J. K.

SHAH CLASSES Sampling Theory and Theory of Estimation

12. SAMPLING THEORY AND THEORY OF ESTIMATION

1. Population and Sample
Population or Universe. Population in statistics means the whole of the information
which comes under the purview of statistical investigation. It is the totality of all the
observations of a statistical experiment or enquiry.
A population may be finite or infinite according as the number of observations or items
in it are finite or infinite. The population of weights of students of class XII in a
government school is an example of a finite population. The population of pressure at
different points in the atmosphere is an example of an infinite population.
Sample. A part of the population selected for study is called a sample. In other words,
the selection of a group of individuals or items from a population in such a way that this
group represents the population, is called a sample.
2. Parameter and Statistic
There are various statistical measures in statistics such as mean, median, mode,
standard deviation, coefficient of variation etc. These statistical measures can be
computed both from population (or universe) data and sample data.
Parameter : Any statistical measure computed from population data is known as
parameter.
Statistics : Any statistical measure computed from sample data is known as statistic.
Thus a parameter is a statistical measure which relates to the population and is based
on population data, whereas a statistic is a statistical measure which relates to the
sample and is based on sample data. Thus a population mean, population median,
population variance, population coefficient of variation etc., are all parameters. Statistic
computed from a Sample such as sample mean, sample variance etc.
Notations
Statistical Measure Population Sample
Mean µ x

Standard deviation σ s

Proportion P p
Size N n

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J. K. SHAH CLASSES Sampling Theory and Theory of Estimation

3. Sampling & Sampling Theory

Sampling : It is the procedure or process of selecting a sample from a population. A

sampling can also be defined as the process of drawing a sample from a population.

Sampling Theory : The study of relationship existing between a population and the
samples drawn from population is called Sampling theory which is based on sampling.

SAMPLING WITH REPLACEMENT (SRSWR) : While selecting the units for a sample,
when a unit of sample selected is replaced before the next unit is selected then it is
called sampling with replacement.

In this case the total number of samples that can be drawn = (N)n For E.g.: Let
Population = {a, b, c}

N = 3, let n = 2

No. of samples = (N)n = (3)2 = 9

No. of samples = {(a, b) (a, c) (b, c) (b, a) (c, a) (c, b) (a, a) (b, b) (c, c)}

SAMPLING WITHOUT REPLACEMENT (SRSWOR) : While selecting the units for a

sample, when a unit of sample is selected but not replaced before the next unit is
selected then it is called Sampling Without Replacement.

In this case the total number of samples that can be drawn =

For E.g.: Let population = {a, b, c}

N = 3, let n = 2

No. of samples = NC = 3C2 = 3C1 = 3

n

No. of samples = {(a, b), (a, c), (b, c)}

TYPES OF SAMPLING

A sample can be selected from a population in various ways. Different situations call for
different methods of sampling. There are three methods of Sampling:

1. Random Sampling or Probability Sampling Method

2. Non-Random Sampling or Non-Probability Sampling Method.

3. Mixed Sampling

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Research Problem 61

Notes
2.23 SAMPLING
Sampling is an important concept which is practiced in every activity. Sampling involves selecting
a relatively small number of elements from a large defined group of elements and expecting that the
information gathered from the small group will allow judgments to be made about the large group. The
basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, the conclusion about the
entire population is drawn. Sampling is used when conducting census is impossible or unreasonable. In
a census method a researcher collects primary data from every member of a defined target population.
It is not always possible or necessary to collect data from every unit of the population. The researcher
can resort to sample survey to find answers to the research questions. However, they can do more harm
than good if the data is not collected from the people, events or objects that can provide correct answers
to the problem. The process of selecting the right individuals, objects or events for the purpose of the
study is known as sampling
Meaning of Sampling
Sampling is defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which
a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. Sampling is the process of learning
about the population on the basis of a sample drawn from it.
Purpose of Sampling
There are several reasons for sampling. They are explained below:
(i) Lower cost: The cost of conducting a study based on a sample is much lesser than the cost of
conducting the census study.
(ii) Greater accuracy of results: It is generally argued that the quality of a study is often better
with sampling data than with a census. Research findings also substantiate this opinion.
(iii) Greater speed of data collection: Speed of execution of data collection is higher with the
sample. It also reduces the time between the recognition of a need for information and the
availability of that information.
(iv) Availability of population element: Some situations require sampling. When the breaking
strength of materials is to be tested, it has to be destroyed. A census method cannot be resorted
as it would mean complete destruction of all materials. Sampling is the only process possible if
the population is infinite.
Essentials of Sampling
In order to reach a clear conclusion, the sampling should possess the following essentials:
1. It must be representative: The sample selected should possess the similar characteristics of
the original universe from which it has been drawn.
2. Homogeneity: Selected samples from the universe should have similar nature and should not
have any difference when compared with the universe.
3. Adequate Samples: In order to have a more reliable and representative result, a good number
of items are to be included in the sample.
4. Optimization: All efforts should be made to get maximum results both in terms of cost as well
as efficiency. If the size of the sample is larger, there is better efficiency and at the same time
the cost is more. A proper size of sample is maintained in order to have optimized results in
terms of cost and efficiency.
62 Research Methodology

Notes Features of Sampling

The sampling technique has the following good features of value and significance:
1. Economy: Sampling technique brings about cost control of a research project as it requires
much less physical resources as well as time than the census technique.
2. Reliability: In sampling technique, if due diligence is exercised in the choice of sample unit and
if the research topic is homogenous then the sample survey can have almost the same reliability
as that of census survey.
3. Detailed Study: An intensive and detailed study of sample units can be done since their number
is fairly small. Also multiple approaches can be applied to a sample for an intensive analysis.
4. Scientific Base: As mentioned earlier this technique is of scientific nature as the underlined
theory is based on principle of statistics.
5. Greater Suitability in most Situations: It has a wide applicability in most situations as the
examination of few sample units normally suffices.
6. Accuracy: The accuracy is determined by the extent to which bias is eliminated from the
sampling. When the sample elements are drawn properly some sample elements underestimates
the population values being studied and others overestimate them.
Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan
A number of concepts, procedures and decisions must be considered by a researcher in order to
successfully gather raw data from a relatively small group of people which in turn can be used to
generalize or make predications about all the elements in a larger target population.
The following are the logical steps involved in the sample execution:
1) Define the target population
The first task of a researcher is to determine and identify the complete group of people or objects
that should be included in the study. With the statement of the problem and the objectives of the study
acting as guideline the target population should be identified on the basis of descriptors that represent the
characteristics features of element that make the target population’s frame. These elements become
the prospective sampling unit from which a sample will be drawn. A clear understanding of the target
population will enable the researcher to successfully draw a representative sample.
2) Select the data collection method
Based on the problem definition, the data requirements and the research objectives, the researcher
should select a data collection method for collecting the required data from the target population elements.
The method of data collection guides the researcher in identifying and securing the necessary sampling
frame for conducting the research.
3) Identify the sampling frames needed
The researcher should identify and assemble a list of eligible sampling units. The list should contain
enough information about each prospective sampling unit so as to enable the researcher to contact
them. Drawing an incomplete frame decreases the likelihood of drawing a representative sample.
4) Select the appropriate sampling method
The researcher can choose between probability and non-probability sampling methods. Using a
probability sampling method will always yield better and more accurate information about the target
population’s parameters than the non-probability sampling methods. Seven factors should be considered
in deciding the appropriateness of the sampling method viz., research objectives, degree of desired
Research Problem 63

accuracy, availability of resources, time frame, advanced knowledge of the target population, scope of Notes
the research and perceived statistical analysis needs.
5) Determine necessary sample sizes and overall contact rates
The sample size is decided based on the precision required from the sample estimates, time and
money available to collect the required data. While determining the sample size due consideration should
be given to the variability of the population characteristic under investigation, the level of confidence
desired in the estimates and the degree of the precision desired in estimating the population characteristic.
The number of prospective units to be contacted to ensure that the estimated sample size is obtained and
the additional cost involved should be considered. The researcher should calculate the reachable rates,
overall incidence rate and expected completion rates associated with the sampling situation.
6) Creating an operating plan for selecting sampling units
The actual procedure to be used in contacting each of the prospective respondents selected to
form the sample should be clearly laid out. The instruction should be clearly written so that interviewers
know what exactly should be done and the procedure to be followed in case of problems encountered,
in contacting the prospective respondents.
7) Executing the operational plan
The sample respondents are met and actual data collection activities are executed in this stage.
Consistency and control should be maintained at this stage.

2.24 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The sampling design can be broadly grouped on two basis viz., representation and element selection.
Representation refers to the selection of members on a probability or by other means. Element selection
refers to the manner in which the elements are selected individually and directly from the population. If
each element is drawn individually from the population at large, it is an unrestricted sample. Restricted
sampling is where additional controls are imposed, in other words it covers all other forms of sampling.
The classification of sampling design on the basis of representation and element selection is shown
below:

Sampling Techniques

I. Probability Sampling II. Non-probability Sampling

1) Simple Random Sampling 1) Convenience Sampling

2) Systematic Random Sampling 2) Judgment Sampling
3) Stratified Random Sampling 3) Quota Sampling
4) Cluster Sampling 4) Snowball Sampling
5) Sequential/Multiphase Sampling
6) Sampling with Probability
Proportional to Size
64 Research Methodology

Notes I. Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is where each sampling unit in the defined target population has a known non-
zero probability of being selected in the sample. The actual probability of selection for each sampling
unit may or may not be equal depending on the type of probability sampling design used. Specific rules
for selecting members from the operational population are made to ensure unbiased selection of the
sampling units and proper sample representation of the defined target population. The results obtained
by using probability sampling designs can be generalized to the target population within a specified
margin of error.
Probability samples are characterised by the fact that, the sampling units are selected by chance.
In such a case, each member of the population has a known, non-zero probability of being selected.
However, it may not be true that all samples would have the same probability of selection, but it is
possible to say the probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size. It is possible that one
can calculate the probability that any given population element would be included in the sample. This
requires a precise definition of the target population as well as the sampling frame. Probability sampling
techniques differ in terms of sampling efficiency which is a concept that refers to trade off between
sampling cost and precision. Precision refers to the level of uncertainty about the characteristics being
measured. Precision is inversely related to sampling errors but directly related to cost. The greater the
precision, the greater the cost and there should be a tradeoff between sampling cost and precision. The
researcher is required to design the most efficient sampling design in order to increase the efficiency of
the sampling.
The different types of probability sampling designs are discussed below:
1) Simple Random Sampling
The following are the implications of random sampling:
(i) It provides each element in the population an equal probability chance of being chosen in the
sample, with all choices being independent of one another and
(ii) It offers each possible sample combination an equal probability opportunity of being selected.
In the unrestricted probability sampling design every element in the population has a known, equal
non-zero chance of being selected as a subject. For example, if 10 employees (n = 10) are to be
selected from 30 employees (N = 30), the researcher can write the name of each employee in a piece
of paper and select them on a random basis. Each employee will have an equal known probability of
selection for a sample. The same is expressed in terms of the following formula:
Probability of selection = Size of sample / Size of population
Each employee would have a 10/30 or .333 chance of being randomly selected in a drawn sample.
When the defined target population consists of a larger number of sampling units, a more sophisticated
method can be used to randomly draw the necessary sample. A table of random numbers can be used
for this purpose. The table of random numbers contains a list of randomly generated numbers. The
numbers can be randomly generated through the computer programs also. Using the random numbers
the sample can be selected.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The simple random sampling technique can be easily understood and the survey result can be
generalized to the defined target population with a pre specified margin of error. It also enables the
researcher to gain unbiased estimates of the population’s characteristics. The method guarantees that
every sampling unit of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected, irrespective of
the actual size of the sample resulting in a valid representation of the defined target population.
Research Problem 65

The major drawback of the simple random sampling is the difficulty of obtaining complete, current Notes
and accurate listing of the target population elements. Simple random sampling process requires all
sampling units to be identified which would be cumbersome and expensive in case of a large population.
Hence, this method is most suitable for a small population.
2) Systematic Random Sampling
The systematic random sampling design is similar to simple random sampling but requires that the
defined target population should be selected in some way. It involves drawing every nth element in the
population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n. In other words individual sampling
units are selected according their position using a skip interval. The skip interval is determined by
dividing the sample size into population size. For example, if the researcher wants a sample of 100 to be
drawn from a defined target population of 1000, the skip interval would be 10(1000/100). Once the skip
interval is calculated, the researcher would randomly select a starting point and take every 10th until the
entire target population is proceeded through. The steps to be followed in a systematic sampling method
are enumerated below:
(i) Total number of elements in the population should be identified
(ii) The sampling ratio is to be calculated ( n = total population size divided by size of the desired
sample)
(iii) A sample can be drawn by choosing every nth entry
Two important considerations in using the systematic random sampling are:
(i) It is important that the natural order of the defined target population list be unrelated to the
characteristic being studied.
(ii) Skip interval should not correspond to the systematic change in the target population.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The major advantage is its simplicity and flexibility. In case of systematic sampling there is no need
to number the entries in a large personnel file before drawing a sample. The availability of lists and
shorter time required to draw a sample compared to random sampling makes systematic sampling an
attractive, economical method for researchers.
The greatest weakness of systematic random sampling is the potential for the hidden patterns in
the data that are not found by the researcher. This could result in a sample not truly representative of the
target population. Another difficulty is that the researcher must know exactly how many sampling units
make up the defined target population. In situations where the target population is extremely large or
unknown, identifying the true number of units is difficult and the estimates may not be accurate.
3) Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling requires the separation of defined target population into different groups
called strata and the selection of sample from each stratum. Stratified random sampling is very useful
when the divisions of target population are skewed or when extremes are present in the probability
distribution of the target population elements of interest. The goal in stratification is to minimize the
variability within each stratum and maximize the difference between strata. The ideal stratification
would be based on the primary variable under study. Researchers often have several important variables
about which they want to draw conclusions. A reasonable approach is to identify some basis for
stratification that correlates well with other major variables. It might be a single variable like age,
income etc. or a compound variable like on the basis of income and gender. Stratification leads to
segmenting the population into smaller, more homogeneous sets of elements. In order to ensure that the
sample maintains the required precision in terms of representing the total population, representative
66 Research Methodology

Notes samples must be drawn from each of the smaller population groups.
There are three reasons as to why a researcher chooses a stratified random sample:
(i) To increase the sample’s statistical efficiency
(ii) To provide adequate data for analyzing various sub populations
(iii) To enable different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata.
Drawing a stratified random sampling involves the following steps:
1. Determine the variables to use for stratification
2. Select proportionate or disproportionate stratification
3. Divide the target population into homogeneous subgroups or strata
4. Select random samples from each stratum
5. Combine the samples from each stratum into a single sample of the target population.
There are two common methods for deriving samples from the strata viz., proportionate and
disproportionate. In proportionate stratified sampling, each stratum is properly represented so the sample
drawn from it is proportionate to the stratum’s share of the total population. The larger strata are
sampled more because they make up a larger percentage of the target population. This approach is
more popular than any other stratified sampling procedures due to the following reasons:
(i) It has higher statistical efficiency than the simple random sample
(ii) It is much easier to carry out than other stratifying methods
(iii) It provides a self-weighing sample i.e., the population mean or proportion can be estimated
simply by calculating the mean or proportion of all sample cases.
In disproportionate stratified sampling, the sample size selected from each stratum is independent
of that stratum’s proportion of the total defined target population. This approach is used when stratification
of the target population produces sample sizes that contradict their relative importance to the study. An
alternative of disproportionate stratified method is optimal allocation. In this method, consideration is
given to the relative size of the stratum as well as the variability within the stratum to determine the
necessary sample size of each stratum. The logic underlying the optimal allocation is that the greater the
homogeneity of the prospective sampling units within a particular stratum, the fewer the units that would
have to be selected to estimate the true population parameter accurately for that subgroup. This method
is also opted for in situation where it is easier, simpler and less expensive to collect data from one or
more strata than from others. Stratified random sampling provides several advantages viz., the assurance
of representativeness in the sample, the opportunity to study each stratum and make relative comparisons
between strata and the ability to make estimates for the target population with the expectation of greater
precision or less error.
4) Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method in which the sampling units are divided into
mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulation called clusters. Each cluster is assumed to
be the representative of the heterogeneity of the target population. Groups of elements that would have
heterogeneity among the members within each group are chosen for study in cluster sampling. Several
groups with intragroup heterogeneity and intergroup homogeneity are found. A random sampling of the
clusters or groups is done and information is gathered from each of the members in the randomly chosen
clusters. Cluster sampling offers more of heterogeneity within groups and more homogeneity among the
groups.
Research Problem 67

Single Stage and Multistage Cluster Sampling Notes

In single stage cluster sampling, the population is divided into convenient clusters and required
number of clusters are randomly chosen as sample subjects. Each element in each of the randomly
chosen cluster is investigated in the study. Cluster sampling can also be done in several stages which is
known as multistage cluster sampling. For example: To study the banking behaviour of customers in a
national survey, cluster sampling can be used to select the urban, semi-urban and rural geographical
locations of the study. At the next stage, particular areas in each of the location would be chosen. At the
third stage, the banks within each area would be chosen. Thus multi-stage sampling involves a probability
sampling of the primary sampling units; from each of the primary units, a probability sampling of the
secondary sampling units is drawn; a third level of probability sampling is done from each of these
secondary units, and so on until the final stage of breakdown for the sample units are arrived at, where
every member of the unit will be a sample.
Area Sampling
Area sampling is a form of cluster sampling in which the clusters are formed by geographic
designations. For example, state, district, city, town etc., Area sampling is a form of cluster sampling in
which any geographic unit with identifiable boundaries can be used. Area sampling is less expensive
than most other probability designs and is not dependent on population frame. A city map showing blocks
of the city would be adequate information to allow a researcher to take a sample of the blocks and
obtain data from the residents therein.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling
The cluster sampling method is widely used due to its overall cost-effectiveness and feasibility of
implementation. In many situations the only reliable sampling unit frame available to researchers and
representative of the defined target population, is one that describes and lists clusters. The list of
geographical regions, telephone exchanges, or blocks of residential dwelling can normally be easily
compiled than the list of all the individual sampling units making up the target population. Clustering
method is a cost efficient way of sampling and collecting raw data from a defined target population.
One major drawback of clustering method is the tendency of the cluster to be homogeneous. The
greater the homogeneity of the cluster, the less precise will be the sample estimate in representing the
target population parameters. The conditions of intra-cluster heterogeneity and inter-cluster homogeneity
are often not met. For these reasons this method is not practiced often.
5) Sequential/Multiphase Sampling
This is also called Double Sampling. Double sampling is opted when further information is needed
from a subset of groups from which some information has already been collected for the same study. It
is called as double sampling because initially a sample is used in the study to collect some preliminary
information of interest and later a sub-sample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in
more detail The process includes collecting data from a sample using a previously defined technique.
Based on this information, a sub sample is selected for further study. It is more convenient and economical
to collect some information by sampling and then use this information as the basis for selecting a sub
sample for further study.
6) Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size
When the case of cluster sampling units does not have exactly or approximately the same number
of elements, it is better for the researcher to adopt a random selection process, where the probability of
inclusion of each cluster in the sample tends to be proportional to the size of the cluster. For this, the
number of elements in each cluster has to be listed, irrespective of the method used for ordering it. Then
the researcher should systematically pick the required number of elements from the cumulative totals.
68 Research Methodology

Notes The actual numbers thus chosen would not however reflect the individual elements, but would indicate
as to which cluster and how many from them are to be chosen by using simple random sampling or
systematic sampling. The outcome of such sampling is equivalent to that of simple random sample. This
method is also less cumbersome and is also relatively less expensive.

II. Non-Probability Sampling

In non probability sampling method, the elements in the population do not have any probabilities
attached to being chosen as sample subjects. This means that the findings of the study cannot be
generalized to the population. However, at times the researcher may be less concerned about
generalizability and the purpose may be just to obtain some preliminary information in a quick and
inexpensive way. Sometimes when the population size is unknown, then non probability sampling would
be the only way to obtain data. Some non-probability sampling techniques may be more dependable than
others and could often lead to important information with regard to the population.
Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection. It involves personal judgement of the
researcher rather than chance to select sample elements. Sometimes this judgement is imposed by the
researcher, while in other cases the selection of population elements to be included is left to the individual
field workers. The decision maker may also contribute to including a particular individual in the sampling
frame. Evidently, non probability sampling does not include elements selected probabilistically and hence,
leaves a degree of sampling error associated with the sample. Sampling error is the degree to which a
sample might differ from the population. Therefore, while inferring to the population, results could not be
reported plus or minus the sampling error. In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample
differs from the population remains
Unknown However, we cannot come to a conclusion that sampling error is an inherent of non
probability sample. on-probability samples also yield good estimates of the population characteristics.
Since, inclusion of the elements in the sample are not determined in a probabilistic way, the estimates
obtained are not statistically projectable to the population.
1) Convenience Sampling
Non-probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenient sampling. Convenience sampling
refers to the collection of information from members of population who are conveniently available to
provide it. Researchers or field workers have the freedom to choose as samples whomever they find,
thus it is named as convenience. It is mostly used during the exploratory phase of a research project and
it is the best way of getting some basic information quickly and efficiently. The assumption is that the
target population is homogeneous and the individuals selected as samples are similar to the overall
defined target population with regard to the characteristics being studied. However, in reality there is no
way to accurately assess the representativeness of the sample. Due to the self selection and voluntary
nature of participation in data collection process the researcher should give due consideration to the
non-response error.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Convenient sampling allows a large number of respondents to be interviewed in a relatively short
time. This is one of the main reasons for using convenient sampling in the early stages of research.
However the major drawback is that the use of convenience samples in the development phases of
constructs and scale measurements can have a serious negative impact on the overall reliability and
validity of those measures and instruments used to collect raw data. Another major drawback is that the
raw data and results are not generalizable to the defined target population with any measure of precision.
It is not possible to measure the representativeness of the sample, because sampling error estimates
cannot be accurately determined.
Research Problem 69

2) Judgment Sampling Notes

Judgment sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which participants are selected according
to an experienced individual’s belief that they will meet the requirements of the study. The researcher
selects sample members who conform to some criterion. It is appropriate in the early stages of an
exploratory study and involves the choice of subjects who are most advantageously placed or in the best
position to provide the information required. This is used when a limited number or category of people
have the information that are being sought. The underlying assumption is that the researcher’s belief
that the opinions of a group of perceived experts on the topic of interest are representative of the entire
target population.
Advantages and Disadvantages
If the judgment of the researcher or expert is correct then the sample generated from the judgment
sampling will be much better than one generated by convenience sampling. However, as in the case of
all non-probability sampling methods, the representativeness of the sample cannot be measured. The
raw data and information collected through judgment sampling provides only a preliminary insight.
3) Quota Sampling
The quota sampling method involves the selection of prospective participants according to pre
specified quotas regarding either the demographic characteristics (gender, age, education, income,
occupation etc.,) specific attitudes (satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied) or specific behaviours (regular,
occasional, rare user of product). The purpose of quota sampling is to provide an assurance that pre
specified subgroups of the defined target population are represented on pertinent sampling factors that
are determined by the researcher. It ensures that certain groups are adequately represented in the study
through the assignment of the quota.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The greatest advantage of quota sampling is that the sample generated contains specific subgroups
in the proportion desired by researchers. In those research projects that require interviews the use of
quotas ensures that the appropriate subgroups are identified and included in the survey. The quota
sampling method may eliminate or reduce selection bias.
An inherent limitation of quota sampling is that the success of the study will be dependent on
subjective decisions made by the researchers. As a non-probability method, it is incapable of measuring
true representativeness of the sample or accuracy of the estimate obtained. Therefore, attempts to
generalize the data results beyond those respondents who were sampled and interviewed become very
questionable and may misrepresent the given target population.
4) Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method in which a set of respondents are chosen
who help the researcher to identify additional respondents to be included in the study. This method of
sampling is also called as referral sampling because one respondent refers other potential respondents.
This method involves probability and non-probability methods. The initial respondents are chosen by a
random method and the subsequent respondents are chosen by non-probability methods. Snowball sampling
is typically used in research situations where the defined target population is very small and unique and
compiling a complete list of sampling units is a nearly impossible task. This technique is widely used in
academic research. While the traditional probability and other non-probability sampling methods would
normally require an extreme search effort to qualify a sufficient number of prospective respondents, the
snowball method would yield better result at a much lower cost. The researcher has to identify and
interview one qualified respondent and then solicit his help to identify other respondents with similar
characteristics.
70 Research Methodology

Notes Advantages and Disadvantages

Snowball sampling enables to identify and select prospective respondents who are small in number,
hard to reach and uniquely defined target population. It is most useful in qualitative research practices.
Reduced sample size and costs are the primary advantage
of this sampling method. The major drawback is that the chance of bias is higher. If there is a
significant difference between people who are identified through snowball sampling and others who are
not then, it may give rise to problems. The results cannot be generalized to members of larger defined
target population.

2.25 SAMPLING DESIGN

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population Sample constitutes
a certain portion of the population or universe. Sampling design refers to the technique or the procedure
the researcher adopts for selecting items for the sample from the population or universe. A sample
design helps to decide the number of items to be included in the sample, i.e., the size of the sample. The
sample design should be determined prior to data collection. There are different kinds of sample designs
which a researcher can choose. Some of them are relatively more precise and easier to adopt than the
others. A researcher should prepare or select a sample design, which must be reliable and suitable for
the research study proposed to be undertaken.
Every research study requires the selection of some kind of sample. It is the life blood of research.
Any research study aims to obtain information about the characteristics or parameters of a population.
A population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some common set of characteristics and that
comprise the universe for the purpose of the research problem. In other words, population is defined as
the totality of all cases that conform to some designated specifications. The specification helps the
researcher to define the elements that ought to be included and to be excluded. Sometimes, groups that
are of, interest to the researcher may be significantly smaller allowing the researcher to collect data
from all the elements of population. Collection of data from the entire population is referred to as census
study. A census involves a complete enumeration of the elements of a population. Collecting data from
the aggregate of all the elements in case of, the number of elements being larger, would sometimes
render the researcher incur huge costs and time. Hence, Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g.,
people, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize
our results back to the population from which they were chosen. While deciding on the sampling, the
researcher should clearly define the target population without allowing any kind of ambiguity and
inconsistency on the boundary of the aggregate set of respondents.

2.26 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

The following are the characteristic features of a good sample design:
(a) The sample design should yield a truly representative sample.
(b) The sample design should be such that it results in small sampling error.
(c) The sample design should be viable in the context of budgetary constraints of the research
study.
(d) The sample design should be such that the systematic bias can be controlled.
(e) The sample must be such that the results of the sample study would be applicable, in general,
to the universe at a reasonable level of confidence.
Research Problem 71

Notes
2.27 ELEMENTS OF SAMPLING DESIGN
A researcher should take into consideration the following aspects while developing a sample design:
(i) Type of Universe
The first step involved in developing sample design is to clearly define the number of cases, technically
known as the Universe, to be studied. A universe may be finite or infinite. In a finite universe the number
of items is certain, whereas in the case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite (i.e., there
is no idea about the total number of items). For example, while the population of a city or the number of
workers in a factory comprise finite universes, the number of stars in the sky or throwing of a dice
represent infinite universe.
(ii) Sampling Unit
Prior to selecting a sample a decision has to be made about the sampling unit. A sampling unit may
be a geographical area like a state, district, village etc. or a social unit like a family, religious community,
school, etc. or it may also be an individual. At times, the researcher would have to choose one or more
of such units for his/her study.
(iii) Source List
Source list is also known as the ‘sampling frame’, from which the sample is to be selected. The
source list consists of names of all the items of a universe. The researcher has to prepare a source list
when it is not available. The source list must be reliable, comprehensive, correct and appropriate. It is
important that the source list should be as representative of the population as possible.
(iv) Size of the Sample
Size of the sample refers to the number of items to be chosen from the universe to form a sample.
The size of sample must be optimum. An optimum sample may be defined as the one that satisfies the
requirements of representativeness, flexibility, efficiency, and reliability. While deciding the size of sample
a researcher should determine the desired precision and the acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
The size of the population variance should be considered, because in the case of a larger variance
generally a larger sample is required. The size of the population should be considered, as it also limits the
sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study should also be considered, while deciding
the sample size. Besides, costs or budgetary constraint also plays a crucial role in deciding the sample
size.
(a) Parameters of Interest: The specific population parameters of interest should also be considered
while determining the sample design. For example, the researcher may want to make an
estimate of the proportion of persons with certain characteristics in the population, or may be
interested in knowing some average regarding the population. The population may also consist
of important sub-groups about whom the researcher would like to make estimates. All such
factors have strong impact on the sample design the researcher selects.
(b) Budgetary Constraint: From the practical point of view, cost considerations exercise a major
influence on the decisions related to not only the sample size, but also on the type of sample
selected. Thus, budgetary constraint could also lead to the adoption of a non-probability sample
design.
(c) Sampling Procedure: Finally, the researcher should decide the type of sample or the technique
to be adopted for selecting the items for a sample. This technique or procedure itself may
represent the sample design. There are different sample designs from which a researcher
should select one for his/her study. It is clear that the researcher should select that design
which, for a given sample size and budget constraint, involves a smaller error.
72 Research Methodology

Notes
2.28 DETERMINATION OF APPROPRIATE SAMPLING DESIGN
Determining an appropriate sampling design is a challenging issue and has greater implications on
the application of the research findings. Apart from considering the theoretical components, sampling
issues, advantages and drawbacks of different sampling techniques, the decision should take into
consideration the following factors:
1. Research Objectives
A clear understanding of the statement of the problem and the objectives will provide the initial
guidelines for determining the appropriate sampling design. If the research objectives include the need
to generalize the findings of the research study, then a probability sampling method should be opted
rather than a non-probability sampling method. In addition the type of research viz., exploratory or
descriptive will also influence the type of the sampling design.
2. Scope of the Research
The scope of the research project is local, regional, national or international has an implication on
the choice of the sampling method. The geographical proximity of the defined target population elements
will influence not only the researcher’s ability to compile needed list of sampling units, but also the
selection design. When the target population is equally distributed geographically a cluster sampling
method may become more attractive than other available methods. If the geographical area to be covered
is more extensive then complex sampling method should be adopted to ensure proper representation of
the target population.
3. Availability of Resources
The researchers command over the financial and human resources should be considered in deciding
the sampling method. If the financial and human resource availability are limited, some of the more time-
consuming, complex probability sampling methods cannot be selected for the study.
4. Time Frame
The researcher who has to meet a short deadline will be more likely to select a simple, less time
consuming sampling method rather than a more complex and accurate method.
5. Advanced Knowledge of the Target Population
If the complete lists of the entire population elements are not available to the researcher, the
possibility of the probability sampling method is ruled out. It may dictate that a preliminary study be
conducted to generate information to build a sampling frame for the study. The researcher must gain a
strong understanding of the key descriptor factors that make up the true members of any target population.
6. Degree of Accuracy
The degree of accuracy required or the level of tolerance for error may vary from one study to
another. If the researcher wants to make predictions or inferences about the ‘true’ position of all members
of the defined target population, then some type of probability sampling method should be selected. If
the researcher aims to solely identify and obtain preliminary insights into the defined target population,
non-probability methods might prove to be more appropriate.
7. Perceived Statistical Analysis needs
The need for statistical projections or estimates based on the sample results is to be considered.
Only probability sampling techniques allow the researcher to adequately use statistical analysis for
estimates beyond the sample respondents. Though the statistical method can be applied on the non-
Research Problem 73

probability samples of people and objects, the researcher’s ability to accurately generalize the results Notes
and findings to the larger defined target population is technically inappropriate and questionable. The
researcher should also decide on the appropriateness of sample size as it has a direct impact on the data
quality, statistical precision and generalization of findings.

2.29 SUMMARY
Research problem refers to the situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired
state. The problem can be generated either by an initiating idea or by a perceived problem area.
Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures used by statisticians to accept or reject statistical
hypotheses. It is an assumption about a population parameter. This assumption may or may not be true.
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate hypothesis.
Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form or distribution of some variable.
Hypothesis test is a method of making decisions using data from a scientific study. In statistics, a
result is called statistically significant if it has been predicted as unlikely to have occurred by chance
alone, according to a pre-determined threshold probability, the significance level.
Research design is a plan of action indicating the specific steps that are necessary to provide
answers to those questions, test the hypotheses and thereby achieve the research purpose that helps
choose among the decision alternatives to solve the management problem or capitalize on the market
opportunity.
Casual research design is the third type of research design. As the name indicates, casual design
investigates the cause and effect relationship between two or more variables. This design measures the
extent of relationship between the variables. Casual research designs attempt to specify the nature of
functional relationship between two or more variables.
Experimental research studies generally require testing of hypothesis for causal relationship amongst
the variables. Naturally, these types of research studies require procedures that should not only reduce
the bias but also lead to inferences about causality.
Sampling is defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which
a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. Sampling is the process of learning
about the population on the basis of a sample drawn from it.
Probability sampling is where each sampling unit in the defined target population has a known non-
zero probability of being selected in the sample. The actual probability of selection for each sampling
unit may or may not be equal depending on the type of probability sampling design used.
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population Sample constitutes
a certain portion of the population or universe. Sampling design refers to the technique or the procedure
the researcher adopts for selecting items for the sample from the population or universe.

2.30 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is research problem? Discuss selection of a research problem.
2. Discuss formulation of a research problem.
3. What do you mean by hypothesis? Explain the process of formulation of hypothesis.
4. Explain need for research design.
74 Research Methodology

Notes 5. What is research design? Explain the nature and importance of research design.
6. What are the essential features of good research design?
7. Discuss various components of a research design?
8. Explain the content of research design.
9. Discuss various types of research design.
10. List the factors affecting choice of research design.
11. Discuss suitability collection of exploratory research.
12. Explain different types of descriptive research.
13. Explain the types of experimental design.
14. Discuss advantages and limitations of research design.
15. What is sampling? Discuss various merits and demerits of sampling.
16. Explain the various steps involved in sampling process.
17. Explain various technique of sampling.
18. What is sampling design? Explain the charateristics of a good sample design.
19. Explain the elements of sample design.
20. Discuss the determination of appropriate sampling design.
*****
J. K. SHAH CLASSES Sampling Theory and Theory of Estimation

• Purposive Sampling;
• Cluster Sampling;
• Quota Sampling;
• Convenience Sampling;
• Sequential Sampling.
Purposive Sampling: Purposive sampling is the method of sampling by which a sample
is drawn from a population based entirely on the personal judgement of the investigator. It
is also known as Judgement Sampling or Deliberate Sampling. A randomness finds no
place in it and so the sample drawn under this method cannot be subjected to
mathematical concepts used in computing sampling error.
Cluster Sampling: Cluster Sampling involves arranging elementary items in a population
into hetrogeneous subgroups that are representative of the overall population. One such
group constitutes a sample for study.
Quota Sampling: In quota sampling method, quotas are fixed according to the basic
parameters of the population determined earlier and each field investigator is assigned
with quotas of number of elementary units to be interviewed.
Convenience Sampling: In convenience sampling, a sample is obtained by selecting
convenient population elements from the population.
Sequential Sampling: In sequential sampling a number of sample lots are drawn one
after another from the population depending on the results of the earlier samples draw
from the same population. Sequential sampling is very useful in Statistical Quality
Control. If the first sample is acceptable, then no further sample is drawn. On the other
hand if the initial lot is completely unacceptable, it is rejected straightway. But if the initial
lot is of doubtful and marginal character falling in the area lying between the acceptance
and rejection limits, a second sample is drawn and if need be a third sample of bigger
size may be drawn in order to arrive at a decision on the final acceptance or rejection of
the lot. Such sampling can be based on any of the random or non-random method of
selection.
3. Mixed Sampling : It is partly probabilistic and partly Non- probabilistic in
nature.
Systematic sampling comes under the category of Mixed Sampling
Advantages of Random (OR Probability) Sampling
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1. Random sampling is objective and unbiased. As a 'result, it is defensible before the

superiors or even before the court of law. 8
2. The size of sample depends on demonstrable statistical method and therefore, it
has a justification for the expenditure involved.
3. Statistical measures, i.e. parameters based on the population can be estimated and
evaluated by sample statistic in terms of certain degree of precision required.
4. It provides a more accurate method of drawing conclusions about the characteristics
of the population as parameters.
5. It is used to draw the statistical inferences.
6. The samples may be combined and evaluated, even though accomplished by
different individuals.
7. The results obtained can be assessed in terms of probability, and the sample is
accepted or rejected on a consideration of the extent to which it can be considered
representative.

4. Sampling Distribution of a Statistic

From a population of size N, number of samples of size n can be drawn. These samples
will give different values of a statistic. E.g. if different samples of size n are drawn from a
population, different values of sample mean are obtained. The various values of a
statistic thus obtained, can be arranged in the form of a frequency distribution known as
Sampling Distribution. Thus we can have sampling distribution of sample mean x ,
sampling distribution of sample proportion p etc.

5. Errors in Sampling
Any statistical measure say, mean of the sample, may not be equal to the
corresponding statistical measure (mean) of the population from which the sample has
been drawn. Thus there can be discrepancies in the statistical measure of population,
i.e., parameter and the statistical measures of sample drawn from the same population
i.e., statistic. These discrepancies are known as Errors in Sampling.
6. Standard Error of a Statistic : Standard error is used to measure the variability of the
values of a statistic computed from the samples of the same size drawn from the
population, whereas standard deviation is used to measure the variability of the
observations of the population itself.

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The standard deviation of the sample statistics is called standard error of that statistic.
E.g. if different samples of the same size n are drawn from a population, we get different
values of sample mean x . The S.D. of x . is called standard error of x . . It is obvious

that the standard error of x . will depend upon the size of the sample and the variability
of the population.
σ s
i) Standard error of sample mean SE ( x ) = or
n n
σ=Population S.D
and s=Sample S.D

P (1 − P ) p(1 − p)
ii) Standard error of proportion SE (p) = or
n n
Where P=Population proportion
P=Sample proportion
n
If i) Population size is Finite and the Sampling Fraction ≥.05
N
And ii) Samples are drawn Without Replacement(SRSWOR)
Then , each of the above formula for Standard Error will be multiplied by the factor

N −n
( Finite Population correction or Finite Population Multiplier)FPC
N −1
• Formula for standard Error when i) n<30( small sample)

ii) Population S.D σ is unknown

s
in such a case SE( x )=
n −1
The following table will provide us a better understanding of the situations while
calculating SE ( x )
Sample Size Parameter Formula
σ
Large (n ≥ 30) SD is known SE x =
n
s
Large (n ≥ 30) SD is unknown SE x =
n

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σ
Small (n < 30) SD is known SE x =
n

s
Small (n < 30) SD is unknown SE x =
n-1

Rule of multiplying FPC will remain unaltered in a cases

7. Estimation of Population Parameters : The basic purpose of this chapter is to know

about the population parameters with the help of Sample Statistic. If the population is
completely unknown, and we find the population parameters using the knowledge of
sample values only then it is called Estimation of Population Parameters.
Types of Estimation : Estimation is divided into two groups :
(i) Point Estimation (ii) Interval Estimation
Point Estimation : Point estimation a single statistic is used to provide an estimate of
the population parameter. In other words, the estimate of a population parameter given
by a single number is called the point estimation of the parameter. In point estimation,
we find a statistic which may be used for to replace an unknown parameter of the
population for all practical purposes.
Interval Estimation : There are situations where the point estimation is not desirable
and we are interested in finding such limits within which with a known probability or to a
known degree of reliability, the value of the population parameter is expected to lie.
Such a process of estimation is called the interval estimation.

Confidence Level Confidence Coefficient + (Z)

90% 1.64
95% 1.96
98% 2.33
99% 2.58
Almost Certain(99.73%) 3

Most commonly used confidence level is 95% when no reference given use Z = 3

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Interval estimate of population mean

x - z SE ( x ) , x + z SE ( x )

Interval estimate of population proportion

p - Z SE (p) , p + Z SE (p)

8. Determination of Sample Size

The need for determination of the proper size of the sample is very great for practical
use in business where either the standard error is known on the basis of past
experience or where a given absolute level of accuracy is desired. If the sample size is
too large, more money and time have to be spent but the result obtained from the large
sample may not be more accurate than that from a smaller sample. On the other hand,
a valid conclusion may not be reached if the sample size too small. The method of
determining a proper size is given for the following two cases ;

(a) Sample size for Estimating a Population Mean :

Z 2σ 2
∴ n=
E2

Here E = | µ - x . |, i.e. the difference between sample mean x . and the

Population mean µ.

E is called Permissible Sampling Error

(b) Sample size for Estimating a Population Proportion :

Z 2 P (1 − P )
∴n=
E2

Here E = |P - p| i.e. the difference between the sample proportion p and the
population proportion P.

E is called Permissible Sampling Error

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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON SAMPLING

Simple random sampling with/ without replacement and estimation of sample proportion:

1. A population comprises 3 members 1, 5, 3. Draw all possible samples of size two (i) with
replacement (ii) without replacement
Find the sampling distribution of sample mean in both cases.

2. In simple random sampling with replacement, the total number of possible sample with
distinct permutation of member is:
(N = Size of Population, n = Sample size)
a) Nxn
b) Nn
c) N
d) n
3. In simple random sampling without replacement, the total number of possible sample with
distinct permutation of member is:
(N = Size of Population, n = Sample size)
a) Nn
b) P(N, n)
c) C(N,n)
d) None of the above
4. If from a population with 20 members, a random sample without replacement of 2
members is taken, the number of all such samples is :
a) 400
b) 190
c) 210
d) 200
5. If from a population with 25 members, a random sample with replacement of 2 members
is taken, the number of all such samples is:
a) 50
b) 300
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c) 625
d) 125
6. If from a population with 25 members, a random sample without replacement of 3
members is taken, the number of all such sample is:
a) 3400
b) 1250
c) 3400
d) 2300

7. A random sample of 200 articles taken from a large batch of articles contains 25 defective
articles. What is the estimate of the proportion of defective articles in the entire batch?
a) 0.125
b) 0.075
c) 0.250
d) 0.025

8. A random sample of 200 articles taken from a large batch contains 15 defective articles.
What is the estimate of the sample proportions of defective articles?
a) 0.075
b) 0.02
c) 0.03
d) 0.06

Calculation of Standard Error of sample Mean( x ) and sample proportion (p)

9. If a random sample of size 5 is drawn from a finite population of 41 units without replacement,

then find the standard error of sample mean if the population SD is 10 .

a) 1.00
b) 1.341
c) 1.258

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d) 1.589

10. A simple random sample of size 64 is drawn from a finite population consisting of 122
units. If the population standard deviation is 16.8. Find the standard error of sample mean
when the sample is drawn with replacement.
a) 2.1
b) 2.9
c) 4.2
d) None of the above

11. A simple random sample of size 64 drawn from a finite population consisting of 122 units.
If the population standard deviation is 16.8, find the standard error of sample mean when
the sample is drawn without replacement.
a) 2.1
b) 2.9
c) 2.07
d) 1.45

12. A random sample of 400 oranges was taken from a large consignment and 52 were
found to be defective. The standard error of the population of defective ones in a sample
of this size is nearly .
a) 0.17
b) 0.0017
c) 0.017
d) 1.700
13. A simple random sample of size 9 is drawn without replacement from a finite population
consisting of 25 units. If the number of defective units in the sample be 5, then the
standard error of the sample proportion of defectives is:
a) 0.67
b) 0.53
c) 0.11
d) 0.135

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Calculation of SE( x ) when n<30 and population of SD σ is unknown

14. A random sample of size 5 is taken from a population containing 100 units. If the sample
observations are 10, 13, 18, 7, 12, find an estimate of the standard error of sample mean,
if sampling is done with replacement.
a) 1.00
b) 1.82
c) 1.28
d) 1.78

15. A random sample of size 5 is taken from a population containing 100 units. If the sample
observations are 18, 7, 13, 10, 12 find an estimate of the standard error of sample mean,
if sampling is done without replacement.
a) 1.85
b) 1.00
c) 1.28
d) 1.78

Interval Estimation- Determination of confidence limit of population mean µ.

16. A random sample of size 100 has mean 15, the population variance being 25. Find the
interval estimate of the population mean with a confidence level of (i) 99% and (ii) 95%.

17. A random sample of 50 items drawn by a particular population has a mean 30 with a S.D.
2.8, construct a 98% confidence interval estimate of the population mean.

18. The quality control manager of a tyre company has sample of 100 tyres and has found
the mean life time to be 30,214 km. The population S.D. is 860. Construct a 95%
confidence interval for the mean life time for this particular brand of tyres.

19. A pharmaceutical company wants to estimate the mean life of a particular drug under
typical weather conditions. Following results were obtained from a sample random
sample of 100 bottles of the drug.
Sample mean = 18 months
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Population s.d. = 5 months

Sample size = 100
Find interval estimate with a confidence level of (a) 90% (b) 95% (c) 99%

Determination of Confidence Limit For Population Proportion(P):

20. A factory produces 60000 pairs of shoes on a daily basis. From a sample of 600 pairs, 3
per cent were found to be of inferior quality. Estimate the number of pairs that can be
reasonably expected to be spoiled in the daily production process at 95% level of
confidence.
21. A random sample of 800 units from a large consignment showed that 200 were damaged.
Find 95% confidence limits for the population proportion of damaged units in the
consignment.
22. Out of 300 households in a town 123 have T.V. sets. Find 95% confidence limits to the
true value of the proportion of the households with T.V. sets in the whole town.
23. A factory is producing 50,000 pairs of shoes daily. From a sample of 500 pairs 2% were
found to be of substandard quality. Estimate the number of pairs that can be reasonably
expected to be spoiled in the daily production and assign limits at 95% level of
confidence.

Determination of Sample size from Confidence limit of µ and P

24. It is known that the population standard deviation in waiting time for L.P.G. gas cylinder in
Delhi is 15 days. How large a sample should be chosen to be 95% confident, the waiting
time is within 7 days of true average.

25. A manufacturing concern wants to estimate the average amount of purchase of its
product in a month by the customers whose standard deviation is Rs.10. Find the sample
size if the maximum error is not to exceed Rs.3 with a probability of 0.99.

26. Mr. X wants to determine on the basis of sample study, the mean time required to
complete a certain job so that he may be 95% confident that the mean may remain within
+ 2 days of the true mean. As per the available records the population variance is 64
days. How large should be sample be for his study?
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27. In measuring reaction time, a psychologist estimated that the standard deviation is 1.08
seconds. What should be the size of the sample in order to be 99% confident that the
error of her estimates of mean would not exceed 0.18 seconds?

28. The incidence of a particular disease in an area in such that 20 per cent people of that
area suffers from it. What size of sample should be taken so as to ensure that the error of
estimation of the proportion should not be more than 5 per cent with 95 per cent
confidence?

Important theoretical aspect in Sampling:

Introduction:

1 Sampling is a process whereby we judge the characteristics or draw inference about the
totality or Universe (known as population) on the basis of judging the characteristics of a
selected portion taken from that totality (known as sample).

2. Population is the aggregate or totality of the data forming a subject of investigation

Types of Population:
a) Finite Population: When the items in the population are fixed and limited.
Example : No. of students in the class
b) Infinite Population: If a population consist of infinite no. of items its an
infinite population. If a sample is known to have been drawn from a continuous
probability distribution, then the population is infinite. Example : Population of all real
numbers lying between 5 and 20.
c) Real Population: A Population consisting of the items which are all present
physically is termed as real population.
d) Hypothetical Population: The Population consists of the results of the
repeated trails is named as hypothetical population The tossing of a coin
repeatedly results into a hypothetical population of heads and tails.
3. Sample: Sample is the part of population selected on some basis it is a finite
subset of the population.
4. Sample Units : Units forming the samples are called Sample Units.
5. Sample Frame : A complete list of sampling units is called Sample Frame

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n
6. Sample Fraction : is called Sampling Fraction where n = Sample Size and N =
N
Population Size.
7. Complete enumeration or census : In case of enumeration, information is collected for
each and every unit the aggregate of all the units under consideration is called the
‘population’ or the ‘universe’. The results are more accurate and reliable but it involves lot
of time, money and man power.

Basic principle of Sample Survey:

a) Law of Statistical Regularity : It states that a reasonably larger number of items

selected at random from a large group of items, will on the average, represent the
characteristics of the group.
b) Law of Inertia of Large Numbers : This law states that other things same, as the
sample size increases, the results tend to be more reliable and accurate.
c) Principle of Optimization : The principle of optimization ensures that an optimum level
of efficiency at a minimum cost or the maximum efficiency at the given level of cost can
be achieved with the selection of an appropriate sampling design.
d) Principle of Validity : The principle of validity states that a sampling design is valid only
if it is possible to obtain valid estimates and valid tests about population parameters. Only
a probability sampling ensures this validity.
• Sampling and Non sampling Errors
i) Sampling Errors: Sampling Errors have their origin in sampling and arise due to the
fact that only a part of the population (i.e. sample) has been used to estimate
population parameters and draw inference about them. As such the sampling errors
are totally absent in a census enumeration.
Sampling errors can never be completely eliminated but can be minimize by choosing a
proper sample of adequate size.
ii) Non Sampling Errors or Bias: As distinct from sampling errors, the non-sampling
errors primarily arise at the stages of observation, approximation and processing of
the data and are thus present in both the complete enumeration and the sample
survey. These error usually arise due to faulty planning, defective schedule of
questionnaire from non-response from the respondents.
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iii) Sampling error is totally absent in “Complete Enumeration” or “Census”

But, Non-Sampling errors are present in both “Complete Enumeration” and “Sample
survey”
• Parameter is a statistical measure on population.
Statistic is a statistical measure on sample.
Sampling introduction:
1. The aggregate or totality of statistical data forming a subject of investigation is known as :
a) Sample
b) Population
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of the above
2. Population is also known as:
a) Universe
b) Range
c) Area
d) Region
3. A portion of the population which is examined with a view to estimating the characteristics
of the population are known as:
a) Sample
b) Universe
c) Population
d) Statistic
4. If a sample is known to have been drawn from a continuous probability distribution then
the population is .
a) Large
b) Finite
c) Infinite
d) Nothing can be said about the population
5. The population of tea drinkers in Kolkata City is an example of:
a) A hypothetical population
b) An infinite population
c) A finite population
d) Nothing can be said about the population

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6. The possibility of reaching valid conclusions concerning a population by means of a

properly chosen sample is based on which of the following laws?
a) Law of Inertia
b) Law of Large Number
c) Law of Statistical Regularity
d) All of the above

7. A sample is a study of a __________ of the population.

a) parameters
b) statistics
c) part
d) none of the above

8. A population is the __________ of units under study.

a) totality
b) part
c) subset
d) none of the above

9. “A sample is less expensive than a cenus’’

a) The statement is incorrect.
b) The statement is correct.
c) The given statement is based on nature of sample.
d) None of the above.

10. When the population is infinite we should use the:

a) Sample Method
b) Census Method
c) Either Sample or Census Method
d) None of the above

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11. A complete list of all the units in a finite population, properly numbered for identification, is
called a:
a) Universe
b) Sampling Data
c) Sampling Units
d) Sampling Frame
12. Statistical data may be collected by complete enumeration called
a) Sample Enquiry
b) Census Enquiry
c) Both a) and b) above
d) Neither a) nor b) above
13. A border patrol checkpoint which stops every passenger van is utilizing :
a) simple random sampling.
b) systematic sampling
c) systematic sampling.
d) complete enumeration

14. A population consisting of all the items which are physically present is called :
a) hypothetical
b) normal population
c) existent population
d) none of the above

15. A population consisting of all real numbers is an example of :

a) an infinite population
b) a finite population
c) an imaginary
d) none of the above

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16. The population of roses in Salt Lake City is an example of

a) a hypothetical population
b) an infinite population
c) a finite population
d) an imaginary population
17. Value of ________ is different for different sample
a) Statistic
b) Population
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of the above.

18. A statistic is a __________variable.

a) Compound
b) Simple
c) Random
d) Both a) and c) above

Laws of sample survey :

19. Law of Statistical Regularity states that:
a) A sample of reasonably small size when selected at random, is almost not sure to
represent the characteristics of the population
b) A sample of reasonably large size when selected, is almost not sure to represent
the characteristics of the population.
c) A sample of reasonably large size when selected at random, is almost sure to
represent the characteristics of the population, on an average
d) None of the above

20. Law of Inertia is also known as:

a) Law of Statistics.
b) Law of Large Number
c) Law of Balance
d) None of the above.

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21. Law of Inertia states that:

a) Sample of high size show a high degree of stability.
b) Sample of low size shows a high degree of stability.
c) Results obtained from sample of high size are expected to be very far.
d) None of the above.

22. Increase in reliability and accuracy of results from a sampling study with the increase in
sample size is known as the principle of:
a) statistical regularity
b) optimization.
c) law of increasing returns.
d) inertia of large numbers.

23. Sampling error increases with an increase in the size of the sample.
a) The above statement is true.
b) The above statement is not true.
c) Sampling error do not depends upon the sample size
d) None of the above

24. Two basic Statistical laws concerning a population are

a) the law of statistical irregularity and the law of inertia of large numbers.
b) the law of statistical regularity and the law of inertia of large numbers.
c) the law of statistical regularity and the law of inertia of small numbers.
d) the law of statistical irregularity and the law of inertia of small numbers.
Errors in Sample survey:
25. How many different kind of errors can one find in sampling process?
a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Many

26. A sample survey is prone to:

a) Non-sampling errors
b) Sampling errors
c) Either a) or b)
d) Both a) and b)

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27. Bias is also known as:

a) Sampling Error
b) Non-Sampling Error
c) Error
d) None of the above

28. Sampling error are:

a) Particularly detectfull
b) Can be corrected
c) Arise because the information collected relates only to a part of the population.
d) All of the above.

29. Sample Error is completely absent in:

a) Complete Enumeration
b) Census
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of the above

30. __________Can occur in census.

a) Standard Error
b) Sampling Error
c) Bias
d) None of the above
31. Non- Sampling Errors include :
a) bias
b) mistakes
c) both bias and mistake
d) none of these

32. ________Errors are likely to be more in case of complete enumeration:

a) Sampling errors
b) Probability errors
c) Non sampling errors
d) None of the above
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33. “Non - sampling errors are present both in census as well as a sample survey.’’ - State
whether the given statement is correct or not.
a) Correct
b) Incorrect
c) Nothing cannot be said
d) None of the above
34. There are more chances of non-sampling errors than sampling errors in case of :
a) studies of large samples.
b) complete enumeration.
c) inefficient investigators.
d) all of the above

Concept of Sampling Distribution of Statistic and Standard Error:

Samples can be drawn with or without replacement

Probability distribution of a statistic is called sampling of statistic. Example:
sampling distribution of ( x )., sampling distribution of (p)

Standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sampling is called Standard
Error of statistic

As sample size increases standard error decreases proportionately.

Precision of the sample is reciprocal to standard Errors..

Standard Error measures sampling fluctuations. i.e fluctuations in the value of
statistics due to sampling

Related MCQ’s

35. Concept of Sampling Distribution is offen talked about in context of.

a) Statistical
b) Quantitative Analysis
c) Sampling Analysis
d) None of these

36. Values of a particular statistic with their relative frequencies will constitute
a) Probability Distribution
b) Sampling Distribution
c) Theoretical Distribution
d) None of these

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37. We can have sampling distribution of:

a) mean only.
b) standard deviation
c) both mean and standard deviation
d) any statistical measure
38. In general, mean of the sampling distribution is _______ as the mean of the population.
a) more than
b) less than
c) same
d) none of the above

39. The standard deviation of sampling distribution is commonly known as:

a) probability error
b) human bias
c) simple error
d) standard error

40. The population standard deviation describes the variation among elements of the
universe, whereas, the standard error measures the:
a) variability in a statistic due to universe
b) variabillity in a statistic due to sampling
c) variablity in a parameter due to universe
d) variablity in a statistic due to parameter

41. As the units selected in two or more samples drawn from a population are not the same,
the value of a_______ varies from sample to sample, but the _________always remains
constant.
a) mean, standard deviation
b) statistic, standard deviation
c) statistic, parameter
d) parameter, statistic

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42. The greater the value of standard error implies:

a) More the departure of actual frequencies from the expected ones.
b) More unreliability of the sample.
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of the above
43. Standard error can be described as:
a) The error committed in sample survey
b) The error committed in estimating a parameter
c) Standard deviation of a statistic
d) The error committed in sampling.
44. The reciprocal of the standard error is:
a) Precision of the sample
b) Error of the sample
c) Error of the Universe
d) None of the above
45. Precision of random sample:
a) increases directly with increase in sample size
b) increases with the increase in sample size
c) increases proportionately with sample size
d) none of these.
46. The standard error of the_______ is the standard deviation of sample means.
a) Population
b) Sample
c) Mean
d) Median
47. Sampling Fluctuations may be described as :
a) the variation in the values of a statistic.
b) the variation in the values of a sample.
c) the differences in the values of a parameter.
d) the variation in the values of observations.

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Theory of estimation, confidence limits and determination of sample size.

Theory of Estimation
1. It is a process whereby, we estimate the Parameter from the given value of a Statistic.

For Example, we estimate Population Mean µ from Sample Mean x , Population S.D σ
from sample S.D s, Population proportion P from Sample proportion p
.2 ી’ and statistic by ‘t’
For the purpose of Estimation, parameter denoted by ‘ી

For example: x =t and µ= θ

PROPERTIES OF A GOODS ESTIMATOR

1. UNBIASEDNESS

A statistic ‘t’ is said to be an unbiased estimator of parameter θ if E(t) = θ

i.e. Mean of Statistic = Parameter.

a) If E(t) - θ = 0 or If E(t)= θ

Then, ‘t’ is an unbiased estimator of θ

b) The magnitude of biasness is: { E(t) - θ}

c) E( x )= µ (Hence ( x ) is an Unbiased Estimator of µ)

d) E(p)=P (Hence, p is an unbiased estimator of the Parameter P)

e) But, E(s2)≠ ߪ ଶ (i.e mean of sample variance is not population variance)
(hence s2 is a biased estimator of the population variance σ 2 .)
2. Consistency :
Accuracy should increase with increase in sample size. That is, as n will increase, it
should be closer to the parameter. Symbolically as n increases,
i) E(statistic) ͢ → Parameter and
ii) V(statistic) → 0
3. Efficiency and Minimum Variance:
If there are two consistent estimators, among them we should choose the estimator with
minimum variance, that is, the statistic with smaller sample variance.
If t and t’ are two consistent estimators and var.(t) < var. (t’) we shall choose t as the
estimator as it is more efficient in choosing θ.

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4. Sufficiency :
It is said to be a sufficient estimator of a parameter θ, if it contains all information about
the parameter θ.
NOTE 1:
1. Minimum Variance Unbiased Estimator (MVUE)
(Minimum variance along with 0 bias)
A statistic, which is unbiased and has also minimum variance, that is most efficient, is
said to be MVUE.
NOTE 2:
Best Asymptotically Normal Estimator or Best Linear Unbiased Estimator (BLUE)
If the estimator is unbiased along with minimum variance and at the same time it is a linear
function of θ, that is,
t = f(θ), then it is called Best Linear unbiased estimator (BLUE)
• In interval estimation the confidence limits are the upper and lower limits of the
interval estimate.
Concept of level of significance ∝ : Level of significance is defined as the
significance of error in evaluating the confidence limits. Thus, Level of
significance, the Compliment of Level of Confidence.
Example 1: 5% level of significance =95% level of confidence
Example 2: 1% level of significance =99% level of confidence
Symbolically we expressed the fact that a parameter ી lies between two values C1
and C2 is 1- ∝
1- ∝
That is , P(C1 < θ < C2 )=1-∝
∝” is called the “ level of significance” and 1- ∝ is called the “level of
where “∝
confidence”.
• Sample size is determined from C.L. (Confidence Limits) of mean and proportions
Related MCQ’s:
48. The limits within which the parameter values are expected to lie can be determined by
using which of the following concepts:
a) Sampling Distribution
b) Probability Distribution
c) Standard Deviation
d) Standard Error.
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49. Within ± 3SE, we have % of the area under normal curve.

a) 99.73
b) 99
c) 98
d) 100
50. Give the formula for computing the standard error of mean in case of population is finite.
(With the symbols having the usual meaning)
σ
a)
n
σ N −1
b)
n N −n

σ N −n
c)
n N −1
d) None of the above

51. A single number that is used to estimate an unknown population parameter is known as:
a) Interval Estimate
b) Point Estimate
c) Estimate
d) Statistics

52. ________is a range of values used in making estimation of a population parameter.

a) Interval Estimate
b) Parameter
c) Statistics
d) Point Estimate
53. The 95% confidence interval for the sample mean is given by: (symbols having the usual
meaning)
σ
a) µ ± 1.96
n
σ
b) µ ± 1.675
n
σ
c) x ± 0.96
n
σ
d) x ± 1.96
n

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54. Which of the following(s) are the criterion for an ideal estimator:
I. Unbiased ness and Minimum Variance
II. Sufficiency
III. Consistency
IV. Efficiency
a) I, II and III above
b) I, II, and IV above
c) All of the above
d) I and II only.

55. A statistic T is known to be minimum variance unbiased estimator (MVUE) of θ if:

a) T is unbiased for θ
b) T has the minimum variance among all the unbiased estimators of θ
c) Both a) and b) above
d) None of the above

56. Why unbiased ness is considered along with minimum variance?

a) Because for a parameter θ, there exists a good number of unbiased statistics.
b) Because for a parameter θ, there doesn’t exists a goods number of unbiased
statistics.
c) Because for a parameter θ, there are less number of unbiased statistics.
d) None of the above.

57. A statistic T is known to be consistent estimator of the parameter θ if the difference

between T and θ can be made smaller and smaller by taking ______the sample size n.
a) smaller and smaller
b) larger and larger
c) nothing can be said
d) it doesn’t depends on the sample size

58. A statistic T is known to be an efficient estimator of θ if T has the________ standard error

among all the estimators of θ when the sample size is kept fixed.
a) maximum
b) worst
c) minimum
d) None of the above.
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59. If statistics T contains all the information about θ, then T is known to be a estimator of θ.
a) Efficient
b) Sufficient
c) Consistent
d) Systematic

60. For an unknown parameter, how many interval estimates exist?

a) Only one
b) Many
c) Two
d) Three

61. The most commonly used confidence interval is:

a) 90%
b) 93%
c) 95%
d) 99%

62. The sample standard deviation is:

a) An unbiased estimator
b) A biased estimator
c) A biased estimator for population variance
d) A biased estimator for population SD

63. If x1, x2 ...., xn is a simple random sample of size n from a finite population of N units with

mean x and variance σ2, then which of the following is true:

a) E ( x ) = µ2

b) Var ( x ) = σ

c) E( x )=µ
d) All of the above are incorrect

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64. The estimate which is used in making estimation of a population parameter is :

a) point estimation
b) interval estimation
c) both a) and b) above
d) none of these

65. The permissible sampling error required to determine sample size for
a) estimating a mean
b) estimating a proportion
c) both a) and b) above
d) none of the above

66. The criteria for an ideal estimation are :

a) unbiasedness, consistency, efficiency and sufficiency
b) unbiasedness, expectation, sampling and estimation.
c) estimation consistency, sufficiency and efficiency
d) estimation, expectation, unbiasedness and sufficiency.

67. An unbiased estimator

a) has the smallest variance among all estimators.
b) is always the best estimator
c) has an expected value equal to the true parameter value
d) always generates the value of the parameter.

68. An efficient estimator

a) has a small variance.
b) gets closer to the true parameter value as the sample size increases
c) has an expected value equal to the true parameter value
d) always generates the true value of the parameter.
69. When choosing an estimator of a population parameter, one should consider :
a) sufficiency
b) efficiency
c) both a) and b) above
d) none of the above
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70. A consistent estimator

a) has the smallest variance among all estimators :
b) gets closer to the true parameter value as the sample size increases.
c) has an expected value equal to the true parameter value
d) is always sufficient.

71. The standard deviation is required to determine sample size for :

a) estimating a mean
b) estimating a proportion
c) both of a) and b) above
d) none of these

72. The difference between sample S.D. and the estimate of population S.D. is negligible if
the sample size is :
a) small
b) moderate
c) sufficiently large
d) none of these

73. The difference between the estimate from the sample and the parameter to be estimated
is:
a) sampling error
b) permissible sampling error.
c) confidence level
d) none of these.

74. The interval bounded by upper and lower limits is known as :

a) estimate interval
b) confidence interval
c) point interval
d) none of these.

75. A sufficient statistic

a) is consistent
b) is unbiased
c) uses all information a sample contains about the parameter to be estimated
d) is always efficient.

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76. An interval estimate is :

a) a range of values used to estimate the population parameter.
b) a single value that is used estimate the population parameter.
c) always unbiased
d) always a sufficient statistic
77. Another name of best asymptotically normal estimator is :
a) minimum variance unbiased estimator
b) best linear unbiased estimator
c) consistent asymptotically normal efficient estimator.
d) none of these.

78. The values of a characteristics x of a population containing six units are given by 2, 6, 5,
1, 7, 3. Take all possible samples of size two and find the mean of the sample means.
a) 1
b) 4
c) 2
d) 3
79. Let the five numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 constitute a universe. Select all samples of size three
and compute the mean of the sample means. The value thus obtained is:
a) 3
b) 4
c) 5
d) 6

80. Which of the following(s) are the important sampling distribution often used in statistical
analysis?
a) Chi-square distribution
b) F-distribution
c) t-distribution
d) All of the above
Determination of confidence Limits for small samples (n<30 and population S.D σ is
unknown)
• In such a case the distribution follows T-distribution with (n-1) degrees of freedom
an accordingly
s
i) SE( x )= and
n −1
ii) Instead of using “Z” values we shall be using t values from the table for (n-
1) d.f. and at the desired level of confidence or significance
whre n = sample size
s
• ૄ)= x ±
C.L(ૄ .࢚ ࢻ
n − 1 ቀ ൗ૛,࢔ି૚ቁ

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81. Which of the following distribution is used to test the significance if size of the sample is
less than 30 and variance of the population is unknown?
a) Standard Normal Distribution
b) Normal Distribution
c) “t’’ distribution
d) Chi-Square distribution

THEORETICAL QUESTIONS ON TYPES OF SAMPLING

82. Which Sampling provides separate estimates for populations means for different
purposes and also an over all estimate?
a) Multistage sampling b) Simple random Sampling
c) Systematic sampling d) Stratified sampling

83. When we have an idea that the error might be involved, we use:
a) Point Estimate b) Interval Estimate
c) Both (a)and (b) d) None of these

84. Which sampling adds flexibility to the sampling process?

a) Systematic sampling b) Multistage sampling
c) Stratified sampling d) Simple random sampling

85. When every member in population has an equal chance of being selection ,then that
sampling is called_______________
a) Restrictive b) Purposive
c) Subjective d) Non- restrictive

86. If every 9th unit is selected from universal set then this type of sampling is known as:
a) Quota sampling b) Systematic sampling
c) Stratified sampling d) None of these

87. The sampling is said to be large sampling if the size of the sample is:
a) Greater than or equal to 30 b) Less than 30
c) Less than or equal to 35 d) Less than 25

88. The method of sampling in which each unit of the population has an equal chance of
being selected in the sample is
a) Random Sampling b) Stratified sampling
c) Systematic sampling d) None of the above

89. A selection Procedure of a sample, having no involvement of probability is known as:

a) Purposive sampling b) Judgement sampling
c) Subjective Sampling d) All of the above
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90. In order to test the quality of chalks, the best suitable method wil be__________
a) Complete enumeration b) Simple random sampling
c) Systematic sampling d) Stratified sampling

91. In factory there are 48 employees with employee code from 1 to 48 the employer
desires to take the sample of every sixth employee under the systematic sampling
technique the sample size will be:
a) 6 b) 8 c) 10 d) 7

92. Which of the following is non-probability sampling method?

a) Systematic Sampling b) Quota Sampling
c) Random Sampling d) Stratified Sampling

93. Method used to rest the human blood is called in Statistical terminology________
a) Census Investigation b) Blood Investigation
c) Sample Investigation d) None of these

94. Area sampling is similar to___________

a) Quota Sampling b) Cluster Sampling
c) Judgement Sampling d) None of these.

95. Statistical decision about an unknown universe is taken on the basis of

(a) Sample observations (b) A Sampling frame
(c) Sample survey (d) Complete enumeration

96. Simple random sampling is very effective if

(a) The population is not very large.
(b) The population is not much heterogenous
(c) The population is partitioned into several sections.
(d) Both (a) and (b)

97. Simple random sampling is

(a) A probability sampling (b) A non-probabilistic sampling
(c) A mixed sampling (d) Both (a) and (b)

98. Which sampling is subjected to the Discretion of the sampler?

(a) Systematic sampling (b) Simple random sampling
(c) Purposive sampling (d) Quota sampling

99. By using sampling methods we have

(a) the error estimation & less quality data.
(b) less quality data & lower costs.
(c) the error estimation & higher quality data.
(d) higher quality data & higher costs.

100. Which would you prefer for ___________”The universe is large”

(a) Full enumeration (b) sampling (c) both (d) none.
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101. Which would you prefer for ___________”Where testing destroys the quality of the
product”
(a) Full enumeration (b) sampling (c) both (d) none.

102. In cost accounting operation Statistical Sampling methods are used.

(a) true (b) false (c) both (d) none

103. In control of book keeping and clerical errors Statistical sampling methods are used.
(a) true (b) false (c) both (d) none

104. Deliberate sampling is free from bias.

(a) True (b) false (c) both (d) none.

105. Which would you prefer___________when a higher degree of confidence is desired

(a) Larger sample (b) Small sample (c) both (d) none

106. Which would you prefer ____________when previous experience reveals a low rate of
error.
(a) Larger sample (b) Small sample (c) both (d) none

107. Cluster sampling is ideal in case the data are widely scattered.
(a) True (b) false (c) both (d) none.

108. Stratified random sampling is appropriate when the universe isnot homogenous.
(a) True (b) false (c) both (d) none.

109. In Stratified sampling, the sampling is subdivided into several parts, called
(a) Strata (b) Strati (c) Start (d) none

110. The ways of selecting a sample are .

(a) Random sampling (b) multi –stage sampling
(c) both (d) none

111. _______________sampling is the most appropriate in cases when the population is

more or less homogenous with respect to the characteristics under study
(a) Multi –stage (b) Stratified (c) Random (d) none

112. Random sampling is called lottery sampling

(a) True (b) false (c) both (d) none.

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Theory Answers
1 B 2 A 3 A 4 C 5 C 6 D 7 A 8 A
9 B 10 A 11 A 12 B 13 D 14 C 15 A 16 B
17 A 18 C 19 C 20 B 21 A 22 D 23 B 24 B
25 B 26 D 27 C 28 D 29 C 30 C 31 C 32 C
33 A 34 D 35 C 36 B 37 D 38 C 39 D 40 B
41 A 42 B 43 C 44 A 45 C 46 C 47 A 48 D
49 A 50 C 51 B 52 A 53 D 54 C 55 C 56 A
57 B 58 C 59 B 60 B 61 C 62 D 63 C 64 C
65 C 66 A 67 C 68 A 69 C 70 B 71 A 72 C
73 B 74 B 75 C 76 A 77 B 78 B 79 C 80 D
81 C 82 D 83 B 84 D 85 B 86 B 87 A 88 A
89 D 90 B 91 B 92 B 93 B 94 C 95 B 96 B
97 A 98 C 99 C 100 B 101 B 102 A 103 A 104 B
105 A 106 B 107 A 108 A 109 A 110 C 111 C 112 A

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