track ball – People with limited arm movement
Large colour coded keyboard – for people with vision problems

METHODS OF DATA CAPTURE

Manual Data Capture Method

1. Key to disk – This is a method of capturing data into the computer using a
keyboard.

Advantages of manual data capture

- Manual data capture requires the use of a keyboard which is cheap to buy
- When entering data using a keyboard, a human worker may easily recognise
wrong data from the source and correct it during data entry.

Disadvantages of manual data capture

- Low speed of capturing data

- There are high chances of human made errors when entering the data
- There is high cost of training data entry personnel

Direct data capture (Automatic) methods

Advantages of direct data capture

- Fast way of entering the data compared to the keyboard

- Less chances of human errors when entering the data

Disadvantages of direct data capture

- Devices used may be expensive to buy

- This method may not identify and recognise errors made on the source of data

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Examples of direct data capture methods.

1. Optical Character Recognition

2. Magnetic ink character recognition
3. Optical mark reading
4. Barcode reading
5. Magnetic Strip encoding

Optical character recognition – This is the method of using an optical character reader
to recognize and read printed text on documents by scanning text optically character
by character and converting them into a machine readable code and stores the text on
the system memory.

Optical Mark Reading – This is the process of capturing human-marked data which was
created using a pen or pencil from document forms such as surveys and tests using an
optical mark reader.

Magnetic ink character recognition – This is the method that allows special characters
printed in magnetic ink on documents to be recognised and read into a computer.

Barcode reading – This is a method of capturing data from barcodes on products using a
device called a barcode reader.

Magnetic Strip encoding – This is a method of capturing data stored in a magnetic strip
of bank cards, club membership cards e.t.c.

Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)

This is a computerized system for recording sales, taking payments, monitoring stock
and generating sales reports.

An EPOS has the following;

 Cash register which also act like terminals to a main computer system.
 Barcode reader
 Keyboard
 Printer
 monitor

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Electronic Fund Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS)

 Similar to the EPOS but a few additional features e.g. they are able to transfer
funds from the customer’s bank directly to the bank account of the shop.
Customer uses a card called debit card to make the transfer.

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ADVANTAGES OF EPOS

- Reduces chances of errors in the final bill of a customer

-Customers are served quickly
-Customers are given an itemized bill
-The shop does not need to individually price the goods
-The system helps in stock control
-There is accurate profit and loss calculation
-Less staff is needed which means the company cuts the cost of wages and salaries
-It is easy and quick to change or adjust the price of goods.

Bar codes
A bar code is set of parallel printed lines that of different thickness (usually
alternatively black and white), which represent a number. Usually the number
represented by the bars is also printed above or below it.

Bar codes are used on shop goods; the number coded identifies the product, usually
giving a number code for:
 Country of origin
 Manufacturer,

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  An item number for the product.
 Weight or size of the product

NOTES:

 The price for the product is not included in the data on a bar code. This is
because prices change so often. Instead the price is stored in the computer and
when the price is needed it is retrieved from there.
 The code is printed as an actual number, therefore if the scanner cannot read a
bar code the number can be keyed in instead.
 A bar code has to be read by a scanner (bar code reader)

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Output Devices

An output device is a peripheral, which receives data in the form of electrical pulses
from the CPU. It then converts this data into information or further data.

Note:
 If the data is output as information, then people can read, look at listen to or
otherwise experience it.
 If the output device converts the data to further data, this may be so that it can
be:
Stored,
Or sent somewhere,
Or used to control other devices.

Examples of output devices

 A PC screen.
 A printer.
 A plotter.
 A speaker.
 A projector.
 Traffic lights.
Monitor

A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form. A

monitor usually comprises the visual display, circuitry, casing, and power supply.

A computer monitor can be A Monochrome monitor or Colour monitor.

A monochrome monitor is a type of computer monitor in which computer text and

images are displayed in varying tones of only one colour

While

A colour monitor is a monitor that can display text and images in multiple colours.

A computer monitor uses a pixel which is a short form of picture element to form
images.

A pixel is the smallest area or smallest physical points on a display which is used to
form images.

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The resolution of the screen is a measure of how fine the detail is on the screen.
Screens are usually classified as low resolution, medium resolution or high resolution.

The screen mode is the way a computer uses the screen for graphics and text. Usually
the users have the choice of modes. They can choose from:

 Modes with high resolution or low resolution,

 Modes with more colours or fewer colours.

Measuring Quality of Monitors

The quality of monitors depends on the following factors.

i. Resolution
ii. Dot pitch
iii. Refresh rate

Resolution

The resolution refers to the sharpness and clearness of an image. The monitor’s screen
that has large number of pixels has high resolution. For example, a resolution of 800 x
600 means that there are 800 pixels horizontally and 600 pixels vertically across the
screen.

Dot Pitch

The distance between each pixel on the monitor screen is called dot pitch. It is also
referred to as Pixel Pitch. Dot Pitch is another factor that you can use to measure
image clarity on a monitor. The smaller the distance between the pixels, the higher the
sharpness of image displayed on screen.

Refresh Rate

The refresh rate is the number of times per second the electron guns scan every pixel
on the screen to redraw the images on the screen. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) or in
cycles per second. Refresh rate is also referred to as vertical frequency or vertical scan
rate. The monitor refreshes itself at least several dozen times each second. The refresh
rate is very important because dots or pixels fade quickly after the electron gun passes
over them. Therefore, if the screen is not refreshed, it appears to flicker. The flicker is
one of the main causes of eyestrain. In general, a refresh rate of 75 Hz or higher should
not cause eyestrain. This means image on the screen redraws itself 75 times in a
second.

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Video Card/ Display Adaptors

Many monitors use an analog signal to create an image on the screen. The video card is
installed on the motherboard. Video card is also known as graphics card. It converts the
digital output from computer into analog video signal. A cable on the monitor plugs into
a port on the video card. The video card sends the analog signal through cable to the
monitor and output is displayed on the screen.

TYPES OF MONITORS

Cathode ray tubes (CRTs):

These monitors use Cathode ray tube technology

The cathode ray tubes containing an electron gun at the back of the tube fires
electrons at groups of phosphor dots coating the inside of the screen.

When the electrons strike the phosphor dots they glow to give the colours. On a colour
monitor each group of phosphor dots is made up of one green, one blue and one red
dot (RGB).

By varying the brightness of each of these primary colours, the whole group will
appear to the human eye as any colour possible. One group of dots is called a pixel
(short for picture element).

Advantages of CRT monitors

 Less expensive to buy than other monitors

 It can operate at any resolution, geometry and also for aspect ratio without the
need for rescaling the image
 CRT also suitable for use even in dim or dark light
 Produce a very dark black and grayscale and are the reference standard for all
professional calibrations
 Fast response times and no motion artifacts
 CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.

Disadvantages of CRT Monitors

 They are large, heavy, and bulky.

 They consume a lot of electricity and produce a lot of heat.
 Not suitable for very brightly lit environments because less bright than LCD

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 CRTs can produce images with softer edges that are not as sharp as an LCD at its
native resolution.
 CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields.

Plasma Monitors

Plasma monitors use Plasma technology which is similar to cathode ray tube
technology.

There are light bits of plasma which are excited when they are struck with specific
pixels, which causes them to turn into a specific color. Plasma Monitors are not
dependent on backlight.

It's technology diverges the intensity of the light to produce its own range of colors.
The prize of Plasma will increase according to their inch and they are ideal for a big
space and area.

Advantages of Plasma monitors

 It has more pixels per inch than displays based on cathode-ray tube or CRT displays.
 When compared to a CRT, it is less bulky.
 Better Contrast Ratios when compared with CRT monitors.
 It has a wider viewing angle than CRTs and LCDs.
 It has less visible motion blurs

Disadvantages of Plasma monitors

 They can suffer from screen burn-in and image retention.

 Most plasmas suffer from noticeable flickers with various hues, intensities, and
patterns.
 They consume more power and generates higher electricity cost relative to LCD
monitors and LED monitors.
 More Expensive to buy compared to CRT monitors.
 Bulkier and heavier than LCD monitor and LED monitors.
 Another limitation of plasma display panels is that they do not work well at high
altitudes.

Liquid Crystal Display Monitors (LCDs)

These monitors use a technology called Liquid crystal display technology

LCD technology makes use of a liquid crystal solution(tiny crystals) that is present in
two panes of polarized and partitioned glasses. By adjusting the amount of light that
passes through these panels through an electric voltage, images are created on the
screen.

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LCDs are also used in watches and calculators. They use much less power than a normal
monitor and are also used in watches and calculators.

This technology also reduces blurring and color smudging during motion pictures, which
makes this type of monitor appropriate for gamers or film enthusiasts.

Advantages of LCD monitor

 LCD monitors have no radiation emission from the screen, they are better under
brighter conditions because of anti-glare technology.
 LCD monitors are lighter in weight with respect to the screen size.
 LCD monitors require less power and generate less heat.
 They have satisfactory performance even when mounted at higher altitudes when
compared to Plasma monitors.
 They produce very bright images due to high peak intensity, very suitable for
environments that are brightly lit.
 The image is perfectly sharp at the native resolution of the panel.
 There is zero geometric distortion at the native resolution of the panel, they have a
superior resolution, and they have sharp resolution and imagery compared to
Plasma monitors.
 They are immune to screen image burn-in.

Disadvantages of LCD monitors

 LCD monitors are more expensive to buy compared to Plasma TV of the same size.
 They have less picture quality when viewed on the side or at an angle.
 There is motion delay for the fast-moving images.
 They are not proficient at producing black and very dark grays, In a “standard”
configuration, they are not appropriate for use in dimly lit and dark conditions.
 LCD monitors are more fragile than CRT monitors, Touching an LCD screen with
your fingers hard can leave pressure marks that forever mar the display.
 LCD monitor is not as energy efficient as the LED monitors.

LED Monitor

These monitors use Light emitting diode technology.

LED (Light Emitting Diode) technology indicates the back-light system which is
introduced in some new LCD. It's not the chips which give you the high image content.
LED chips and pixels do not produce their own light, they are produce by back-light.
LED TVs are like the new LCD TVs. The only difference between LED TV and LCD TV is
that LEDs use KKK rather than using fluorescent backlight which is found in every LCD
TV.

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Advantages of LED monitors

- They are less bulky and light to carry.

- They consume less electricity compared to other types of monitors.
- They produce brighter and sharper Images
- The give flicker-free Images
- They give good and rich picture quality(true black picture)
- There is no motion delay and lags in videos
- It has longer lifespan and less environmental impact
- They offer wider viewing angle(typically 175 degree)

Disadvantages of LED Monitors

 LED monitors are more expensive to buy than other monitor types
 LED monitors can shift color due to age and temperature
 The Contrast ratios are not consistent in LED Monitors

Printers

An output device that produces hardcopies

A hardcopy is a copy of textual or graphic information produced on paper.

Softcopy – This is a legible piece of information not printed on a physical medium

which is stored or displayed on a computer.

Printers can be classified according to whether they are:

Impact Printers

This is a printer that creates an image by using some mechanism to physically press an
inked ribbon against the page, causing the ink to be deposited on the page in the shape
desired.

e.g Dot matrix printer, Daisy wheel printer

Non-Impact Printers

This is a printer that forms images and characters without direct physical contact
between the printing mechanism and the paper being printed on.

e.g. Laser printer, ink jet printer

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Differences between impact and non impact printers

Impact printers Non impact printers

Can print on multi part stationery Can not print on multi part stationery
Noisy when printing Not noisy when printing
Low quality on its printout Good quality on its printout
Less number of pages per minute printed Printout many pages per minute
out

Dot matrix printers:

The print head travels from side to side across the paper and is made up of numerous
pins, which are pushed out to form the shape of each character The pins hit an ink
ribbon against the paper so the characters are printed out. The paper is usually
continuous with holes down each side and perforations so the pages can be easily
separated by tearing.
Because the pins make an impact against the paper the characters can be printed
through several layers of self-carbonating paper to produce duplicate copies.
The printer resolution is measured by dot per inch (dpi)

Suitable uses:

 Limited to situations where duplicate copies are needed and the quality is not
too important.
 Typical uses might be in warehouses where duplicate copies of orders need to
produced quickly and cheaply

Disadvantages:
 The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium quality black
and white printing and can only print low resolution graphics.
 Because of the impact of the pins against the paper, these printers can be quite
noisy when printing

Advantages:
 The purchase cost is low and the running costs are very low.
 They can print fairly quickly, particularly if you remember that multiple copies
are being printed in one print run.
 They are robust and can operate in harsh environments.

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  If several sheets of self-carbonating paper are placed into the printer then the
impact will produce duplicate copies.

Daisy wheel printer:

An impact printer which uses a spoked wheel with characters placed at the end of each
spoke. A print hammer is used to strike the desired character on to the link ribbon and
then the paper. The spoked wheel of characters is rotated around until the desired
character is under the print hammer. The print hammer is then fired, string the
character, pushing it against the ink ribbon, and on to the paper. This printer is rarely
used today.

Ink-jet printers:

 The print head contains tiny nozzles through which

different coloured inks can be sprayed onto the paper to form the characters
or the graphic images.
 The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny piezoelectric crystals, which change
shape when an electric current is applied across them.
 Most inkjet printers print a line of information at a time and are commonly
referred to as Line printers. The speed of inkjet printers is measured in
pages per minutes (ppm).


Suitable uses:
A popular choice for home use where small amounts of printing are done and
photographic quality colour printing is needed

Disadvantages:
 The ink cartridges can be expensive so running costs can be high.
 The printing speed is slow compared to a laser printer.
Advantages:
 These printers are relatively inexpensive and produce high quality black and
white or photographic quality borderless color printing.

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Laser printers:

 These print individual pages and work in a similar way to

photocopiers.
 A drum is charged to match the image and powdered ink
(toner) sticks to the surface. The toner is then transferred
to the paper and fixed by heat and pressure.
 A school or business printer would have a typical speed of 10
to 20 pages per minute (ppm)

Suitable uses:
Common wherever fast, high quality printing is required.
Disadvantages:
 Non-colour laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers (but the
difference is narrowing).
 Colour laser printers are considerably more expensive. (but their speed and
high quality output means they are becoming more popular).
Advantages:
 They produce less noise when printing and fast and produce high quality
printouts.
 Running cost is low because although toner cartridges are expensive to replace,
they last a long time.

Braille printer - by converting text into the Braille code, this printer produces patterns
of raised dots on paper for use by the blind.

Thermal printers:

These uses heated electrical wires to produce characters on the surface of a heat
sensitive paper. These printers require special paper which can be quite costly.
Thermal printers are mostly used for label printing.

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Photo printers:

These are specially designed printers which allow you to connect a digital camera
directly to it in order to have your photographs printer

Type Uses Cost Comments

Laser Most purposes, Moderate to Very good quality.
letters, reports, expensive. Toner Quite operation.
invoices. (powdered ink) can
be expensive
Inkjet Low volume. All Cheap, not Good quality and
purpose. economic for big affordable. Slow.
print runs.
Dot matrix Wage slips, garage Cheap Works by impact
and other bills. therefore useful
when carbon copies
are required.
Thermal Supermarket till Cheap. Needs a special
receipts paper.

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Plotters

A plotter is a device for producing graphical output on a paper particularly

architectural designs, line drawings and large scale images.

Architect and technical drawings(computer Aided drawing) can be output by plotters on

a very large paper.

Suitable uses:
 Plotters are restricted to line drawing and can only create a solid region of
colour by drawing a number of close, regular lines.
 Plotters are often used in science and engineering applications for drawing
building plans, printed circuit boards, bill boards and machine parts.
Advantages:
 They are accurate and can produce far larger printouts than standard printers.
Disadvantages:
 Slow and relatively expensive compared to printers.
 They can only fill solid blocks of colour using closely hatched lines.

Speakers:

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These transducers convert an alternating electrical current into sound. An electrical
transducer converts an electrical current into an output such as light, sound or
movement.
Suitable uses -
They can output music as well as the spoken word. Useful for blind users where text or
figures can be spoken by the computer. A speaker and computer-synthesized voice can
be used by automated systems to read information such as telephone numbers or traffic
updates.
Advantages –
 Cheap and widely available. Capable of producing very high quality sound.

Disadvantages-
 They are an analogue device so the digital sound signal has to be converted,
usually by a sound card.

Motors

Suitable uses
In control technology, a computer can be programmed to turn motors on and off using
relay switches. Examples include electronic doors and windows, cooling fans etc.
Motors are used in the automobile industry to move robot arms that spray body shells
or assemble and in electronics manufacturing to assemble delicate electronic
components on a printed-circuit board.
Advantages –
 Cheap, widely available and very accurate.
Disadvantages-
 They cannot be powered directly from a computer unless they are very low
powered so need a relay to control them.

Buzzers:

These cheap transducers change a current directly into a simple sound. They use a low
current so can be powered directly from a computer.

Suitable uses - Often used as alarms or warnings in computer control systems.

Advantages - Cheap and widely available. They use a tiny current so can be powered
directly from a computer.

26
Disadvantages - Limited volume and they can only produce a limited range of sounds

Lights:

A light-emitting diode
(LED) converts an electrical current directly into light. Today's LEDs can be found in
just about every colour of the spectrum including invisible infra-red.

Suitable uses –

LED's are commonly used to indicate various events such as 'power on' or 'hard disk in
operation' and to monitor other control applications. Infra-red LED's are used to
transmit the data from a remote control to the receiver. Normal light bulbs are used
with relays and control systems in automatic lighting and burglar alarms.

Advantages

 Cheap, widely available and very reliable. LED's use a tiny current so can be
powered directly from a computer.

Disadvantages

 Normal light bulbs need a relay to control them.

Output Devices helping people with disabilities

-Braille printer – produces the output for people blind or partially blind
-Speakers – Helps people who cant see on the screen

27
Storage

Storage of data and programs is one of the most important features of an information
processing system. This can be done:
 temporarily while a program is running;
 long-term to preserve programs and data while not in use.
Read and Write
To write data means to move data or copy it from the main store to the backing store.
To read data means to move it or copy it from backing store to the main store.

There are two main categories of storage are:

 Primary storage / Main memory and

 Secondary storage /Backing storage

Secondary storage Means data storage that has a large storage capacity, stores data
permanently and can be used to transfer data from one computer to the other and a
computer can still function without.

Primary storage means the memory that is required for a computer to start which a
processor accesses first or directly, it stores running programs or start up programs.

The difference between Primary memory and Secondary storage:

Secondary Storage Primary storage

Has a large storage capacity Has small storage capacity
Cheap to buy per unit of storage Expensive to buy per unit of storage
Data stored on secondary storage accessed Data stored on primary storage accessed
slower by the CPU faster by the CPU
A computer can still function without A computer will not run without primary
some secondary storage storage

Main Store (Primary memory)

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read Only Memory (ROM) This is the primary storage that stores data and programs
permanently mainly boot or start up programs.

28
Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM), is the primary memory that temporarily stores programs
that are currently running in a computer. E.g. When a game application is opened, its
data is loaded on random access memory but when the computer is switched off, all
the data is lost from RAM.

RAM VS ROM

RAM ROM
Stores data and programs temporarily Stores data and programs permanently
Contents of RAM can be edited Contents of ROM cant be changed or
edited
Stores the programs that are currently Stores start up programs
running in the computer

Other types of storage

Buffers and Caches

A Buffer is a storage area that temporarily stores programs while waiting to be

executed. E.g. Printer buffer

A Cache is a high speed storage are that stores data temporarily so that future requests
of that data can be served faster. E.g. Web Cache, Disk cache

29
Backing Storages(secondary Storage)

This Means data storage that has a large storage capacity, stores data permanently and
can be used to transfer data from one computer to the other and a computer can still
function without.

Secondary storage has storage devices and storage media

A storage medium is the material on which the data is stored or recorded, e.g.
magnetic tape, floppy disk, or CD-ROM.

A storage medium is exchangeable if it can be removed from the drive and replaced by
another one of the same type, e.g., floppy disk, CD-ROM, tape cartridge.

A storage device or drive is the piece of equipment which rotates the storage medium,
and access the data on it, either writing data onto it or reading data from it.

Backing stores are either serial access or direct access.

In serial access store all data before the required item has to be read first before the
data can be accessed. For example, magnetic tapes.
In direct access store any data item can be accessed without reading other data first.
E.g. magnetic disks.

Storage media can be divided into three main categories:

 Magnetic media which stores the binary data on a disk or tape coated with a
material that can be magnetized differently, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is
stored. E.g. Hard disk, Floppy disk, Magnetic tape.

 Optical media which stores the binary data in a surface that reflects laser light
differently, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is stored. E.g. Compact Disc (CD),
Digital versatile disk (DVD)

 Solid state media this is a type of non-volatile computer storage that stores and
retrieves digital information using only electronic circuits, without any
involvement of moving mechanical parts. E.g. Memory stick, Memory card.

Magnetic media

Magnetic Disks
The common magnetic disks are floppy disks and hard disks. A hard disk is a rigid
magnetic disk and a floppy disk is a light, flexible magnetic disk held in protective
jacket.

30
Characteristics: of Magnetic disks.

 Data can be written to or read from the disk.

 Each surface holds data in circular tracks. Each track is divided into equal
sections called sectors.
 The disks are direct (random) access. The track number and the sector number
are used as an address to find where data is on the disk.
 They store data by magnetising a special material that coats the surface of a
disk.

As the disk spin, data is written to them or read from them by read/write heads.

NOTE: When a disk is formatted, magnetic rings are written to the disk, ready to hold
data. Each ring is called a track.

Hard Disks

Characteristics of hard disks

 They are usually fixed in the drive of the computer. Each is built into the sealed
unit to prevent contamination by dust and moisture.
 The hard disk medium of the computer is made of metal and it is inside the hard
disk drive. A hard disk is made from more than one disk, making a pack.

31
  Hard disks store more data than floppy disks. They are more reliable and robust
than floppy disks. There is better protection against dirt.
 Access to data is usually faster that access to floppy disks.

Applications of Hard disks

 Storage of the operating system, applications software and users’ files for a PC.
 Storage of the operating software and files for a local area network.
 Storage of work waiting to be printed on the network printer.

Advantages:

o Very fast access to data. Data can be read directly from any part of the
hard disc (random access). The access speed is about 1000 KB per
second.
o Robust There is better protection against dirt.

Disadvantages:

o It can however be a real disaster when they eventually fail because few
home users have the data on their home computer hard drive backed up.

Floppy Disks

Floppy disks are removable and easy to carry about. Most computers have floppy disk
drives into the case. These can be found on most microcomputers and accept the usual
3.5 inch floppy discs. High density discs for a PC hold 1.44 MB of data (enough to store
about 350 pages of A4 text). A floppy disc needs to be formatted before it can be used
but most discs are now sold already formatted for PC's.

32
Characteristics of Floppy disks

 Diameter varies but 3 ½ inches is the most common.

 The amount of data stored varies but 1.44 megabytes is common.
 Access to data is slower than for hard disks.
 The disks are exchangeable and easy to carry.
 The data on the disk can be protected by sliding a small write protect tab which
prevents the contents of the disk from being changed.

Advantages of Floppy disks

 They are light and portable.
 Easily exchangeable.
 Information retrieval is easier since it is direct (random) access.

Disadvantages of Floppy disks

 They are easily physically damaged if unprotected and magnetic fields can
damage the data.
 They are relatively slow to access because floppy discs rotate far more slowly
than hard discs, at only six revolutions per second, and only start spinning when
requested. The access speed is about 36 KB per second

Application of Floppy Disks

 For back-up storage for a PC with a hard disk, for small files
 Can be used to install a software or store the operating system, applications
software or the users files.
 Can be used to transfer data between computers.

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is the main type of serial store. Just like the tape in a tape-recorder, the
data is written to or read from the tape as it passes the magnetic heads. Magnetic
tapes are often used to make a copy of hard discs for back-up reasons. This is
automatically done overnight on the Naledi network and the tapes are kept in a safe
place away from the server.

33
Characteristics of Magnetic Tapes

 Magnetic tape has serial access – an item can only be accessed by working
through all the items before it.
 Tapes store a large amount of data for their size.

Advantages:

o Has a large storage capacity

o Cheap to buy compared to hard disk of the same size
o It is portable or can be easily carried around
o It is robust compared to storage media like floppy disks

Disadvantages:

o Accessing data is very slow and you cannot go directly to an item of data
on the tape as you can with a disc. It is necessary to start at the beginning
of the tape and search for the data as the tape goes past the heads (serial
access).

Optical Media

Compact Disks (CDs)

CD-ROM (Compact disk Read Only Memory) is a form of the compact disk used for the
storage of the computer data. This means you can only read from the disc, not write or
store data onto it.
They are also known as optical discs because the data is read by a laser beam
reflecting or not reflecting from the disc surface.

34
Like a floppy disc, a CD-ROM only starts spinning when requested and it has to spin up
to the correct speed each time it is accessed. It is much faster to access than a floppy
but it is currently slower than a hard disc.

Characteristics of CD-ROMs

 The disks are exchangeable and easy to carry.

 Usually data is written on to the disk before it sold. After that data can be read
from the disk not written to it.
 Can store more data than floppy disks. Usually about 800 MB.

 Access to data is faster than access to floppy disks but slower than hard disks.
 Most of then are 8 / 12 cm in diameter.

Note: New recordable CDs are available. (WORM - Write Once Read Many)

CD-ROMs are good for storing information that is not liable to be changed. Information
that is not used frequently can be store in a CD-ROM.

 Advantages:
o CD-ROM's hold large quantities of data (650 MB).
o They are relatively tough as long as the surface does not get too
scratched.
 Disadvantages:
o You cannot save files to a CD-Rom (although CD-R and CD-RW discs now
exist which can be written to)

35
 BINARY CONVERSION

Computers work with data, which, to them, is more than a string of symbols. These
symbols are letters, numbers, other characters, can be pictures and graphs. Inside the
computer, all this data is represented in the form the computer will understand (in the
computer’s own codes).
These codes are based on two symbols only – the digits 0 and 1. The digits ( 0 and 1)
are also used in the base two (binary) number system. They are given names bits
short for binary digits

Computers use a common code called American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). An ASCII code is an 8-bit character code. A convenient grouping of
bits inside a computer is in sets of 8 bits. A set of eight bits is called a byte. A byte can
store an ASCII character with only one bit left.

Note:
1 bit = a single digit, either 1 or 0
8 bits = 1 byte, a combination of 1's and 0's
1024 Bytes = 1 KB (kilobyte)
1024 Kilobytes = 1 MB (megabyte)
1024 Megabytes = 1 GB (gigabyte)
1024 Giga Bytes = 1 TeraByte
Or
Bytes make up Kilobytes of 1024
which make up Megabytes of 1024 X 1024
which make up Gigabytes of 1024 X 1024 X 1024

ASCII characters and their binary equivalent are shown below.

Binary ASCII Binary ASCII Binary ASCII

Code Character code Character code Character
00100000 SPACE 01000000 @ 01100000 `
00100001 ! 01000001 A 01100001 a
00100010 “ 01000010 B 01100010 b
00100011 # 01000011 C 01100011 c
00100100 $ 01000100 D 01100100 d

Base-10 to base-2 conversions(Decimal to Binary)

To convert from a base-10 integer numeral to its base-2 (binary) equivalent, the
number is divided by two, and the remainder is 0 if the number is divisible by 2
otherwise 1. The (integer) result is again divided by two and the remainder is saved.
This process repeats until the result of further division becomes zero.

For example, 11810, in binary, is:

36
 Operation Remainder
118 ÷ 2 = 59 0
59 ÷ 2 = 29 1
29 ÷ 2 = 14 1
14 ÷ 2 = 7 0
7÷2=3 1
3÷2=1 1
1÷2=0 1

Reading the sequence of remainders from the bottom up gives the binary numeral
11101102.

Base-2 to base-10 conversions(Binary to decimal)

To convert binary to decimal, assign a weight to each bit, multiplying each bit's value
(0 or 1) by its weight, and then add the totals. For example, here's how 217 is
represented as 11011001 in binary:

NB: Remember our bible for binary conversion

Addition

Adding unsigned numbers

Addition is done exactly like adding decimal numbers, except that you
have only two digits (0 and 1). The only number facts to remember are
that
37
 0+0 = 0, with no carry,
1+0 = 1, with no carry,
0+1 = 1, with no carry,
1+1 = 0, and you carry a 1.

so to add the numbers 0610=01102 and 0710=01112 (answer=1310=11012) we

can write out the calculation (the results of any carry is shown along the
top row, in italics).

Decimal Unsigned Binary

1 (carry) 110 (carry)
06 0110
+07 +0111
13 1101

The only difficulty adding unsigned numbers occurs when you add numbers
that are too large. Consider 13+5.

Decimal Unsigned Binary

0 (carry) 1101 (carry)
13 1101
+05 +0101
18 10010

38
 HEALTH RISKS:

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) - This is caused by repetitive finger movements over
long periods of time and can cause serious pain in the finger joints.

Solutions - to reduce the risk of RSI you should:

 have your keyboard positioned correctly

 use a keyboard with a good ergonomic design
 develop a good typing technique
 try using wrist supports placed in front of the keyboard
 take regular breaks from using the keyboard

Special, ergonomically-designed keyboards where the keys are split and contoured for
the hands, can be purchased.

Eye Strain - Eye strain is quite common among people using monitors over extended
periods of time. It can result in irritated eyes and blurred vision.

Solutions - to reduce eye strain, users should look away from the
monitor and focus on a distant object from time to time to relax their
eye muscles. An anti-glare screen can help some users.

All new monitors must comply with EU standards which ensure that
radiation emission is as low as possible and all new screens must be
fitted with tilt and swivel stands.

Room lighting can have a major effect on eye strain.

 Windows should be fitted with non-reflective blinds.

 Computers should be positioned so that sunlight does not reflect off the screen.
 The optimum position is at right angles to the source of natural light.
 Worktops should have a matt surface in order to reduce glare.
 Computer monitors should ideally be placed at right-angles to any bright light
sources. If the monitor faces such a light source then there will be too much
reflected glare and if the monitor faces
away from such a light source then the
user may end up squinting to see the
screen.

39
Lower Back pain - Sitting at the computer for long periods of time is never
comfortable. Leaning back in the chair reduces the pressure on the spine but then the
arms have to reach forward to the keyboard creating muscle tension which leads to
aches and pains in the neck, shoulders, back and arms.

Solutions - while working at the keyboard, the correct seating position is sitting upright
with the feet flat and the lower arms and thighs in a roughly horizontal position.
Adjustable chairs that give the maximum support for the back are also best.

Sufficient room is needed for the monitor to be moved back and forward. Ideally, the
top of the monitor should be at eye level.Even with a comfortable working
environment, it is still good to stand up, stretch and move around at regular intervals.

Safety Risks:
Power supply:

 Computers are generally connected to 240v mains electricity and

must be treated with care. The computer should be properly
earthed and the plugs should have the correct fuses.
 Rooms should be fitted with a residual current device (RCD) to
reduce the risk of electric shock.
 Trailing electrical leads should be avoided to reduce the risk of
tripping or them being damaged and kick-boards under desks reduce the risk of
feet tangling with trailing wires.
 Leads should preferably be in trunking or be safely tied out of the way.
 There should be enough power sockets to avoid them being overloaded.
 Mains plugs and leads must be checked for safety once a year.
 If the computer is moved or opened, the power cable must disconnected.

Fire risks:

 In case of a fire, the fire extinguishers should be powder-based or CO2 (carbon

dioxide) devices.
 Water-based fire extinguishers should not be used on electrical appliances.

Food and Drink:

 It is best to avoid eating and drinking near to computer equipment. Food crumbs
can prevent a computer mouse or keyboard from working properly. Any spilt
liquids are a possible fire risk near electrical equipment and can easily ruin items
such as floppy disks.

40
Heat and Light:

 Computers generate a considerable amount of waste heat and the room should
therefore be adequately ventilated or even air-conditioned.
 The lighting should be subdued to reduce glare from computer monitors. Direct
sunlight should be avoided using suitable blinds etc. Computer monitors should
ideally be placed at right-angles to any bright light sources.

41
Software

Software refers to computer programs. Software is a general term for programs which
are written for computer users.

A software package is a program or a set of programs together with a full set of

documentation.

Examples of software

 A word processor program.

 Operating system-
 Games
 Utility software
 A spreadsheet program.

Types of Software

There are two major types of software, system software and application software.

System Software Application Software

Control the hardware Perform real-world jobs that people want
to do.
OS usually allocate space on disk, control Word processing, spreadsheets, CAD,
peripherals, load software into RAM, payroll, stock control, computer game,
divide time according to the programs run. etc.

Examples of system software

Operating system
Utility programs
Program translators
Device drivers
Boot programs

42
OPERATING SYSTEMS

An operating system is software that controls the general operation of a computer and
carry out the tasks like controlling the use of peripherals, Controlling the loading and
running of programs, Organising the use of the main store e.t.c.

Examples of Operating Systems

These include UNIX, MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), Windows 95/97/98/ NT,
Windows 2000, windows XP, Novell Netware. Mac OS and LINUX

Types of Operating Systems / Types of processing

Single User, Single program

This is the type of operating system that allows only one application program to run in
the computer at the time and only one user works at that computer. Example:
Microsoft Disk Operating system allows only one application program to run in the
computer at a time and only one user uses that computer at a time.

Multi-programming

This is a computer system that allows more than one application programs to be held in
Random access memory at the same time. This usually refers to a large computer which
is running different programs for different people.

Multi-tasking

Multitasking is when a computer runs two or more application programs at the same
time.

Example

Using a word processor to type a letter while at the same time using a music player to
play music in the same computer at the same time.

Batch Processing

This is the type of processing where input data or a list of jobs are collected and
grouped into a batch and processed at a later stage all at once or at the same time.

Examples include

Payroll processing
Cheque processing
Water bill processing

43
Electricity bill processing.

Multi user system (Multi access online)

A multi user system is a computer system that allows more than one users to use it at
the same time.

Examples of multi user system

- Online airline booking systems

- Online banking systems
- Online hotel reservation systems

Explain how a multi user system works

- A multi user system allows two or more users to use it or connect to it at the
same time.
- Different users use their terminals to connect to the computer system through a
network.
- The resources are allocated to these users / terminals by a server they are
connected to.

Real-Time processing

This is the type of processing where the response or output is given out immediately
from the data input.

Examples of applications that use real time processing are Real time systems and Real
time transactions.

Real time systems: This is a system that processes input data quickly and gives the
output of the data input immediately, timing is critical when processing and giving out
a response or the output to the data input.

Examples of real time systems

- Auto piloting systems

- Air traffic control systems
- Traffic lights
- Heart rate monitoring systems
- MYCIN

Characteristics of real time systems

- Input data is processed immediately without a significant delay

- Feedback or output given immediately without a significant delay

44
Real time transaction: This is a transaction where an immediate response or output is
given from data input into a system where timing is not critical when processing the
data or giving the output.

Examples of applications that uses real time transactions

- Automated teller machines

- Online Hotel reservation systems
- Online airline booking systems
- Online banking systems

Functions of the Operating Systems

The operating system usually

 Create a working environment in which the user can run programs.
 Controls the use of peripherals such as disk unit and printers.
 Controls loading and running of programs.
 Organise the use of the main store – this has to be shared between the operating
systems and the user’s program(s).
 Deal with execution errors and keep the computer running when they occur.
 Communicate directly with users and /or operators.
 Display messages about the errors and the problems with peripherals – such as a
printer out of paper.
 Deal with user commands to organise files and run programs.
 Multitask to allow more than one program to run at the same time.
For larger computer and networks
 Produce a record of programs as they are run
 Maintaining security
o Right identification by the use of password;
o Whether access to files is granted or not.

 Organise the use of storage.

 Working out the resources used by each program.

45
Utility programs

A Utility program is a system software that carryout routine tasks in a computer like analysing,
configuring, optimizing or maintaining a computer.

Functions of utility programs

 Compressing a file to save space on storage media;

 Recovering data from damaged file;
 Checking a disk for faults and repairing them;
 Formatting storage media
 Checking the files on a disk for computer viruses.

Interfaces

Operating systems provide user interfaces; a user interface is what the user sees and works with
when using a computer. A user interface consists of menus, prompts, icons, cursor etc.

There are three types of user interfaces

1. Command driven interface
2. Menu driven interface
3. Graphical (GUI)

Command Line Interface (CLI) or Command Driven Interface (CDI)

With a CLI the user types a command to get something done. This type of user interface is not
easy to use if one is new to the interface/software, there are many commands to learn and
remember.
DOS, which stands for Disk Operating System, is a very commonly used command-driven user
interface.

CyberSoft(R) PC-DOS Version 5 The correct commands to copy

(c) Cyber Corp 1987-1996 the file are typed in by the
user at the keyboard

C:\DOS\> copy c:\fred.txt a:\

1 file(s) copied The operating system displays
a message to confirm that the
C:\DOS\>
command has been carried out
successfully.

Examples of commands
dir in MS-DOS and list in Linux– displays all the files that are stored in the current directory
mkdir in MS-DOS – creates a directory in the current directory

46
Advantages of CLI
 Many IT professionals favor CLIs because they make up little RAM and are quick to
operate.
 Many commands can be grouped together as a batch file so that repetitive tasks can be
automated.
Disadvantages of CLI
 Many commands have to be learnt

Menu driven interface

These are interfaces that produce a list of commands/options that are available within a program
where the user is required to make a selection using a mouse or keyboard The user is offered a
simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often leads to a further menu. Part of
the screen may have an instruction followed by a numbered list of options to choose from:
A full screen menu takes up most of the screen.
A menu bar is the set of options at the top of the screen. When an option is chosen a pull down
menu may be offered.

Main Menu
Backup Options
F1 Load new program
F2 Run program F1 Restore a file
F3 List files on disc F2 Make backup copy
F4 Backup options F4 Pressed F3 Main Menu
ESC Quit

F2 Pressed

Make Backup Copy

Enter name of file
fred.txt
Select drive
A C
OK CANCEL

Advantages

 They are easy to use as the user does not have to remember sets of commands.
 They are user friendly - you can often guess your way around the options.

47
Disadvantages

 They can be irritating if there are too many levels of menus to move around - with a
command line interface you can go to the option required immediately.

Graphical User interface

A graphical user interface provides a way for the user to communicate/interact with the
computer with the use of pictures i.e. icons, pull down menus, buttons, dialog boxes ect
GUIs are designed to be operated by a mouse so that items can be
 Selected by pointing and clicking
 Moved by dragging and dropping

WIMP systems are the most widely used type of graphical user interface.
WIMP stands for Windows Icons Menu Pointer. Options are represented by small pictures or
'icons' arranged inside rectangular boxes called windows.

Advantages of GUIs
 They are easy to use without the need to know commands.
 For any application the interface is familiar
 The user environment can be changed easily

Disadvantages
 They require a lot of RAM to store the graphic images
 They require a lot of processing power to refresh the display
 A lot of disk space is needed to hold all the functions
 It is difficult to automate functions for expert users

A good user interface should:

 Be attractive and pleasing to the eye

 Allow the user to try out different options easily
 Be easy to use
 Use suitable colors for key areas
 Use words that are easy to understand aimed at the type of user
 Have online help

It also should consider the needs of the users. For example, young children are likely to prefer
pictures to words and people with disabilities may benefit from particular input or output
devices.

48
Applications Software
Application programs or packages (groups of programs) are designed to enable the computer to
tackle a specific task, such as writing a letter. Application software caries out user-related tasks
and can be classified as off-the-shelf, custom written or tailor-made.

Software written to
Applications Software the specification of a
particular
organisation or
customer.
Software that Prewritten
can be made to Off-the-shelf ready to
Custom-Written /
do many buy
different tasks. Bespoke
Generic Software Special Purpose
/ General Purpose Software to perform a
specific task e.g. payroll,
accounts, stock control,
fill in forms
Individual Integrated
Programs Software
Packages A number of different pieces of software
that can share / merge data.
Excel, Word, e.g.
PowerPoint etc.. 1. A graph from a spreadsheet can be placed in a
report.
2. Common screen design / toolbars / icons
18/06/2010 Microsoft Office makes it simpler for people to learn.
11

‘Off-the-shelf’ software

This refers to the software that is ready made and available for sale, lease or license to the
general public.

Advantages

 The software tends to be relatively cheap as the cost of development can be spread over
a large number of users
 The software can be very sophisticated (e.g. Excel or Word) as the revenues from a very
large numbers of users means that a lot of resources can be applied to it's development
 It is easy to get support and literature is usually widely available as there are many other
users using exactly the same software
 It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as chances are they also have
the software available to open the file

49
Disadvantages

 The software can be highly complex and will usually include large sections that you will
never use
 It tends to be a compromise. By it's nature it is designed for many different types of users,
each of whom will have different requirements
 As the software tends to be large and complicated it may take a long time to learn
properly (some of the most asked for additions to later versions of Word were ones that
already existed in the previous version)
 You may have to alter the way that you work in order to fit in with the way that the
software has been designed
 There will probably be operations that you require that you simply cannot do with the
software
 As the same system can be bought by your competitors it is very difficult to gain any
competitive advantage from it's use

A general-purpose application package

A general-purpose application package is a type of software that can perform many different
related tasks. Word processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphics and presentation software are
all examples of application packages.
This type of software is sometimes called generic software. This means, for example, that any
one of the many different word processing packages that you could buy will all do the same
general sorts of tasks as each other

1. Integrated package

An integrated package combines many different types of application together in one single
package.
Integrated packages normally include facilities for word processing, spreadsheets, databases,
graphics, presentation and communications.

The advantages of using integrated packages are:

It is much cheaper to buy one integrated package rather than several separate application
packages;
Different applications have the same user interface;
Data can be transferred quickly and easily between applications;
They are much quicker to install than several separate application packages.

2. Specialist application software

Specialist application software performs a single very specific type of task. Programs to work out
payroll, calculate accounts, plan driving routes, work out income tax returns, deal with stock
control and handle appointments are all examples of specialist application software.

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Tailor-made / Custom made or bespoke

This refers to the software specially developed for the purpose to suit the requirements of a
particular customer.

Advantages

 It has been specifically designed for your particular requirements and can be tailored to fit
in exactly with the way that your business or organisation wishes to operate.
 It can be customized to interface with other software that you operate with the potential
to provide you with a fully integrated IT infrastructure across your whole organisation
 Users will usually find it easier and more intuitive to use as it should not contain
unnecessary facilities and should operate in the way that they are used to working
 It is much more flexible than packaged software and can be modified and changed over
time as your requirements and business practices change
 You will receive much better support and can in many cases talk directly to the developers
concerned
 The use of professionally developed bespoke software applications can give you a
significant business advantage over your competition

Disadvantages

 The investment required will usually be much higher than with packaged software. This is
usually the biggest reason for not going down the custom route - you need to undertake a
business justification exercise and compare the costs against the expected benefits and
commercial advantages.
 A large investment in your time is required during the development process and a
bespoke application will take longer to implement.
 It can be difficult to get support for bespoke software, unless the developers themselves
offer support services.
 If you do not have the source code you are dangerously exposed and are wholly
dependent upon the developer's continuing existence and good will.
 If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is unstable,
unreliable and full of bugs

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Examples of Application software:

- Word processor / word processing software

- Desk-top Publishing (DTP) software
- Database software
- Presentation software
- Spreadsheet software
- Graphics software
- Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software
- Music software
- Computer games
- Web browsers
- Social media applications

FEATURES OF COMMON APPLICATION SOFTWARE

- Font size/type/style
- Text alignment
- Editing features like cut/copy/paste
- Proofing tools
- Save or save as

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

A program is a set of instructions that the computer follows when it runs the program.

A programming language is a formal language that is used to communicate instructions to a

computer.

Programming languages can be divided into 2 groups which are low level languages and high
level languages

1) LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES

A low level language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a
computer’s instruction set architecture.

Examples of low level languages

- Machine code
- Assembly language

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Machine code

This the only programming language that is directly recognized by the computer and does not
need any translator program.

It is written as strings of 1's (one) and 0’s (zero). When this sequence of codes is fed to the
computer, it recognizes the codes and converts it in to electrical signals needed to run it. For
example, a program instruction may look like this:

1011000111101

It is considered to the first generation language.

Assembly Language

Assembly language is a low level language that uses a set of symbols and letters in order to
communicate with a computer.

Assembly Language and a translator program is required to translate the Assembly Language to
machine language.

This translator program is called an `Assembler'. It is considered to be a second-generation

language.

Advantages of Low level languages

- Programs written in low level languages are fast to run.

- Programs written in low level languages use less computer storage.

Disadvantages of low level languages

- Low level language written programs are machine dependent as a program written for
one computer might not run in other computers with different hardware configuration.
- It is difficult to debug programs written in low level languages
- Low level languages are difficult to learn
- It is difficult to program or write a program in low level language

2) HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

These are programing languages that are not easily or directly recognized by computers but are
easier for programmers to understand.

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Examples are

- BBC Basic
- Visual Basic
- Fortran
- C++
- C
- COBOL
- JAVA
- LOGO
- Python
- Ruby
- PERL

All programming languages actually run as machine code. High level languages are either
translated into machine code while they are running (slower but easier to make changes) or
compiler software converts the whole program into machine code before it is run.

Advantages of High Level Languages

- Higher level languages are easy and fast to learn

- Another advantage of high level languages is that they can be used on different types of
computer with little alteration.
- It is easy to correct bugs or errors in programs written in high level language.
- It is easy and fast to write a program in high level language.

Disadvantages of High level languages

- Program written in high level language are slow to run

- Programs written in high level languages use more computer storage

Program translators
A program translator is a software that converts a program from one programming language to
another programming language.

Examples of program translators are

- Assembler
- Compiler
- Interpreter

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Compiler

It is a program translator that translates the instructions of a higher level language to machine
language by scanning the entire program first and then converting it into machine code for the
program to be executed.

It is called compiler because it compiles machine language instructions for every program
instructions of higher level language. Thus compiler is a program translator like assembler but
more sophisticated. It scans the entire program first and then translates it into machine code.

The programs written by the programmer in higher level language is called source program. After
this program is converted to machine languages by the compiler it is called object program.

A source code or program is a computer program that is in its original high level language before
being converted into machine code.

An object code or program is a computer program that has been converted into machine code by
a compiler.
Object program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means programs compiled for
one type of machine will not run in another type. Therefore every type of machine must have its
personal compiler for a particular language.

Advantages of a compiler over an interpreter

- A compiler produces an object code after a program has been compiled which means next
time when a program is run the object code is run without the need to do another
translation and this makes compiled programs faster to run.

Disadvantages of a compiler

- Compilers are large and uses more computer storage.

Interpreter

An interpreter is a program translator used for translating higher level language into machine
language by taking one statement of a program, translate it into machine language and
immediately execute it before moving to next instruction.

The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler:

 Interpreters are easier to use since errors from a program instruction are immediately
displayed before moving to another instruction.
 It eliminates the need for a separate compilation after changes to each program.
 Interpreters are easy to write and do not require large memory in computer.

55
The disadvantage of interpreter:

 is that it is time consuming method because each time a statement in a program is

executed then it is first translated. Thus compiled machine language program runs much
faster than an interpreted program.

What are the differences between an Assembler and a compiler?

Assembler Compiler
Has a one to one relationship One to many relationships
Written to a particular machine code/Machine Written to a particular High level language
Converts a program written in Assembly Converts a program written in high level
language into machine code language to machine code by scanning the
whole source code and converting it all at once

What are the differences between an Interpreter and a compiler?

Interpreter Compiler
Takes single instruction as input and converts it Takes entire program as input / Scans the whole
program and converts it
No Intermediate Object Code is Generated Intermediate Object Code is Generated
Requires less memory Requires more memory
Every time higher level program is converted Program need not be compiled
into lower level program every time
Errors are displayed for every instruction Errors are displayed after entire program is
interpreted (if any) checked

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DATA AND FILE MANAGEMENT

DATA TYPES

It is the term used to describe the kind of data used e.g. whether it is a number or a letter.

- Character: One of the symbols used to make up data. e.g. a letter (A…Z), a
punctuation mark or any digit of a number (0…9) etc. All keyboard combination
characters.

- A string: A group of letters is called a string. e.g. “This is a string of letters”.

- Alphanumeric data: made up of letters and numbers e.g. B 363 AHE.

- Numeric data: Only numbers – both whole and fractional numbers.

- Integers: complete numbers (whole numbers) either positive or negative.

- Character set: this is a set of letters, digits and other symbols used for
representing data. These include numeric characters (digits), alphabetical
characters (letters) and even special characters (punctuation marks, mathematical
symbols, etc).
- Text

- Date/Time

DATA CODING

Coding data refers to a method of storing data where codes are assigned to it or the shortening
of data in an agreed manner in an organization.

Reasons for using codes

- Codes are used to secure the data

- Codes are quicker to type in as they are shorter.
- Codes reduce the size of files
- Data is quickly searched and retrieved as codes are often unique.

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DATA ENTRY CHECKS

The two data entry checks that are used to ensure that data has integrity when entering it into
the computer are Validation and Verification.

VERIFICATION OF DATA

What is data verification?

This refers to checking whether the data that has been entered into a computer resembles data
from the source.

VERIFICATION CHECK TECHNIQUES

- Proof reading: This refers to checking each word or piece of text or data that has
been entered into the computer against the document where it was copied from
to check if they match or are the same.

- Double entry: Is a method of verification which involves two people entering the
same data into a computer, If the data is identical then it is accepted and
processed but if one of them enters wrong data, it will not be accepted and a
message will be generated.

VALIDATION OF DATA

What is validation of data?

This means checking whether the data that is being entered into a computer is reasonable,
consistent, accurate or complete.

VALIDATION CHECK TECHNIQUES

- Check digit
A check digit is an additional single digit calculated from a string of numbers and then placed
at the end of those numbers for error detection purposes. For example; An International
Standard Book Number (ISBN), Bank account, Barcode have a check digit placed at the end.

How is a check digit used to validate the data?

When an ISBN or bank account or Barcode is entered into a computer, the last digit (which is a
check digit) is cut off and the computer calculates its own check digit from the other numbers.

58
 It then matches the check digit it has calculated with the one that was entered to see if the
match, if they match the data is valid, if they don’t match the data is not valid.

- Character type check

This is a validation check technique that checks whether the data that is being entered into the
computer is of the correct type as set by the user.

- Range check
This is a validation check technique that checks whether the data that is entered into a
computer lies within a specific range as set by the system user.

- Presence check
This is a validation check technique that checks whether the all the data that is supposed to be
entered into the computer has been entered.

- Length check
This is a validation check technique that ensures and checks whether the data that is entered
into a computer is of the set specific length.

- Table look-up check

This is a validation check technique that ensures and checks if the data that is being entered
into the computer is part of a list of options that have been set in the computer.

- Format check
This is a validation check technique that ensures and checks whether the data that is entered
into the computer is of the format that has been set.

What are the differences between verification and validation?

Verification Validation
o Data is checked after o Data is checked at the time
entry of entry
o Done both manually o Done by software
and by software o Application to small data
o Application to large o Criteria used
data
o No criteria used.

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File Organization

Database

A database is an organized collection of data for one or more purposes, usually in digital form and
sometimes on hardcopy.

The data are typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality (for example, the availability
of rooms in hotels), in a way that supports processes requiring this information (for example,
finding a hotel with vacancies).

Some examples of databases you may encounter in your daily life are:
 a telephone book
 T.V. Guide
 airline reservation system
 motor vehicle registration records
 papers in your filing cabinet

Database management system (DBMS)

A database management system (DBMS) is software that provides you with the software tools
you need to organize that data in a flexible manner.

It includes tools to add, modify or delete data from the database, ask questions (or queries)
about the data stored in the database and produce reports summarizing selected contents e.g.
Access, FileMaker, Lotus Notes, Oracle or SQL Server

COMPONENTS OF DATABASE SOFTWARE

File:- File is a collection of related data in the computer storage media.

A file has to have a name which is recognized by the system consist of some kind of extension
identify the kind of data in the file.
Example of a file
- student file
- Payroll file
- Inventory file
Etc.
A Table:- This is an object within database software that organizes data in rows called records
and columns called fields.

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Record: This is a row in a database table that shows a set of related data representing the details
of an individual item, a thing or a person.
For example: a single record may contain information about a person such as their name, age,
gender, home address and phone number.

Field: This is a column in a database table that represents a single unit of data entry in a record
that is assigned a data type. A field contains information about one thing in a record. For
example the name field contains information about a person’s name.

A database table may have a general field or a key field.

Key Field: This is a field that holds unique data which is used to identify records uniquely in a
database software table.

There are several types of key fields:

 Primary Key: This is a field that uniquely identifies each record in the database software
table.

 Foreign key: A foreign key is a field in a relational table that matches the primary key
column of another table. The foreign key can be used to cross-reference tables

Regist_no Owner Make Model Colour

B 123 JKL J. Selomo Daihatsu Cuore Red

B 789 WQR S. Disiile Kia Sportage Navy blue

B 001 AAB BMW 318i Silver

S. Leso

Records An item Fields

Arranging database components in terms of size starting with the smallest to the largest

Field…..Record………Table and File

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 FIELD

RECORD

TABLE

FILE

Directories

A directory is a small file on a disc, which is used by the operating system to locate the other
files on the disc.
The directory contains a list of names of files and the information needed to access the files on
the disc. The information given in a directory can include:

 The size of the file in bytes,

 The time and date the file was written or used.

A directory can mean the area of a disc where files are stored. The main directory on a disc is
called the root directory. A sub-directory is a part of the root directory.

Types of Files

There 2 different types of files. These are:

Master File:- Is the principle source of data for an application. It holds data which is mostly static
but which can be added to or amended by updating as necessary during processing. Such as
Payroll, the master file (of all employees) is updated by a transaction file of hours worked in
current month.

Transaction file:- It is used to hold temporary data which is used to update the master file. A list
of transactions. In a business this might be a list of sales for the day. At the end of the day the
transaction file is merged with a master file to update such information as shop stock levels and
year to date sales totals.

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Differences between master files and transaction files

Master file Transaction file

Principal source of data for an application It is a temporary file

Holds the data that can be amended or added It is used to update a master file

Methods of file access

The method of access to a file refers to the way in which a program reads data from a file or
writes data to it.

Immediate Access/Direct access/Random Access: Immediate access is the same as random

access. Where records are directly obtained without having to look at any other record first. It is
fast accessing method where record obtained without any delay. A randomly organised file
contains records arranged physically without regard to the sequence of the primary key unique
key.

Serial access: A method of access to data in which blocks are read from the storage medium in
the physical order in which they occur, until the required item is reached.
We have serial access data on a tape. To read information at some place in the middle of the
tape we must go through step by step through all proceeding parts of the magnetic tape first.
Magnetic tapes have high capacity and are cheap. Alternatively, hard disks can also store a lot of
data but they are much more expensive to buy than tapes.
Sequential access: sequential access is the method of file access where the data in a memory
array or storage medium is accessed in a predetermined, ordered sequence.

Records are held in a logical sequence and accessed in that logical sequence. Where the items are
read, one at a time, from the logical start of the file, in key value order because the records in a
file held on a serial access device (Magnetic tape) need to be stored into the order in which they
are to be processed.

Advantages: of direct access over sequential

Selected records can be accessed far more quickly from direct access.
Records can be accessed in any chosen order.
Records do not have to be put into any particular order before the file is created.

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Advantages: of sequential over direct

Sequential files can be stored on the magnetic tape as well on discs.

It is usually easier to write programs to handle sequential files.

Reasons for choosing different methods of access

The choice of access depends on:

The number of records to be accessed.

If not many records are to be accessed, direct access should be used.
The size of the record.
For large files sequential searches takes a long time and direct access is better.
For a small file the time delay is not important and a sequential access is acceptable.
The type of storage medium being used.
On magnetic tape files have to be serial or sequential – direct access to tape files is not practical.
Whether or not the application is interactive.
Sequential access is often suitable for batch processing.
On-line applications such as information retrieval usually need direct access.

Common process in database

 Updating files-To update a file means to alter it with new information.

Updating can involve:
 Insertion – adding a new record to a file;
 Deletion – removing a record from the file;
 Amendment – changing the items within the existing records.

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SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

System development life cycle is the overall process of developing information system
through a multistep process from investigation of initial requirements through analysis,
design, development, implementation and maintenances.

STAGES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Feasibility study

Analysis

Design

Testing

Documentation

Implementation

Evaluation and maintenance

Feasibility Study

This is the first stage of the system life cycle.

This is an investigation that is carried out by a systems analyst to find out what the
main problems are with the existing system and if it is technically possible and cost-
effective to solve these problems by developing a computer based solution.

Technical Feasibility

 Deals with the question of whether the proposed system will archive its
objectives, in other words will it work, Advances in technology may that a
system was not feasible a couple of year ago are now a possibility.

Social Feasibility

 Is concerned with the effect on employees and customers on the introduction of

a new system.
 Will it result in redundancies, or a need for retraining or relocation of some of
the workforce.
 Will some jobs be deskilled and will current employees be able to perform
effectively any new tasks introduced by the new system. It is essential that user
65
 cooperation is secured before changes are introduced. Equally, the effect on
customer service has to be considered.

Economic Feasibility

 It considers whether the new system will be cost effective. There are two types
of cost involved: Development cost, running cost.

Feasibility report contents

A feasibility report is produced from the findings. The following are contents of a
feasibility report;

 Problems of the current system

 Cost / benefit analysis
 Any conflict between requirements and the law
 Development time
 Does the technology exist or is it practical
 Description of the business plus problems
 Objectives of the proposed system
 Alternative solutions and why others were rejected
 Plan for implementation

Analysis Stage

During the analysis stage systems analysts investigate the existing system to identify
exactly what the problems are with the existing system

Tasks done at analysis stage;

 Modeling the current system using data flow diagram

 Identification of user requirements
 Interpreting user requirements
 Researching using interviews, observation, questionnaires etc.

How is data collected during Feasibility study and Analysis stage?

The fact finding methods used to collect the data are as follows:

- Questionnaire
- Interview
- Document study / Literature review
- Observation

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Questionnaire: This is a method of data collection where by a set of questions related
to the system being used are given to the respondents as hardcopy or softcopy to
answer at their own time and then collected after a certain time by the data collector.

Interview: This is the data collection method whereby there is a one on one session
between the data collector and the respondent, the data collector asks the respondent
questions related to the system and the answers are given immediately.

Observation: This is a method of data collection where by the data collector goes to
the organization and looks at how things are being done, making notes.

Literature review/Document study: This is the data collection method where by the
data collector goes to the company and studies relevant company documents or records
related to the system being used.

Design Stage

Task done at the design stage;

 Design data input forms

 Design system flowcharts / pseudo code
 Design output form/reports
 Design/select validation rules
 Design testing strategy / plan
 Select appropriate hardware
 Select appropriate software
 Design program flowcharts
 Specify the data structures
 Design file structures

Testing Stage

New system should be thoroughly tested before introducing it.

Testing carried out using the plan to make sure that all the parts of the system work
correctly with normal, extreme and erroneous data

 Normal test data is used to check if the system can accept valid data or the data
that would be expected during day-to-day use of the system.
 Extreme test data is used to check if the system can accept the valid data that
lies on the boundaries of the range checks in the program.
 Abnormal test data is used to check if a system can identify invalid data and
properly handle it by rejecting it.

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Documentation Stage

Producing documentation

Two types of documentation

Technical documentation contents;

 Program listing
 systems flowcharts;
 program flowcharts;
 list of variables / data dictionary
 file structures
 purpose of the system
 screen layouts
 print formats
 hardware requirements
 software requirements
 sample runs

User documentation

 how to load software

 how to run software
 how to log in and out
 how to save files
 screen layouts
 sample runs
 trouble shooting guide
 hardware requirements
 software requirements
 print formats
 how to print

Implementation Stage

Tasks done during the implementation stage;

 Installing any new hardware and software;

 Transferring data from the existing system to the new one;
 Training users how to operate the new system

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Implementation strategies
Direct implementation:

With this strategy, the changeover is done in one operation where by the new system
completely replaces the old system in one go or overnight.

Advantages:

 The most rapid of all the strategies, provided it works!

 Less risk of confusion between old and new systems.

Disadvantages:

 Most stressful for the users - the old system has gone so there is no going
back if they have difficulties.
 Most difficult to train staff on as the new system was not in place to learn
on before the change over.
 Most stressful for the developers - all the data and files from the old
system will have to be converted ready for use on the new one.
 Most risky - if the new system does not work properly then there is nothing
to fall back on.

Phased implementation:

With this strategy, the new brought in in stages or parts(phases), the first stage or part
is introduced, if it is deemed successful then the next stage or part is introduced and so
on and on until eventually the final stage or part gets introduced for the new system to
fully replace the old system.

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 Advantages:
Very structured, each phase can be fully evaluated before moving onto
the next one.
Lower risk, a well planned and controlled introduction of the new system.
Easy to train staff by letting them learn new skills on each phase as it is
introduced.
Disadvantages:
Slower than direct implementation.
Although each phase is easy to evaluate, you have to wait until all the
phases are complete before you can evaluate the whole change over.

Pilot implementation:

With this strategy, the new system replaces the old one in one operation or one part /
section of the organisation, if the system is successful then the pilot is extended until it
eventually replaces the old system completely in the entire organisation. For example
it might be tried out in one branch of the company or in one location.

Advantages:
Easy to control, the pilot can be halted at any time.
Easy to evaluate because the new and old systems are both running.
Low risk, if a small-scale pilot fails then not too much has been lost.
Easy to train staff by letting them learn new skills on the pilot system.

Disadvantages:
It can be slow to get a pilot to completely replace the old system.
A pilot may not show up problems that a full-scale implementation would.
This is because a system can work well as a small-scale pilot but has
difficulties when it is scaled up to a full operating system with more
realistic volumes of data to be processed.

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Parallel running implementation:

With this strategy, the old and the new system are both used alongside each other for a
certain period of time, both being able to operate independently, if the new system
works well, the old system is stopped and new system carries on as the only system.

Advantages:
If there are initial problems with the new system then the old one can still
be used.
Both systems can easily be compared.
Easy to train staff by letting them learn new skills on the parallel system.
Easy to evaluate because the new and old systems are both running.

Disadvantages:
Expensive - both systems are being run as fully operating versions so both
are doing the same job. This may mean duplication of staff and
hardware.
Some risk - there is a greater chance of confusion or errors if the two
different systems are being run side-by-side.

Maintenance Stage

A new information system may need to be changed due to:

 Change in needs of user

 Problems not found during testing
 Improvements required in the way the system works

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DATA LOGGING

Definition:

Data-logging is defined as a way of using a computer with the aid of a sensor to

automatically collect data over a period of time without the need of human
supervision.

Types of Data

Analogue Data

It is the data that is represented by a quantity that varies continuously. The value of the data item
at a given time is represented by the size of the quantity, measured on a fixed scale.

Examples of analogue systems are

- Some watches have an analogue display, where the hands move continuously round a
dial. The time is represented by the position of the hands on the dial.
- Conversations travel on an old telephone circuits as an analogue signal. The size of the
signal depends on the loudness of the speech. The words spoken show up changes in the
frequency of the signal.

Digital Data

Digital data refers to the data that is can be set to separate or discrete values or states. The
combinations of these values represent data. Digital devices are usually binary and the data is
represented as a succession of 0s and 1s.

Examples of digital systems are

- An electronic calculator. The display is digital with the numbers in decimal. Each digit can
have any of the ten separate states (that is the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The
circuits inside are digital with binary digits represented by 0 volts and 5 volts.
- Some watches have a digital display – digits shown on a little display screen represent the
time.
- Telephone conversation can be digital.

Differences between Analogue data and Digital data

Analogue data is continuous in nature while Digital data is discrete.

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How the data is collected:

Sensors are used to input the data into the data-logging equipment. Almost any
physical property can be measured with the correct sensor.

The data logger collects the data at regular intervals (the logging interval) for a set
length of time (the logging period).

Logging period: total time for which the data is going to be logged/collected

Logging intervals: amount of time that passes between measurement taken

There are two categories of sensors:

Digital sensors - these are either on or off i.e. a light gate sensing something
breaking a light beam. Such sensors can often be connected directly to a
computer as the data output is already digital.
Analogue sensors - these measure some physical quantity by converting it into a
voltage. The voltage signal is then converted into digital form by an interface
(ADC-Analogue to Digital converter) and either stored or transferred directly to a
computer. The vast majority of sensors are of this type

Examples of sensors that can be used when data-logging:

heat light sound
altitude magnetic forces pressure
movement wind speed oxygen levels
humidity pH radiation

ADVANTAGES OF DATA LOGGING

- Data logging can be done in places that are hostile or dangerous for human
beings. E.g collecting data in a nuclear reactor or active volcano

- With data logging, data can be collected over very short time intervals that
would be impossible or impractical for a human operator.

- Data logging allows for accurate readings or data to be collected.

Applications of data logging

 Unattended weather station recording (such as wind speed / direction,

temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation).
 Unattended hydrographic recording (such as water level, water depth, water
flow, water pH, water conductivity).

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  Unattended soil moisture level recording.
 Unattended gas pressure recording.
 Offshore buoys for recording a variety of environmental conditions.
 Road traffic counting.

Example of Data loggers

A flight data recorder (FDR) also known as black box, a piece of recording equipment
used to collect specific aircraft performance data

An event data recorder (EDR), a device installed by the manufacturer in some

automobiles which collects and stores various data during the timeframe immediately
before and after a crash.

A voyage data recorder (VDR), a data recording system designed to collect data from
various sensors on board a ship.

A Temperature Recorder for monitoring the performance of a heating and air

conditioning system

Examples of data-logging in use:

1 - In a hospital:

The sort of life-support systems found in intensive care units will make extensive use of
data-logging equipment. The patients will have sensors attached to them which will
continuously measure data such as temperature, blood oxygen level and heart rate.

Advantages:

24 hour monitoring takes place without having to use a human operator who
would need breaks, could lose concentration or could get tired and make
mistakes.
Alarms would be set off automatically if any m6easurements exceed a safe
value.
A continual record can be stored or printed out of everything that is being
measured.

2 - In an experiment:

In the experiment of measuring the gravity of a falling object. It would be impossible

for a human to continuously and accurately measure the height of the ball as it
bounces. Data logging equipment can record the movement and software can then plot
it against time on a computer screen and store it for further analysis.

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Advantages:

Many accurate reading can be taken per second.

The data is digital so it can be transferred straight to software which can display
it or analyse it further.

Advantages of using data-logging in experiments:

Increased accuracy is Sensors can be sealed inside the equipment and this
possible compare to avoids the risk of someone taking a measurement and
measurements taken by interfering with the experiment.
humans
Many measurements over Example: Sensors can record hundreds of
VERY short time periods measurements during experiments lasting less than a
are possible second. This would need a very short logging interval
and a short logging period.
Regular measurements over Example: Sensors could could be set up to record the
VERY long time periods are movement of a volcano over months or even years.
possible This would need a logging period of years and a
logging interval of hours or days.
Data can be collected from Sensors can be designed to operate in outer space,
hostile environments radioactive areas, the ocean depths, high in the
atmosphere or at the poles.

CONTROL AND MONITORING SYSTEMS

What is a Control system or a Control and monitoring system

A control system is a system that manages or regulates other devices in order to get the
desired output.

A System typically comprises:

 A computer or microprocessor
 A sensor
 A control program which handles data from sensors and sends signals to output
device
 An interface box(ADC) to convert signals between the sensor and processor

Sensors

A sensor is an automatic input device which measures or detects the physical or

chemical property of the environment.

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Example might be a:

 Heat sensor which measures the temperature in a room or a pressure sensor

which senses when someone has walked over it.
 A security alarm system may have an infra red sensor which sends a signal when
the beam is broken.
 A heat sensor in the corner of a room may detect the presence of a person

Once they have taken a reading or measurement, they might send that reading straight
back to the computer or they may store it up and take a set of readings over time and
send them back in a batch.

This data is called an ‘input’.

Types of sensors

 Heat
 Light
 Humidity
 Pressure
 Smoke
 Sound
 Tilt
 touch

ADC (analogue-to-digital converter)

Most sensors take analogue measurements. This means that the measurement can have
a wide range of values or be on a continuous scale. All computers need digital data in
order to be able to understand it and process it. Digital data only has two values either
0 and 1 or On and Off.

In order for the data collected by the sensor to be understood by the computer, it
needs to be converted from an analogue signal to a digital signal, so

An interface (ADC) box is needed to convert the data from the sensors in to
computer data. The ADC is connected between the sensor and the computer’s input-
output port and it is called an ‘interface’.

Actuator

An actuator is often part of a computer control and monitoring system. The actuator is
a mechanical device or motor, which carries out the action or decision made by the
control system.

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For example, in a greenhouse, sensors may measure the temperature. When the
temperature rises too much, the control system will send a signal to open the windows
or vents.

The actuator is the motor, which will open the vents. Likewise, when the temperature
drops, the control system will send a message to the actuator (motor) to close the
vents.

Process

Once the input data from the sensors has been received by the computer, it can then
begin to process it. The data will be compared against a set of rules which have been
programmed into the control system and a decision will be made.

For example, think about a central heating system:

The system is set to keep the room at a constant 22 degrees C.

1. The sensor will take regular temperature readings in the room and send the
readings back to the computer.
2. The computer will then process the data to see if it matches the ideal 22 degrees
C.
3. If it is lower e.g. 20 degrees C, then the computer will need to identify the
correct response (e.g. the heating must be turned on).
4. If it is equal or above 22 degrees C then the computer must identify the correct
response (e.g. the heating must be turned off).

This stage is called processing. The computer can only follow the rules that it has
programmed into the control system, it cannot make its own decisions

TYPES OF COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEMS

There two types of computer control system:

1. Open loop system

2. Feedback system/closed loop

1. Open loop system

Open Loop System: only looks at its input signal in order to decide what to do but does
not take account at all of what is happening to its output.

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Examples of 'open-loop' systems:

a) You set the microwave oven to run for two minutes. After cooking
for two minutes, the control system turns the microwave off. It has no idea whether
your food is still frozen, burnt or cooked perfectly.

b) You program the video recorder to start recording the football game at 7.30pm.
However, because the news program finished early, you miss the first vital 15 minutes
of the match. Because the system is only checking its input (time), it had no idea that
the starting time of the match had changed.

2. Closed loop/ Feedback System

A Closed loop / Feedback system takes place when the output from the system has a
direct effect on the input or when some of the output signal is channeled back into the
system to become the input.

A closed loop control system automatically regulates a system to maintain a desired

state or set point without human interaction

What are the differences between a closed loop system and an open loop system.

Closed loop Open loop

Output from the system has direct effect Output from the system does not have
on the input. direct effect on the input.
Feedback is provided by channeling some Feedback is not provided.
of the output signal back into the system.

In many computer controlled systems sensors provide the inputs. If such a system uses
feedback then there are also sensors monitoring the outputs.

For example:

 A sensor monitoring the temperature of a greenhouse that is heated by a

computer-controlled heater.
 A sensor monitoring the level of water in a washing machine that is filled by a
computer-controlled pump.

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Because the inputs that monitor the outputs are fed back into the system (hence the
term feedback) they can be used to control the outputs. For example:

 If the input sensor detects that the greenhouse is too hot then the output, the
heater, is turned off.
 If the input sensor detects that the washing machine is full then the output, the
pump, is turned off.

Examples of Computer Control and monitoring systems

At home outside the home

 Washing machines Traffic light systems

 Microwave cookers Car park barriers
 Dishwashers Cars – engine management systems
 Electric kettles Lifts
 Fridges Rides at theme parks
 Video recorders Remote controlled car
 Remote control television Computer controlled lighting systems at
discos and concerts
 Central heating systems Robots
 Burglar Alarm system Monitoring hospital patients

Control systems are used in robots so that they can perform task which where
performed by human beings. Below are ways in which robots are used in day to day
life:

 Used in Factories
 Improve quality of finished products
 Move material through various stage of process

Advantages of Computer Control and monitoring systems

 Can operate 24 hours a day without taking a break.

 Can work without holidays or sick days
 Will work without any wages.
 Will repeat actions over and over and over again
 Can process data from sensors very quickly
 Can take account of hundreds of inputs at the same time
 Can make reliable and accurate decisions
 Can be used in dangerous or awkward environments where it wouldn't be a good
idea to send humans to.

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 Disadvantages of Computer Control and monitoring systems

 The software for the control system is specialist and may cost a lot of money to
develop
 If the computer malfunctions the system will not work
 If there is a power cut the system will not work
 The computer can’t react to unexpected events like a human could. It can only
respond in the way it has been programmed to.
 It can cause some concern if total control for a system and the decisions are
handed over to a computer.

Data Communication
Networks:

A Computer Network is a system of connected computers, peripherals and

communication devices that can exchange information and share resources.

Often the computers in a network are linked to a server, this is a powerful computer
which holds the software to run the network. It also stores and manages the shared
resources of the network like the users’ files, software packages and printer queues. It
usually has a much higher specification than the other computers on the network, with
a very large hard disk drive.

Advantages of having networks

 Networks provide a fast way of sharing and transferring files. Without a network
files are copied from computer to computer by floppy disk which is time
consuming.
 Expensive hardware such as scanners, laser printers can be shared in a network.
 Networks allows communication to be relayed quickly
 Central installation of software makes upgrade easier, reducing maintenance
costs.
 Flexible access –you can access your data in a computer from different
workstations

Disadvantages of having networks

 Networks can be expensive to set up, both the hardware infrastructure and
expertise to create them.
 Networks are vulnerable to security problems such as hacking
 Virus can be spread easily and quickly in a network
 If a server causes some problems, the whole network can be brought to a standstill.
 Cable failure-One broken cable can bring down the entire network

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Types of networks:
Networks are divided into two types, a LAN (Local Area Network) or a WAN (Wide Area
Network).

LAN (Local Area Network)

A local area network is a network that connects computers together in a small

geographical area. E.g. a network that connects computers in a school laboratory
together.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

A wide area network is a network that covers or spans a large geographical area. E.g
Bank network can connect computers that are in different cities or countries.

In a LAN, computers and hardware such as printers can be connected by cable (copper
wiring), fibre optic cabling (glass fibres) or using a wireless (radio waves) connection.

Advantages of LANs:

 Hardware such as printers can be shared so individual workstations do not need

their own printer. When they print, the data is stored in a queue on a server.
The data is then passed to the printer.
 All the users work can be stored in a central place (the dedicated file server) so
a user can access their work through any computer on the network.
 Software can be shared, software packages are stored on the server and
downloaded to workstations as requested. Note that a licence still has to be
bought for each copy of the software needed.
 Data can be shared because database files stored in the server are available to
users around the network; data from CD-ROMs can also be shared across the
network.
 Central back-up can take place automatically at regular intervals. A user will
usually be able to retrieve work that has been deleted by mistake.

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  Messages can be sent to people working at other computers on the network
which can save time and paper.
 It is possible to set up a local intranet such as that on the KLB school network.
The web pages of information can be accessed only over the LAN. An intranet is
free because it does not involve phone links.
 There is control over users’ access rights to programs and data.

Disadvantages of LANs:

 Printing can be slow. Where a lot of workstations are served by only one or two
printers, long print queues may develop.
 A virus can spread more easily. If a virus gets into one computer, it is likely to
spread quickly across the network because it will get into the central backing
store.
 As data is shared there is a greater need for security. Users of the network
have to have authentication techniques such as user ids and passwords. Unique
user ID's control access to the files and settings on the network while passwords
prevent unauthorised users from logging onto the network. Data may also have
to be encrypted so that it is meaningless if intercepted.
 If the server fails, all the workstations are affected. Work stored on shared
hard disk drives will not be accessible and it will not be possible to use network
printers either.
 The cost of installing the equipment is greater. Cabling can be expensive to
buy and to install.
 Damage to cables can isolate computers. Some sections of the network can
become isolated and will not be able to communicate with the rest of the
network.
 Because networks can be complicated to maintain, a network manager may be
need to be employed to run the system.

WANs - Wide Area Networks

Definition - A wide area network is a network that covers or spans a large

geographical area.

External communication links such as satellites, microwaves, telecommunication links

and optical fibre will be used to connect the parts of a WAN. The connection must
normally be paid for because the links are external.

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 Application: of WANs
Banks
An example of a computer network linking computers of different organisations is the
system of handling payments from one bank to another: Electronic fund transfer. An
ATM can be a cash terminal anywhere in the world as long as you have the card for that
bank. Banks have networks of cash terminals, connected over telephone lines to central
computers (Hosts).

Internet

The Internet is a worldwide WAN and a LAN can be connected to it using a router.

Advantages of WANs:

 These are similar to those of LAN's except the scale of sharing etc. becomes far
greater and can be world-wide.

Disadvantages of WANs:

 Again these are similar to those of LAN's except that issues such as security
become even more important as potential hackers could break into a computer
system from anywhere in the world rather than having to physically be in a
building.
 Encryption of secure data such as financial transactions is necessary because it is
even easier to intercept data.

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Network Components:
1) Network software (Network Operating System): This may be part of the operating
system, or it can be software designed specifically to manage a network.
Common operating systems such as windows are designed for single users to control one
computer. Network operating systems are used to coordinate the activities of multiple
computers across the network. The NOS acts as the director to keep the network
running well.

The main components of NOS are:

 The directory and file structure to organize storage of programs and data.
 User login program to identify users before allowing access to the network.
 Electronic message component to allow users to be given access to a particular
print queue.
 Network backup component to ensure the backing up of files and data to prevent
loss of important data.

Examples of NOS are Novell Netware, Unix, Linux and Widows NT.

There are two types of network operating systems which are based on network models
such as Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server.

Peer-to-Peer

Peer-to-Peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located
on their disk stores. They do not have a file server or a centralized management
source. In this network computers are considered equal; they all have the same
abilities to use the resources available. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily
for small to medium LANs. E.g. of peer-to-peer NOSs are Appleshare and windows for
workgroups.

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Client-server

Client –server network operating systems allow the network to concentrate functions
and applications in one or more dedicated servers .The file server becomes the heart of
the system, providing access to resources and providing security. Individual
workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the file servers. The
NOS provides the means to integrate all the components of the network and allow
multiple users to concurrently share the same resources regardless of physical location.

2) Network Interface Card (NIC):

This is a hardware that enables a computer or a device to function in a network.

This is needed to connect a computer to the network. The network card looks like a
small circuit board and slots into one of the connectors on the main circuit board
(called the mother board) inside the computer. Network cards have connectors on
them for network cables.

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Physical Port - A connector or outlet on a networking device where the media is
connected to a host or other networking device.

3) Transmission media (Methods of communication/Transmission)

Cable media

When connecting devices in a network, cables are used. There three common types of
cables that are mostly used in networks. These are:

Twisted pairs

Two insulated wires are twisted around each other to form a twisted pair. This system
leads to better electrical performance and significantly higher bit rates than untwisted
pairs. These pairs are often then, in turn, twisted with other pairs to form a cable that
is capable of high-speed communication.

The twisting of wires around each other helps to reduce the noise by cancelling
unwanted induced electrical signals and each pair usually carries a single
communication. Twisted pairs have become the most common form of transmission
media cable used today having applications in telephone and computer networks.

Twisted pair cables are at present mainly used for star-type cabling and in some cases
also for ring-type cable configurations.

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable is a two-wire conductor with a larger bandwidth than twisted pair cable.
It is used in television, radio and Ethernet connections where each coaxial cable

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supports about 60 speech channels. The inner cable is heavily insulated so it is safe
from bending and crushing and separated from the braided outer conductor. This outer
cable is in turn insulated. The resultant electrical field occurs outside the coaxial
cable, thus reducing the level of noise making the medium suitable for conducting high
bit rates over longer distances than twisted pairs.

Coaxial cables are mainly used for bus cabling or for connecting the network nodes in
tree structures, for example.

Optical fibers (FO)

A technology that uses glass threads (fibers) to transmit data. A fiber optic cable
consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages
modulated onto light waves. Optical fibre cables are generally used for bridging long
distances (for example connections between buildings or floors) in a backbone, and in
some cases in dual ring systems.
High bandwidths give enormous transmission capacity for national and intercontinental
links and greater distances can be tolerated between repeaters. The small physical
size, non-corrosive construction and immunity from electrical interference make
optical fibre a highly attractive form of transmission media.

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WIRELESS MEDIA

Broadcast Radio

It is a wireless transmission medium that is used to communicate information through

radio signals in air, over long distance such as between cities and countries. In this
medium, a transmitter is required to send messages (signals) and receiver is required to
receive them. To receive the broadcast radio signal, the receiver has an antenna that is
located in the range of signal. Some networks use a special device called transceiver
used to send and to receive messages in the form of radio signals. The data
transmission speed of broadcast radio is up to 54Mbps.

Cellular Radio

Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used for mobile communications such
as cellular telephones and wireless modems. A cellular telephone is a telephone device
that uses high frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital messages. Some
mobile users connect their laptop computer or other mobile device to a cellular
telephone to access the Web, send and receive e-mail etc. while away from a standard
telephone line.

Microwaves

Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high speed transmission. In Microwaves
transmission, data is transmitted from one station to another. Microwave station
contains an antenna, transceiver (transmitter & receiver) and other equipments that
are required for microwave communication. Microwave uses the line-of-sight
transmission, which means that in microwave transmission system the data signals
travel in a straight path and cannot bend. Microwave stations or antennas are usually
installed on the high towers or buildings.

The data transmission speed of microwave transmission is up to 150 Mbps. Microwave

transmission is used in environments where installing physical transmission media is
impossible and where line-of-sight transmission is available. It is used in wide-open
areas. Today, it is used by telephone companies, cable television providers, universities
etc.

Communication Satellite

A communication satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from earth
microwave station (earth based station). The earth based stations often are microwave
stations. Transmitting a signal from ground or earth station to a satellite station in
space is called up-linking and the reverse is called the down- linking.

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 Television & radio broadcast, global positioning systems and Internet also use the
communication satellites. The communication satellite consists of solar powered,
transceiver that receives and sends signals. The signals are transmitted from one earth
station to the satellite. The satellite receives and amplifies the signals and sends them
to another earth station. This entire process takes only a few seconds. To communicate
information from one country to another country more than one satellites are required.
The data transmission speed of communication satellite is very high such as up to 1
Gbps.

Infrared

 Infrared light transmits data through the air

 Similar to technology used in TV remote control
 Can propagate throughout a room (bouncing off surfaces), but will not penetrate
walls
 Becoming common in personal digital assistants

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a specification for the use of low-power radio communications to

wirelessly link phones, computers and other network devices over short distances.
Bluetooth technology was designed primarily to support simple wireless networking of
personal consumer devices and peripherals, including cell phones, PDAs, and wireless
headsets.
Wireless signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover short distances, typically up to 30
feet (10 meters). Bluetooth devices generally communicate at less than 1 Mbps

WiFi

WiFi is a "local area network that uses high frequency radio signals to transmit and
receive data over distances of a hundred to a few hundred feet."

WiFi is an industry standard way to connect computers over a network without wires, in
other words, a wireless network. For example, we use WiFi in our home so that we can
use our laptops in any room or the back yard to connect to the Internet (without messy
wires).

WiFi access is sometimes available in coffee shops like Dross, bookstores, offices,
airport terminals, schools, hotels, communities, and other public places. These are
called WiFi hotspots.

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General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)

General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) is a packet-based wireless communication service

that promises data rates from 56 up to 114 Kbps and continuous connection to the
Internet for mobile phone and computer users. The higher data rates allow users to
take part in video conferences and interact with multimedia Web sites and similar
applications using mobile handheld devices as well as notebook computers. GPRS also
complements Bluetooth.

4) Communication Hardware:

 A hub is a low-cost substitute for a switch in a network which has low network
traffic. All computers are connected directly to the hub as hub performs as
centralized device the network. When data is sent to the hub it broadcasts the
data to all the ports of the hub and then it is sent to destination computer on the
network.
 A switch provides a central connection point for all the cables and the server in
a star network topology. It is used at the same place as hub is but the only
difference between the two is that switch possess switching table with in it.
Switching tables store the addresses of every computer it is connected to and
send the data to only requested address unlike hub which broadcasts the data
too all the ports. Switches can be considered advance form of hubs.
 A bridge is used to connect separate LANs of the same type.
 A router connects different types of LAN and connects a LAN to a WAN such as
the Internet. Router is intelligent device which routes data to destination
computers. It helps in connecting two different logical and physical networks
together.

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  Repeaters: There is distance limitation in local-area networks and electrical
signal becomes weaker as it travels.

A REPEATER is a communication hardware that joins Local Area Networks

together and continuously monitors electrical signals on each LAN so that when
signal or data is lost it transmits an amplified copy.

 Brouter: home work

 Gateways: A gateway is a device or software that acts as an entrance point into
another network that has the responsibility of providing security by monitoring
incoming traffic from the WAN or outgoing traffic from your network/computer
for malicious activity which it blocks out.

Examples of gateways are; Proxy server, router and Firewall

Gateways can be software or it can also be device. Gateway device connects LAN
with internet. Its basic functionality is to provide security to the network. By
using gateways incoming/out going traffic can be monitored for any malicious
activity within the network which can be harmful to network integrity.

5) Network management - servers:

Networks are often arranged in a hierarchical way. This means that one or more server
computers are more powerful than the other client computers. This is known as a
client-server relationship. Servers manage all the printing, file maintenance and access
permissions.

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The clients computers may have little no disk storage or processing power of their own
as these functions can be provided by the server.

Server Purpose
File server Controls the hard disk and handles users’ files. That is
stores shared files and software.
Web server Storage of web pages. Also database software and files
related to web activities, such as on-line orders.
Email server Emails are often stored and processed in one place.
Print server Controls a printer.

Network management - encryption and authentication techniques:

Because data is being transferred between computers it can be intercepted more easily
than on a non-networked computer. To intercept data transmitted over a wireless
network a hacker does not even have to be physically in the same building as the
network.

There are two ways to reduce these security risks:

Encryption - scrambling the data so that it cannot be understood without the

number key that was used to encrypt it.
Authentication techniques - such as using unique User ID's to control access to
files and computer settings and passwords to protect unauthorised used of the
user ID's.

LAN Network topologies:

Network topology is the name given to the way in which the devices (called nodes) are
physically connected in a network.

There are three common network topologies, called ring, line (bus) and star.

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Ring topology:

In a ring topology, the nodes are connected in a ring and data travels in one direction
using a control signal called a 'token'. Every device has exactly two neighbors for
communication purpose. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (
either clock wise or anti clockwise)

Advantages:

 Not greatly affected by adding further nodes or heavy network traffic as only the
node with the 'token' can transmit data so there are no data collisions.
 Relatively cheap to install and expand.

Disadvantages:

 Slower than a star topology under normal load.

 If the cable fails anywhere in the ring then the whole network will fail.
 If any node fails then the token cannot be passed around the ring any longer so
the whole network fails.
 The hardest topology to troubleshoot because it can be hard to track down
where in the ring the failure has occurred.
 Harder to modify or expand because to add or remove a node you must shut
down the network temporarily.
 In order for the nodes to communicate with each other they must all be switched
on.

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Bus (line) topology:

Nodes are connected to a main (bus) cable. If data is being sent between nodes then
other nodes cannot transmit. If too many nodes are connected then the transfer of
data slows dramatically as the nodes have to wait longer for the bus to be clear. A
device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast
on to the wire (Backbone), the intended recipient accept and processes the message.

Advantages:

 The simplest and cheapest to install and extend.

 Very flexible as nodes can be attached or detached without disturbing the rest of
the network.
 Failure of one node does not affect the rest of the bus network.
 Simpler than a ring topology to troubleshoot if there is a cable failure because
sections can be isolated and tested independently.

Disadvantages:

 If the bus cable fails then the whole network will fail.
 Performance of the network slows down rapidly with more nodes or heavy
network traffic.
 The bus cable has a limited length and must be terminated properly at both ends
to prevent reflected signals.
 Slower than a ring network as data cannot be transmitted while the bus is in use
by other nodes.

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Star topology:

In this type of network, a central computer (server) usually forms the main node and
the subsidiary nodes are connected to it and to each other through a switch or hub.

Advantages:

 The most reliable because the failure of a node or a node cable does not affect
other nodes.
 Simple to troubleshoot because only one node is affected by a cable break
between the switch and the node.
 Adding further nodes does not greatly affect performance because the data does
not pass through unnecessary nodes.
 Easily upgraded from a hub to a switch or with with a higher performance switch.
 Easy to install and to expand with extra nodes.

Disadvantages:

 Uses the most cable which makes it more expensive to install than the other two
topologies.
 The extra hardware required such as hubs or switches further increases the cost.
 As the central computer controls the whole system, the whole system will be
affected if it breaks down or if the cable link between it and the switch fails.
 If the switch, the link to the server or the server itself fails then the whole
network fails.

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CONSIDERATION WHEN CHOOSING A TOPOLOGY

 Money: A linear bus network may be the least expensive way, be the least
expensive way to install a network, you do not have to purchase
concentrators.
 Length of cables needed: Linear bus network uses shorter cable length.
 Future growth: With a star topology, expanding a network is easily do by
adding another concentrators.
 Cable Type: most common unshielded twisted pair.

Network topology summary:

Change in Ease of Problems
Performance performance Ease of Cost of setting up to the
with few with many troubleshooting installation and network
Topology nodes or low nodes or (compared to (compared modifying caused by
network high other to other (compared cable or
traffic network topologies) topologies) to other node
traffic topologies) failure
Failure of
the bus
cable
Easy to set causes
LINE Most
Medium Fairly easy Low up and total
(BUS) affected
modify failure.
Failure of
a node has
no affect.
Cable or
node
Easy to set
failure
Least up but
RING Slow Hard High causes
affected harder to
total
modify
network
failure.
Cable or
node
Some affect failure
but the only
Easy to set
switch/hub affects
STAR Fast Easy High up and
can be that node.
modify
upgraded Failure of
easily the
hub/switch
or the

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 server
causes
total
network
failure.

PROTOCOLS

A protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is transmitted between computers in a
network.

Or a set of rules that defines an exact format for communication between systems or
computers in a network.

With many different kinds of computers connected together, engineers had to find a
way for computers to speak the same language.

COMMON PROTOCOLS
 HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
 FTP(File Transfer Protocol)
 SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 IP(Internet Protocol)
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
 NNTP(Network News Transfer Protocol)
 IRC(Internet Relay Chart)
 POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

TCP/IP (Transport protocol)

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication

language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol
in a private network. When you are set up with direct access to the Internet, your
computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP program just as every other computer
that you may send messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP.
Application protocol such as HTTP and FTP are based and used TCP/IP.

 IP (Internet Protocol) is responsible for moving packets ( groups of information)

of data from node (workstation to workstation). IP forwards each packet based
on a four byte destination address (IP number). The internet authorities assign
range of numbers to different organizations. The organization assigns groups of
their numbers to departments. Example of an IP Address: 168.167.8.3

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  TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is used for verifying the correct delivery of
data from client to server. Data can be lost in the intermediate network. TCP
adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the
data is correctly and completely received.

The two most common Transport layer protocols of TCP/IP protocol suite are
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Both protocols
manage the communication of multiple applications. The differences between the two
are the specific functions that each protocol implements.

TCP AND UDP

TCP/IP Transport layer protocols: TCP and UDP

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is a simple, connectionless protocol. It has the advantage of providing for low
overhead data delivery. The pieces of communication in UDP are called datagram. It
uses Unreliable delivery meaning it does require an acknowledgement after delivery of
data.

Applications that use UDP include:

Domain Name System (DNS)
Video Streaming
Voice over IP (VoIP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, TCP have additional overhead to gain functions.

It uses reliable delivery meaning it requires an acknowledgement for send packets.

Applications that use TCP are:

Web Browsers
E-mail
File Transfers

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Application protocols for TCP

HTTP is the protocol used for information exchange on the WWW. HTTP defines how
messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions a HTTP Server and an HTTP
Client (which in most cases is a Browser) should take in response to various messages.
HTTP uses a reliable, connection-oriented transport service such as the TCP. HTTP is a
stateless Protocol, where each request is interpreted independently, without any
knowledge of the requests that came before it

FTP

Abbreviation for "File Transfer Protocol". FTP is an Internet standard for transferring
files over the Internet. FTP programs and utilities are used to upload and download web
pages, graphics, and other files from your hard drive to a remote server which allows
FTP access. The protocol is based on and uses TCP/IP.

SMTP
Abbreviation for Simple Mail Transport Protocol. This is used in sending and receiving
e-mail. However since it is limited in its abilities to queue messages at the receiving
end, it used with one of the two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP that let the user save
messages in the server mailbox and download them periodically from the server.
In other words, users use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-mails and either POP3
or IMAP for receiving e-mail.

IRC
This is a protocol used for real time internet text messaging chart or conferencing, it is
mainly designed for discussion forums and can also allow one to one communication.

NNTP
This protocol allows distribution, inquiry, retrieval and posting of news article on the a
server.

MODES / METHODS OR WAYS OF COMMUNICATION

Simplex communication: is used to describe a communications channel that can only

ever carry a signal in one direction that is from the transmitter to the receiver. E.g
television broadcast, radio broad cast.

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HALF DUPLEX COMMUNICATION

A half-duplex system provides for communication in both directions, but only one
direction at a time (not simultaneously), a transmitting system sends data to a
receiving system which as well can send the data back to the system that initially
transmitted data but not at the same time.

Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to
stop transmitting, before replying.

An example of a half-duplex system is a two-party system such as a "Walkie-talkie"

communication.

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FULL DUPLEX COMMUNICATION

A full-duplex, or sometimes double-duplex system, allows communication in both

directions and this happens simultaneously.

Examples: telephone communication, Cellphone communication.

Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex, since they allow both callers to speak
and be heard at the same time. A good analogy for a full-duplex system would be a
two-lane road with one lane for each direction.

Examples: Telephone, Mobile Phone

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INTERNET

The internet is a global network that connects multi million computers all over the world
together with a cross platform compatibility using Internet protocol to communicate
between computers.

Resources that are needed to connect to the Internet

o Computer with a network interface card

o Web Browser: a software application (Application software which falls under
communication software) used to locate and display Web pages. The two most
popular browsers are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Both of
these are a graphical browser, which means that they can display graphics as well as
text. In addition, most modern browsers can present multimedia information,
including sound and video, though they require plug-ins for some formats.

o ISP: An ISP (Internet Service Provider) is a company that offers business and
residential customers’ access to the Internet and in turn collects a monthly or yearly
fee in exchange for providing the subscriber with Internet access.

o Telephone line: Internet is defined as a network of networks which connects

computers worldwide via a huge set of telecommunication links. To connect to this
network (internet) you will need a telephone line or a wireless communication device
like cellular telephone. Computers can only communicate in digital signals. A standard
telephone line only transmits analog data. Data transmitted over the internet can
include voice, picture, video, or text.

o Modem: A modem is a communication hardware that enables a computer to transmit

and receive information over telephone lines by converting digital data from your
computer into analogue data so that it can be transmitted over a telephone line and
also convert analogue data from a telephone line into digital data so that it can be
recognized by the computer.

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The World Wide Web

The Web also known as the World Wide Web (WWW) is a large collection of digital
documents on the Internet that are linked together.

You can navigate from one document to another by clicking on a hyperlink. A hyperlink is
normally defined with specially marked text, a symbol, or an image that connect you another
web page.

Hyper links: The feature that allows a text area, image, or other object to become a link that
retrieves another computer file (another web page, image, sound file, or other document) on
the Internet

Hypertext and Hypermedia

Hypertext is the text area that serves as a link to another file on the internet.
Hypermedia is the picture, video, or graphics that serve as a link to another file on the
internet.

Addressing

An address is a name by which a computer can be referenced or a location of a resource on a

network.

The address of a Web page is defined with a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI).

The URI provides a uniform naming scheme for the resources on the Internet or an intranet
or an address for a resource on the internet or intranet.

Two types of URIs

 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
 Uniform Resource Name (URN).

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

A URL is an address for a resource on the Internet or on an intranet.

It normally consists of three parts:

 The protocol used in the request

 The Domain name or the name of the Web server machine storing the resource
 The path to the resource in that machine

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For example, the URL http://www.ub.bw/computer_science/index.html consists of the

o Protocol (http :),

o The Domain name / name of the machine (ub.bw),
o The path to the resource (/computer_science/index.html).

For intranet resources, a common URL is of the form

file:\\fileserv\Training\TrainingWelcome.htm. The URL consists of the

o Protocol (file :)
o The path to the resource (\\fileserv\Training\TrainingWelcome.htm).

Uniform Resource Name (URN)

A URN is a unique name for a resource on the Internet.

This name does not identify where the resource is located and does not normally include the
protocol, Web server name, or path. Rather, it is a logical name defined for the resource.

ELECTRONIC MAIL

Electronic mail refers to the ability of a computer to send electronic mail to another
computer on the network.

For an electronic mail to be send, both parties should be having email accounts and email
addresses.

E-mail Address:

modisaLP@mopipi.com is an address of the mail service

Email consists of two parts separated by the @ (at) sign

1. username
Can be the name of the user, shortened name or a made up name

2. domain name
The name of your ISP

Domain name

A domain is the logical grouping or naming of computers on a network. It may include

multiple networks

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A domain name on the Internet has the following form:
For example; my e-mail address includes my name and my domain name,
o modisa@mopipi.com

Top Level Domain

The Top Level Domains (TLD) of the Internet are:

 com – for commercial entities
 edu – for educational institutions
 mil – for US military organizations
 net – for network operations and ISPs
 org – for non-profit organizations

There are also domain names for each individual country. E.g. my e-mail address in
Botswana is modisa@mopipi.ub.bw ; bw = Botswana

Host

A host is a computer that is enabled to function on a network. To be the host in the Internet,
a computer must;
 Have a domain name, e.g. www.btv.gov
 Use the Internet Protocol (IP)
 Be assigned a unique address: e.g. 206.96.248.2
 Have a network connection that provides a route to the Internet.

Web Servers and Web sites

A Web server is a computer that stores or generates the Web pages. It provides the pages to
the client when the page is requested. The phrase server-side refers to anything happening
on that Web Server computer.

For example, a user can launch a browser such as Internet Explorer or Netscape and access a
page such as www.info.bw. That page is found on a Web server somewhere on the Internet,
downloaded to the client, and displayed in the user’s browser.

A Web site is a collection of Web pages, usually on the same server or provided by the same
company.

A web browser is the software program you use to access the World Wide Web, the
graphical portion of the Internet. Although many different browsers are available, Microsoft
Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator and Mozilla FireFox are the most popular ones.

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Domain Name System (DNS)

The DNS knows how to convert the logical URI name into the physical IP address of the Web
server.
When the user enters the Web page address as a URI such as http://www.ub.bw The URI
must be converted into IP address in order to locate the Web server. This is done using the
Domain Name System (DNS).

Search engine: Websites used to search for a particular item or topic on the net, there are
many different kinds of search engine include Goggle, Dog Pile and HotBot are all examples of
search engines,

Languages: HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), JavaScript, XML (Extensible Markup

Language) and Visual Basic - language used to make a web page

Surfing: Moving around web pages

Download: copying a file to a computer on one part of the Internet.

Upload files: send files to other computers on the Internet

Intranets and Extranets

An intranet: An intranet is a local area network that provides information using web pages
but the information can only be accessed within that network.

 Advantages:
o An Intranet is free to use because it does not involve phone links.
o Information can be easily updated and shared inside a company or school.
o The web pages can be viewed using a standard web page browser.
o More of the information will be useful because it was created for particular
users.
 Disadvantages:
o Information cannot be shared outside the local network without logging onto
the Intranet

The Internet: The Internet is the largest WAN. It is a world-wide network of linked
computers sharing a vast amount of information.

 Advantages:
o Millions of people contribute information.
o Data can be rapidly added and updated to reach a huge audience.
o It can be used to sell goods to a world-wide market.
 Disadvantages:
o There is a lot of useless information, much of which is out of data and it can be
very difficult to find what you want.
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 o Much of the information is biased, misleading or has not been checked for
accuracy.
o It is not regulated and offensive and illegal material exists.
o Issues such as security become even more important as potential hackers
could possibly be trying to break into a computer system from anywhere in the
world.

An extranet: An intranet is a local area network that provides information using web pages
and the information can be accessed within that network and also by some individuals
outside that network when they have been given logging in credentials.

Similarity between Intranet and Internet

- They both use webpages to share resources.

- They both use uniform resource locators to access webpages.
- They are both networks

Differences between Internet and Intranet

Internet Intranet
It is a wide area network It is a local area network
It is a public network It is a private network
It is accessible to millions of people all over It is accessible to fewer people within an
the world organisation
It is less secure compared to the intranet It is more secure compared to the internet

USES OF THE INTERNET / SERVICES OFFERED BY THE INTERNET

- Email: Email program enables you to send, receive and manage electronic messages
(sound, text, video and graphics).

- Teleconferencing / Video conferencing: Communicate visually with other Internet

users.

- E-commerce: Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce, consist of buying

and selling of products or services on-line

- Internet banking/ Tele-banking: Banking transactions such as payments, transfers

and account balances are done via the Internet.

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- Web publishing: Create and administer your own websites for specialist interests, etc...

- Chat group/ Newsgroups: On-line conversation of a group of people with common

interests communicating with one another interactively, in real time. There are specific
chat rooms for specific subjects other chat rooms can have a rage of subject e.g. a chat
room that would discuss fashion, music or the latest movies.

- Broadcasting of Music and video.

- Downloading: Software, drivers and other files.

- Social media platforms.

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COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Examples of communication and information systems

- Telephone
- Fax
- Email
- Television
- Radio
- Social media applications
- Online banking systems
- Video conferencing systems
- Electronic commerce systems

In the olden days if people wanted to get in touch with somebody the only methods
available to them were going to see the person, making a telephone call or writing a
letter.

Today we are spoilt for choice. Technology has made available many new
communication methods such as email, fax, video conferencing and instant messaging.

Telephone

It allows people to talk to one another across a distance. As with most technology, only
the rich could afford to have a telephone in their own home. Most people made do with
a telephone box. But slowly, it became normal to have one in your house.

Now telephones are changing again, with the appearance of Internet based services.

Advantages of telephones

- You get immediate feedback to things you say

- The conversation is relatively private between you and the caller - although others
might be able to hear what you are saying.

- You can call someone anywhere on the planet

- Calls can be made 24 hours a day, 7 days a week

- Internal calls within a business are usually free of charge

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- Most people have a telephone. No specialist equipment is needed.

- If there is an answer phone, you can leave a message if the person isn't available to
take your call.

- If you don't know the telephone number you need there are plenty of services which
will help you get the number (although they can be quite expensive).

Disadvantages of telephones

- The person must be available to take your telephone call

- The line might be engaged when you call so you can't speak to the person when you
want.

- You have to pay for every minute you spend on the call. In the case of mobile or
overseas calls, that can be expensive.

- There might be noise or interference so the quality of the call could be poor.

- With mobile calls you might move out of the range of a transmitter and so the call
gets cut off.

- You cannot see each other's body language so a lot of the non verbal communication is
lost

- It is not easy to make a record of what is said during the call. Things might be
forgotten or mis-interpreted.

- Only spoken information can be exchanged - you can't

Fax

A fax (short for facsimile) machine transmits a copy of written and graphical
information via the telephone network. It works in a similar way to a photocopier,
except the copy is transmitted to a distant machine via the telephone network.

Each Fax machine has a telephone number, this may or may not be shared with a
telephone.

Faxes are widely used in business offices because they make it very easy to transmit
invoices, orders, rough drawings, copies of contracts and so on.

It is now possible to send and receive Faxes by email. The email is sent to a service
company who then converts it to a normal Fax message and sends it to the telephone
number you specify.

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Advantages of faxes

- Faxes are a fairly inexpensive method of sending a message - just the cost of a
telephone call.

- They are simple to use and require very little training

- They allow exact copies of hand written information or images to be transmitted

without having to prepare it in any special way.

- As long as the fax machine is switched on, messages can be received at any time day
or night.

- They don't need any specialist installation or cabling as they make use of the existing
telephone

Disadvantages of faxes

- If the fax is using the same number as the telephone then it can prevent callers from
getting through or calls being made.

- There is no immediate response or feedback from the recipient like there is with a
telephone conversation

- You might dial the wrong number and send your document to someone else

- If the receiving machine is busy, your Fax will not be delivered.

- If the receiving machine is out of paper you will think that you sent your fax but it
won't actually be printed

- If the receiving machine is busy, your fax might end up under a whole load of other
faxes which arrive after it

- It can take a long time to transmit if you have many sheets of paper

- The quality of the document which is received is often poor quality and might have
some loss of detail.

E-mail

E-mail stands for 'Electronic Mail'.

The electronic transmission of mail allows you to send formatted text and images to
someone else with an email address.

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Each E-mail user has a 'mailbox' with a unique address into which messages can be sent
ready for the recipient to 'collect' and read.

Email is now one of the most common methods of communication - ask most people
that you know, they will probably have an email address.

Advantages of email

- Sending an email to someone is very easy, people need little training to learn how to
do this

- Emails are free to send -so long as you have an email account and a connection to the
Internet.

- Emails are usually received fairly quickly, most of the time a couple of seconds after
they are sent

- People don't have to be present to receive the email

- Emails can be sent any time of the day or night, 365 days a year

- Files and images can be attached to an email

- Multiple copies of a message can be sent to a group of people at once

- You can request proof of receipt or proof of the email being opened

- Messages can be prepared in advance and saved until you are ready to send them.

- Messages can be encrypted making it possible to send confidential information

- Can be accessed anywhere in the world provided there is internet

-Can easily tell when it has been opened or delivered

Disadvantages of email

- Both you and the person receiving the email must have an email address and access to
a computer and the Internet

- If you don't know the email address of the other person then you can't send them a
message

- Some people change their email addresses fairly often as they switch ISPs or jobs

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- Spam is a big problem; up to two-thirds of mails sent are spam

- People can waste company time at work by sending emails to friends instead of
working

- When you are on holiday, your email box can become full and extra messages might
not get stored

- You may have to wait a long time to get a reply.

- Email attachments can contain viruses

- Some companies won't allow email attachments to be received

- There are a lot of email scams and it is easy to get fooled by them

Video and Teleconferencing

-Teleconferencing allows people in different locations to talk to each other as a group.

This is also known as an Audio-conference or simply a 'Conference Call'

-Videoconferencing means using computers to provide a video-link between two or

more people so that you are able to see them as well instead of just talking by
telephone.

It works by each person 'logging on' to the conference call. When you switch on your
conference call device and enter your user ID number, an automatic voice saying
something like "Mr Jones has joined the conference" is broadcast. Everyone says hello
and carries on with the meeting.

Video conferencing is similar to teleconferencing except that people in the meeting can
now see one another because video cameras are used to send live images over
telephone lines.

Equipment needed for Video Conferencing

 A computer
 Internet access (essential, broadband speeds would be needed if using video-
conferencing)
 Email facilities
 A fax machine to send images of documents over a phone line (optional,
computer software could be used instead)
 Equipment such as a microphone, speakers and a video camera

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Advantages of video conferencing

- There is no need to spend time and money traveling to meetings

- You can have a 'meeting' with people from many different offices /countries without
any of them having to travel

- You can see people as well as hear them. This means you can see their body language
which you can't do with a telephone call.

- You can all view a document on the screen at the same time. People can work
together and add their ideas. The document can be emailed to all of the people at the
meeting later on.

- Ideas and knowledge can be communicated between all those at the meeting very
quickly and responses gathered. Video conferencing is good for 'brainstorming'.

3. Disadvantages of video conferencing

- Everyone who is going to 'attend' the meeting needs access to suitable hardware and
software. This can be expensive and can take a while to set up.

- A very reliable, fast data link is needed Many companies hire a connection specifically
to allow video conferences to take place

- Even with a fast connection, there might be a slight delay between responses.

- If the hardware breaks down for any of the participants, they cannot 'attend' the
meeting

- People could be in different time zones around the world. This might mean that some
people have to stay up through the night in order to 'attend' the meeting.

- The video camera might not be able to see all parts of the room at the same time.
Some people might not be easy to 'see' at the meeting.

- There is no substitute for a face-to-face meeting.

Teleworking

Teleworking usually means working from home, using ICT to communicate with your
workplace. A teleworker would need the following equipment:

 A computer (essential)
 Internet access (essential, broadband speeds would be needed if using video-
conferencing)

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  Email facilities (essential)
 A fax machine to send images of documents over a phone line (optional,
computer software could be used instead)
 Videoconferencing equipment such as a microphone, speakers and a video
camera (optional, required for online meetings etc.)

The teleworker does not actually have to be based at home, a journalist for example
could be anywhere in the world and still get his article or photographs into the next
day’s newspapers if he had Internet access to transfer his files.

Possible advantages:

 Offices can be relocated to places where it is cheaper, more attractive or

more convenient for transport links etc.
 Less staff in the office means office running costs and overheads for utilities
such as water, heating and electricity can be reduced.
 Less staff in the office means premises can be smaller, saving building costs
and reducing business rates.
 It might attract better staff to come and work for the company because of
the advantages it offers to them.
 Problems with staff commuting into work might be reduced.
 There is great flexibility with the working hours so they can fit around the
needs of children or elderly/infirm relatives or another job for example.

Possible disadvantages:

 There will be less direct control over the staff.

 Replacing consumables (paper / printer toner etc.) will be less efficient.
 Teamwork is more difficult because the opportunity to meet people and share
ideas is more limited.
 Distractions at home may make it difficult to get on with work.

Bulletin Board

A Bulletin Board is an area online that allows you to view and post messages.

It is also called a Forum or Message Board or Discussion Board.

Usually anyone can view the messages, but if you want to 'post' a message then you will
need to sign in so you have a name on the Forum.

Instant Messaging

This is mostly a text based service, where one person types a message and the other
person immediately sees it pop up in their IM (Instant Message) window.

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Groups can also be set up so that a number of people can chat to each other whilst
online.

Each person must have an 'Instant Messaging' (IM) client open on their computer.

The way it works is very similar to email, because both IM and Email client software
need to connect to a server in order to work.

The difference between email and Instant Messaging

IM window shows the message almost as soon as it is typed - no downloads are required.

This kind of service is used by business people to help keep in touch whilst on the
move.

It is also used at home. For example, you are online doing your usual stuff on the
Internet, but you have an IM window open because friends and family are also online.
You chat whilst each of you are online.

Another common use of IM is with online gaming. Perhaps twenty of you have gathered
together in the online game and now you are arranging what needs to happen next.
Each person fires up their IM client and joins the group to chat about tactics and so on.

Electronic Commerce

Electronic commerce or ecommerce is a term for any type of business, or commercial

transaction that involves the transfer of information across the Internet.

It covers a range of different types of businesses, from consumer based retail sites,
through auction or music sites, to business exchanges trading goods and services
between corporations.

Advantages

 The company is able to conduct its business at any time of the day.
 Customers can buy goods or services at any time of the day.
 The customers have access to the global market place.
 The company has the opportunity to reach more customers because they can trade
with customers in different parts of the world.
 There is an opportunity for the company to reduce advertising costs as they can
carry out free advertising online.
 The customer can easily and quickly compare prices from different businesses
online as the internet makes it very easy to ‘shop around’ for products and
services.

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  It saves customers travelling time because they don’t go to the shops or stores
physically.
 It allows customers to self-service.
 Travelling costs are saved because customers do not travel physically to the stores
or shops.

Disadvantages

 It takes a longer time for the physical product to arrive after making a purchase
online.
 There is always physical product, supplier & delivery uncertainty as it takes time
for the product to be delivered.
 There is limited and selected sensory information of the physical product when
purchasing it online.
 Returning of goods bought online can be very difficult as the customer may be
required to pay shipping fees to return the product.
 The setup costs of ecommerce are expensive for businesses.
 Lack of in-store engagement with customers

Internet Banking

Online banking (or Internet banking) is a service that allows customers to conduct
financial transactions on a secure website operated by their retail or virtual bank,
credit union or building society.

An online bank customer should have online logging on credentials to access a secure
website or mobile application of an online bank.

The user should have the following in order to log on:

Username
Password

Advantages

 A customer saves on travelling costs as they do not need to travel to the physical
bank.
 A bank customer can carry out most banking transactions at any time of the day.
 A customer may be charged lower fees for doing a banking transaction online than
going to the bank.
 The banks hires reduced employees to serve customers when they have online
banking services as some of their customers can self-service.

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  Banks do not rent large banking halls when they have online banking services
which reduces rental costs.
 Online banking can saves resources for a bank as there is no need for a lot of
paper documentation by the bank like filling of hard copy forms or printing of bank
statements.
 Online banking also allow bills like utilities to be paid online.
 It is convenient for banking customers as banking transactions can be carried out
anywhere there is access to the internet.

Disadvantages

 Internet banking / Online banking is expensive to set up for banks.

 You cannot have access to online banking if you don’t have an internet
connection.
 A customer’s account might get hacked by unauthorized people over the internet
if their internet connection is not secure.
 If the bank’s server is down, then you cannot access your accounts to carry out
online transactions.
 Customers may not develop personal relationships with bank staff.

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Computer System Security and Data Protection

System Security: - Computer security is concerned with taking care of hardware,

software and data. Or protecting hardware, software and data from any damage.

Categories of system security:

1. Physical security
o Physical security threats
o Computer theft
o Fire
o Dust and extreme temperatures

2. Software security.
Software security threats
o V i ru s
Anti virus software
o Worm
o Spam
o Disk failures
Measures taken to secure software
o Backup software
3. Data security
Protecting files (data) – methods of protecting data
o Passwords
Log on password
File access password
o Write protecting storage media (floppy)
o Backup data – physically lock backup tapes and disks
o Encryption

Physical security

It refers to the protection of data, software and hardware from the physical harm such
as fire, theft or damage by physical means.

1) Fire
Fire in the computer lab is rare and it might be caused by the faulty electrical wiring or
overloaded sockets.

Protection against Fire

o Use of fire proof doors
o Smoke detectors

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 o Use of gas flooding systems rather than water systems as water will cause
damage to the computer
o Fire alarm

2) Computer Theft
It is easy to deny users access to a computer lab through the use of a password but it is
difficult to prevent a thieves from picking up a computer and stealing it.

Protection against Hardware theft

o Desktop Locks
o Restrict access to the computer lab
o Alarm system
o Physical locks
o Security guards
If a building that houses a computer is secure them the computer system is secure.

Protection against Hardware theft

o Use serial number on computers that will uniquely identify each computer
o Introduce ID badges for workers so that they can be verified.

4) Dust and Extreme Temperatures

Computers emit a lot heat and so the temperature in the computer lab should be
controlled and maintained.

How to control Lab Temperature

o Use of air Conditioning for cooling the computer
How to control the dust on computers
o Air Filter
a. Since computers have fans on the power supply and on top of the
processor, they collect air from the atmosphere to cool system
components. Air Filters can remove dust that is accumulated during the
cooling process.

Software/Data security
It refers to the protection of data, software from being hacked, illegal copying,
unauthorized access, piracy, and alteration by means of software.

Data can be lost or damaged as a result of:

 natural hazards such as fires, floods or lightning;

 human error causing loss or damage to data;
 theft of data electronically due to hacking;
 physical theft of disks or other computer hardware.

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Methods of Protection
o Password
o Screen saver
o Encryption
o Log in /Logout
o Providing Network authorization rights
o Firewall
o Back up data
o Write protecting the storage media

1) Password: - It is method of protection, which includes a set of characters, which

a computer associates with a particular user identity. A password is usually kept
secret and computer does not display it on the screen as it is typed in.

o Log on Password: allow access to the user at log on, at the time the
computer is switched on.
o Access Password: Allows access to a particular file or folder, this is after the
user have log to a system.

Rules when selecting a password / Characteristics of an effective password

o Change password regularly

o Never write down your password
o Do not use Obvious name on your password
o Do not use obvious password
o A password should not be easy to guess
o A password should be known by the user alone
o A password should contain a mixture of letters, numbers and special characters

2) Screen saver: A method of data protection which hides the contents of the
screen if a user leaves the computer idle while working.

3) Encryption Data encryption is a technique used to make it impossible for

unauthorized access to information that you have on a computer by encoding it in
such a way that it is unreadable to anyone who does not have a decryption code.
Even if people can open a file that has been encrypted they still can not understand
it.

4) Log in:-It is the procedure to gain access to the computer network by providing
user identity and password to prevent unauthorized access.

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 Log out: - it is part of security of system preventing the computer being used until
an authorized user logs on again.

4) Network rights. It is method of data protection in a network to prevent data

from being altered or copied by an unauthorized person by means of providing
access rights to user such as user can only read data, only write data or both.

5) Firewall: - This is a computer program used in a large computer system to

prevent external users getting access to the rest of the system. Network users’ access is
restricted to a small part of the system and the firewall software prevents a user
accessing data or executes any program in the rest of the system.

6) Write protecting the storage media: This means data can not be written to or
deleted from a storage media.

7) Back up data: It is important to make back up copy of your data

DATA PROTECTION

Reasons for data protection

-To avoid unauthorized use of personal data
-To maintain ones privacy

What is Data protect act?

The Data Protection Act sets out rules for collecting, storing and processing personal data.
Personal data is any data that refers to a living, identifiable individual.
The Data Protection Act applies to paper records as well as those stored on computers.

DATA PROTECTION ACT

This is a law that covers the storage of personal data about members of the public on a
computer system.

Who stores personal information about the public?

o Banks,
o Doctors
o Revenue services

Organisations that use personal data must have a data controller. This is the person in
the organisation responsible for storing and processing the personal data.

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 Data controllers must obey eight principles of good information handling which state
that:

Principles of the Data- protection Act. (DP act)

 data must be obtained and processed fairly and lawfully;

 data must be held and processed only for stated purposes;
 data should be adequate, relevant and not excessive for the stated purpose;
 data must be accurate and up-to-date;
 data must not be kept any longer than necessary;
 processed in accordance with the rights of data subjects;
 data must be kept secure;
 Personal data must not be passed to other organizations without the consent
of the data subject.

Data user: - Data users are those who hold and process personal data on a computer
system.

Data subject: - an individual who is the subject of stored data. Or an individual on

whom data is stored on a system.

Why the needs of data protection.

o Maintain privacy.
o Copy write protection
o Avoid Unauthorized access
o Prevent hacking
o Prevent piracy
o Prevent data from Virus

There are exemptions to the Data Protection Act for which registration with the
Information Commissioner is not required – these cover data held for:
 national security purposes;
 assessing and collecting taxes;
 detecting and preventing crime;
 artistic, historical or research purposes;
 personal or domestic use (including recreational purposes);
 staff administration, accounting, advertising and marketing.

The Data Protection Act gives data subjects the right to:
 have a copy of all the data held about them;
 have inaccurate data corrected or deleted;
 prevent the processing of data that could result in personal distress;
 prevent the data from being used for direct marketing;
 prevent automated decisions being made based on data held about them;

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  compensation for any damage or distress caused;
 ask the Information Commissioner to investigate if they feel any of the
principles of information handling have not been followed.

Advantages of data protection act.

o It sets limit to the operation of the people who use data

o It gives a number of basic rights to data subject such as privacy, copyright etc.

Disadvantages of data protection act.

o The Act only deals with computer data not with paper files.
o It is difficult to identify who is storing data about them.
o Data subject an only complain about the inaccuracy of data if they have ‘suffer
damage’ from it.
o Data can be held for ‘national security’ so that people cannot gain access.

How Computer data is unsafe than paper document.

o Data can be retrieved electronically from anywhere.

o It can be searched very quickly to find patterns that are not obvious but which
could be embarrassing.
o Data can be easily altered compare to paper document.
o Data can be viewed easily using Internet or passed to anyone.

Types of computer Crime:

Computer crimes can be classified in to the following categories:

Intellectual Crime: Cracking in to a computer system for purpose of transferring or
obtaining fund is a typical example
Destruction of property: It is also a crime to destroy computer property. A
hardware and software bug intentional placed to destroy property.

 Hacking
 Phishing
 Computer Viruses
 Cyberstalking
 Identity Theft
 Credit fraud
 Cyberterrorism
 Piracy
 Phantom withdrawal

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Hacking:

Hacking is the process of gaining or attempting to gain an illegal / unauthorized access

into a computer system in order to commit a crime such as fraud, data theft etc.

A hacker is a person who gains or attempts to gain an illegal access into a computer
system in order to commit a crime such as fraud, data theft etc.

The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is

known as hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system
in order to obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is
called hacking. The unauthorized revelation of passwords with intent to gain an
unauthorized access to the private communication of an organization of a user is one of
the widely known computer crimes. Another highly dangerous computer crime is the
hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false identity, thus remaining
anonymous while carrying out the criminal activities.

Phishing:

Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames,

passwords and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. Phishing is
carried out through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through
fake websites. Criminals often use websites that have a look and feel of some popular
website, which makes the users feel safe to enter their details there.

Cyberstalking:

The use of communication technology, mainly the Internet, to torture other individuals
is known as cyberstalking.

False accusations, transmission of threats and damage to data and equipment fall under
the class of cyberstalking activities. Cyberstalkers often target the users by means of
chat rooms, online forums and social networking websites to gather user information
and harass the users on the basis of the information gathered. Obscene emails, abusive
phone calls and other such serious effects of cyberstalking have made it a type of
computer crime.

Identity Theft:

It is the act of pretending to be someone else by using someone else's identity as one's
own and obtaining benefits or stealing money using the stolen identity.

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This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and obtaining other
benefits through the use of a false identity. Financial identity theft involves the use of
a false identity to obtain goods and services and a commercial identity theft is the
using of someone else’s business name or credit card details for commercial purposes.
Identity cloning is the use of another user's information to pose as a false user. Illegal
migration, terrorism and blackmail are often made possible by means of identity theft.

Cyber terrorism:

There are many forms of cyberterrorism. Sometimes it's a rather smart hacker breaking
into a government website, other times it's just a group of like-minded Internet users
who crash a website by flooding it with traffic. No matter how harmless it may seem, it
is still illegal.

Piracy:

Process of illegal copying of software for personal or re-sale purpose. Piracy costs
millions of dollar to software companies, because pirated software is cheaper compare
to original and people prefer to by cheaper by compromising the quality.

Credit card fraud:

Credits cards are use to obtain instant credits for goods, so the retailer does the
verification of the cardholder manually and the customer will then sigh the docket. All
the statement for the transaction will be receive during the month. This card can be
stolen and used because verification limited.

Phantom withdrawal:

Money could be debited mysteriously using an ATM without the owner of the card. The
owner of the card can see this withdraws at the end of the months through a
statement. Phantom withdrawal is possible through Hacking.

Logic bomb:

A logic bomb is a set of instructions written in computer code that can be hidden inside
other software and set to activate at a particular date and time.
Once activated logic bomb takes control of a computer and begins damaging files.

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Ways to protect against computer crime or cyber crime

Scan a computer regularly with updated antivirus software.

For a first hand protection an anti-virus software is a must for your Windows system.
There's a long list of Internet security suites like Norton, Kaspersky and McAfee that
offer a variety of tools, from spyware and malware detection to real-time protection
against websites with infected code. Some of these even protect your inbox from
infected attachments and phishing emails.

Never install an application directly from Internet.

First download it to your hard disk, scan it with your anti-virus and then install it.
Moreover, don't download applications from unfamiliar sites.

Install a Firewall and configure your firewall to prohibit any malicious threat coming
into your computer or network.

This is essential to protect against hackers attack. Additionally, several malicious

programs run and spread via the internet connection without your knowledge. By
prohibiting such unauthorized outbound requests you can stop the spread of these
programs.

Scanning an email attachment with updated antivirus before opening or using it.

Avoid opening email attachments that you receive from an unknown address. In case
you are in doubt save the attachment to a hard disk and scan it with your anti-virus
software. Open it only when you are assured that it is clean.

Keep passwords safe

Don't enter your User ID or password unless you see the Lock icon at the bottom screen
and check that web address starts with https://(protocol) Change the passwords often
to save it from hacking attacks.

Effects of hackers

 Identity theft is another important consequence of computer hacking. Identity

theft is a fraud that involves pretension to be someone else, with intent to gain
unauthorized access to information or property. It refers to an illegal use of
someone else's identity for personal interest or gain.

 Hackers may even delete sensitive information on gaining access to it.

Deletion or manipulation of sensitive data with intent to achieve personal gain is
another effect of computer hacking. A user whose computer has been hacked is

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 at the risk of losing all the data stored on his/her computer. Manipulation of
sensitive user data is a grave consequence of hacking.

 Computer hacking can lead to theft of critical business information. Important

information about business clients and customers can be lost or manipulated
through computer hacking. Hacking can expose email addresses to hackers,
which they might use for spamming and hampering email privacy.

 Information critical to national security, confidential government data,

information related to national defense, security and crime, if exposed by means
of hacking, can have grave consequences on the welfare of the nation. Hacking
of highly sensitive data can potentially risk the national security and stake the
overall well-being of the country's citizens.

Computer Virus

A computer virus is a mischievous or malicious program designed to cause harm or

damage to a computer system.

A computer virus can

- Delete data stored in a computer
- Hide data in a computer
- Replicate and cause a slow running of a computer system
- Crash a computer system

How to minimize virus attacks or protect our computers against viruses

1. Avoid the use of free software from magazines

2. Avoid the installation of downloaded software from unknown and untrusted
sources or websites.
3. Avoid the use of removable media such as memory sticks from untrusted sources
4. Regular Scanning of the computer using updated antivirus software.
5. Use of firewall software
6. Do not open email attachments from unknown or untrusted sources

Ways of eradicating or removing computer virus from the computer

- Scanning and cleaning a computer with updated antivirus

- Manually deleting virus files from the registry
- Formatting the computer and reinstalling the operating system
- Restoring or resetting a computer to an earlier period when the virus was not yet
in the computer

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Difference between security and integrity

Data Integrity is concerned with the correctness of the data while Data security is
concerned with the safe keeping or protection of data against various hazards that
could destroy it like virus, power failure e.t.c.

Errors may be introduced into data in a variety of ways. They can be introduced while
typing or due to program or machine errors.

Ways in which data integrity can be ensured

- Verification of data after capturing the data into the computer
- Continuously updating the data with current data
- Validating the data when entering it into a computer

Validation and verification checks are performed on data to ensure its integrity.

Data integrity can be compromised in a number of ways:

(i) Human errors when data is entered

(ii) Errors that occur when data is transmitted from one computer to another

(iii) Software bugs or viruses, Hardware malfunctions, such as disk crashes Natural
disasters, such as fires and floods.

There are many ways to minimize these threats to data integrity. These include:

(i) Backing up data regularly

(ii) Controlling access to data via security mechanisms
(iii) Designing user interfaces that prevent the input of invalid data
(iv) Using error detection and correction software when transmitting data

Data Security is concerned with safe keeping of data from the various hazards that
could destroy it. Data security includes ensuring the integrity and privacy of data, as
well as preventing the loss or destruction of the data. Various methods are used to
secure that data such as Password, encryption, Log in /Logout, Firewall etc.

A disaster recovery plan is used as a way of recovering data quickly from

backups in the event of system failure.

Preventative maintenance ensures that the chance of equipment failing is

minimized.

Physical security such as biometrics (Fingerprint scanning), locked doors and

computer passwords.
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 Software protection against threats includes the use of antivirus protection,
firewalls and a good network security by preventing unauthorized access to
certain parts of a network where sensitive information is held.

Backup

It is a procedure of making copies of data or programs in case the original data gets
corrupted or lost.

Methods of backup

Full backup: - This is a procedure where the whole data in the directory or
directories designated to be backed up is duplicated/copied in order to safeguard
against data loss (Full back up backs up even the data that may have been backed
up previously).

Example of Full Backup

Assume you do your initial backup on Monday, this first backup will contain your
entire list of file and folders in your backup job. On Tuesday at the next backup run,
the entire list of files and folders will be copied again. On Wednesday, the entire
list of files and folders will be copied again and the cycle continues like this. At
each backup run, all files designated in the backup job will be backed up again. This
includes files and folders that have not changed and were probably backed up
before.

Advantages

i. Restores are fast and easy to manage as the entire list of files and folders are in
one backup set.
ii. It is easy to maintain and restore different backup versions.

Disadvantages

iii. Backup procedure can take very long as each file is backed up again every time
the full backup is run.
iv. Consumes the most storage space compare to incremental and differential
backups.

Incremental backup

Incremental back up is a backup of all the changed files and new files made since
the last backup of any type.

The last backup can be a full back up or incremental backup.

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 Example of incremental back up

You setup an incremental backup job or task to be done every night from Monday to
Friday. Assuming you perform your first backup on Monday. This first backup will be
a full backup since you haven’t done any backup prior to this. On Tuesday the
incremental backup will only backup the files that have changed since Monday and
any new files added to the backup folders. On Wednesday only changes and new
files made since Tuesday backup will be copied. The cycle continues this way.

Advantages
v. The backup procedure is faster than that of full backup and differential backups.
vi. There is efficient use of storage space as files are not duplicated.

Disadvantages
vii. Restores are slower than with full backups and differential backups.
viii. Restores are complicated as all backup sets are needed to perform a restore.

Differential backup

A differential backup is a backup of all the changes or changed files since the last
full backup. With differential backups, one full back up is done first and subsequent
backup runs are the changes made since the last full backup.

Example of incremental backup

You set up a differential backup job or task to be done every night from Monday to
Friday. Assume you perform your first backup on Monday, This first backup will be
full backup since you haven’t done any backups prior to this. On Tuesday, the
differential backup will only backup the files that have changed since Monday and
any new files added to the backup folders. On Wednesday, the files changed and
files added since Monday’s full backup will be copied again. While Wednesday
backup does not include the files from the first full backup, it still contains the files
backed up on Tuesday.

Advantages

ix. Backup procedure faster than that of full backup.

x. More efficient use of storage compared to full backup.
xi. Faster restore than incremental backup.

Disadvantages
xii. Backup procedure slower than that of incremental backup
xiii. Not efficient use of storage space compared to incremental backups.
xiv. Restores are slower than with full backup

Backups can also be categorized as Local and Offsite backups

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 Local Backup is any backup where a storage medium is kept close at hand. For
example; backup copies in DVDs kept within the office where the backup was
carried out.

Advantages
xv. Very fast to restore as the backup copy is kept close at hand.
xvi. Since backups are kept close at hand, they are conveniently obtained when
needed.
xvii. Storage cost can be very cheap when the right storage medium is used like
external hard disk.
xviii. Data transfer costs to the storage medium can be cheap.

Disadvantage
xix. Since the backup is stored close by to the source, it does not offer good
protection against theft, fire or floods. When the source is damaged by these
circumstances, there is a good chance that the backup will also be damaged.

Offsite backup is any backup where the storage medium is kept at a different
geographic location from the source. The backup may be done locally at first on the
usual storage devices, but once a storage medium is taken to a different location it
becomes offsite backup.

Advantage
Offers additional advantage against physical harms such as protection from theft, fire,
floods, hurricanes and more that could be happening at source of backup.

Disadvantages
xx. Except for online backups, it requires more due diligence to bring the storage
media to the offsite location.
xxi. Because of increased handling of storage media, the risk of damaging delicate hard
disk is higher.

Online Backup/Remote Backup/ Cloud backup

This is the type of backup where data is backed up to a storage server of facility
connected to the source via the internet. With the proper login credentials, that
backup can then be accessed securely from any other computer with an internet
connection. The term cloud refers to the backup storage facility being accesible from
the internet.

Examples of cloud

-Subscription backup services provided by commercial data centers.

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-Backup to an offsite FTP Server over the internet.

Advantages

-It offers protection from fire, floods, earth quake and other natural disasters.
-With just an internet connection, one is able to quickly and easily connect and access
backup.
-When the service is provided by a good commercial data center, service is managed
and protection is un-parallel.
-Data is replicated across several storage devices and usually serviced by multiple
internet connections so the system is safe from single point failure.

Disadvantages

-More expensive than local backups

-Can take longer to backup and restore

Archive: Is a method of storing data which is no longer in use, but held for historic
purpose for long period of time? Data is likely to be compressed to take less space and
stored on cheaper storage medium. It is often stored away from the computer system,
in a secure location.

Biometrics

Biometrics comprises methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or
more intrinsic physical or behavioral traits and also is used as a form of identity access
management and access control. It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are
under surveillance.

Types of Biometrics

Physiological are related to the shape of the body. Examples include,

Fingerprint identification

Fingerprint identification (also referred to as individualization) occurs when an expert

(or an expert computer system operating under scoring rules) determines that two
friction ridge impressions originated from the same finger or palm (or toe, sole).

Facial recognition system

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A facial recognition system is a computer application for automatically identifying or
verifying a person from a digital image or a video frame from a video source. One of the
ways to do this is by comparing selected facial features from the image and a facial
database.

Iris recognition

Iris recognition is a method of biometric authentication that uses pattern-recognition

techniques based on high-resolution images of the irises of an individual's eyes.

Behavioral are related to the behavior of a person.

The behavioral biometric of Keystroke Dynamics uses the manner and rhythm in which
an individual types characters on a keyboard or keypad. The keystroke rhythms of a
user are measured to develop a unique biometric template of the users typing pattern
for future authentication.

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