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CAIE IGCSE
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Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is

1. Data Representation divided by the previous value of the current number and 1
is added to the remainder column for that specific number
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
1.1. Number Systems bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case, it
is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
Binary System
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
Base 2 number system
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) Separate each value from each other and convert them to
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON denary
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the MSB Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
(Most Significant Bit) All the binary values to be merged together
e.g.
Denary System
Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
Base 10 number system Denary : 2 1 15 13
Has values from 0 to 9 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101

Hexadecimal (aka Hex) Final Answer: 0010000111111101

Base 16 number system Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, which Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
is F right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
until it reaches 4
| Binary Value | Hexadecimal Value | Denary Value | |----|----|- For each group, find the denary value as shown above, and
---| | 0000 | 0 | 0 | | 0001 | 1 | 1 | | 0010 | 2 | 2 | | 0011 | 3 then convert each denary value to its corresponding
| 3 | | 0100 | 4 | 4 | | 0101 | 5 | 5 | | 0110 | 6 | 6 | | 0111 | 7 hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is A,
| 7 | | 1000 | 8 | 8 | | 1001 | 9 | 9 | | 1010 | A | 10 | | 1011 | 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
B | 11 | | 1100 | C | 12 | | 1101 | D | 13 | | 1110 | E | 14 | | After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
1111 | F | 15 | order to get the final answer

1.2. Number Conversions Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101
Converting Binary to Denary
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the power
of the number of values from the right starting from 0. e.g. After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
For binary value 11101110, place it in a table like this:
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
|128|64|32|16|8|4|2|1| |:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|
|1|1|1|0|1|1|1|0| Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then
right to left convert the final answer to denary
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the final
answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 = Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
238
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to
Converting Denary to Binary hexadecimal as explained above

Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a

table like follows:

|2|142||| |:---|:---|:---|:---| |2|71|Remainder:|0|

|2|35|Remainder:|1| |2|17|Remainder:|1|
|2|8|Remainder:|1| |2|4|Remainder:|0|
|2|2|Remainder:|0| |2|1|Remainder:|0| ||0|Remainder:|1|

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Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:

1.3. Binary Calculations 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically shifted
is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is removed)
Binary values are not added the way denary values are - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would have been
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two removed)==
because it doesn’t exist in binary. 2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left in
Points to Note:
this case, and the leftover bit in the right is marked
0+0=0 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
1+0/0+1=1
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Two’s complement is a method used to represent negative
values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most Significant Bit) is
Overflow replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the range of values in a
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit of two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the question
had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is called
Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement
overflow.
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one from
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough space
the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at the third
to store the answer to the addition done in the previous position from the right.
part. Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located
above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in our example
Steps to add Two Values (With Example) becomes 0010100, which is the two’s complement of itself.
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the Converting negative values to two complement
left-hand side to match them). Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Convert the binary value to two’s complement
2. Add the values as follows with the points given Make the MSB 1, if not already
above

| Carry | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | |----|----|----|----|----|---- Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:

|----|----|----|----| | Byte 1 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted from
Byte 2 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | | OVERFLOW | | | | |
binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8 e.g., for
| | | | | Solution | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we 1011101,0 we do the:
use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit | -128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |----|----|----|----|----|----|--
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is --|----| | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
overflow. -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System
Logical Shifts
Examples:
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left or
the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being
emptied is going to become 0

Explanation with Example

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Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) Unicode

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that
uniquely identifies a device on a network) ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
Assembly languages and machine code thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
Memory Dumps The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory location multiple languages and more data.
of the error) To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses character set, a collection of characters and the
corresponding binary codes that represent them.
Memory Dumps

Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or Sound

when trying to trace errors.
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output to
a printer or monitor. form, it is sampled
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and How is Sound Recorded
less error-prone than binary.
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set
values and is prone to errors. time intervals
The value is converted to digital form
1.5. Text, Sound and Images Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a series
of binary digits
ASCII A series of readings gives an approximate representation of
the sound wave
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit code
that represents the letters, numbers and characters found Sampling Resolution:
on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control codes
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
resolution (aka bit depth)
values
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
of the sampled sound as more detail is stored about the
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
amplitude of the sound.
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
follows:
memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
[ ] 0 is at 48 store the data.
[ ] A is at 65
[ ] a is at 97 Sampling Rate
ASCII uses one byte to store the value The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to binary, per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to 0 when A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound as
going from lowercase to uppercase of a character, and the fewer estimations will be done between samples.
rest remains the same. e.g.
Images
Bitmap Images

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|Name of memory size|No. of Bytes|Equivalent Denary Value|
Bitmap images are made up of pixels |:---|:---|:---| |1 kilobyte (1KB)|10³|1 000 bytes|
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of binary |1 megabyte (1MB)|10⁶|1 000 000 bytes| |1
numbers gigabyte (1GB)|10⁹|1 000 000 000 bytes| |1
terabyte (1TB)|10¹²|1 000 000 000 000 bytes| |1
Colour Depth petabyte (1PB)|10¹⁵|1 000 000 000 000 000
bytes|
The number of bits representing each colour is called the
colour depth. Calculation of File Size
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of
256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution (in
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one colour pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
(because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as the bit The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 being black) (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
storing an image. multiply the result by two.)

Image Resolution Sample Question:

Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make find the size of bitmap image with the width 500 and height
up an image; for example, an image could contain 4096 × 500. The color depth of this image is 24.
3072 pixels.
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than working:
those with a higher resolution.
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having a (500 x 500 x 24)
low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as = 6,000,000 bits (bit to bytes) /8 = 750,000 bytes
being pixelated. (bytes to KiB) /1024 = 732 KiB
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
compared to low-resolution ones. or:

1.6. Measurement of the Size of 24 bits = 3 bytes

(500 x 500 x 3)
Computer Memories = 750,000 bytes
(bytes to KiB) /1024 = 732 KiB
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
8 bits is a byte
4 bits is a nibble
1.7. File Types
Byte is used to measure memory size Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
IECB System (Most Common)
|Name of memory size|No. of Bytes|Equivalent Denary Value|
|:---|:---|:---| |1 kibibyte (1KiB)|2¹⁰|1 024 bytes|
|1 mebibyte (1MiB)|2²⁰|1 048 576 bytes| |1
gibibyte (1GiB)|2³⁰|1 073 741 824 bytes| |1
tebibyte (1TiB)|2⁴⁰|1 099 511 627 776 bytes| |1
pebibyte (1PiB)|2⁵⁰|1 125 899 906 842 624
bytes|

Conventional System

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Storage of music files

A communications protocol that allows electronic musical 1.8. Lossless and Lossy File Compression
instruments to interact with each other
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes Lossless File Compression
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes: All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the MIDI again when the file is uncompressed.
Important for files where the loss of data would be
device what function to perform
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel (operates disastrous (spreadsheet)
on 16 different channels) An algorithm is used to compress data
Examples of MIDI commands: No data is lost
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
(loudness of music)
Run-Length Encoding
It needs a lot of memory storage It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data (e.g.
MP3 repeated colours in an image)
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first value
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
music and other sounds into an MP3 file format characters), and the second value represents the code of
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90% the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
Done using file compression algorithms, which use character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 98
Perceptual Music Shaping 02 99 05 100.”
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated
properly units/bits
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
quality, too much strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
CD files are converted using File Compression Software 255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the every repeating value, e.g. our previous example becomes
compression algorithm 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 where 255
now indicates that the next character/set of characters is
MP4 approaching
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
than just sound
Lossy File Compression
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
Videos could be streamed without losing any real data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
discernible quality It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) compressed
Reduces file quality
JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file sizes In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of reduced.
pixels per centimetre
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file size
is reduced 2. Data Transmission
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor between
5 and 15 2.1. Types and Methods of Data
Transmission
Data Packets

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Packet Structure -
Header 2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
receiver USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
The sequence number of the packet USB consists of:
Size of the packet Four-wire shielded cable
Two wires are used for power and earth
Payload
Two wires are used in data transmission
Contains the actual data
Trailer | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Automatically
Includes a method of identifying the end of the detected | Transmission rate is less than 120 MB/sec | | Only
packet fit one way, prevents incorrect connections | Maximum cable
Error-Checking methods length is about 5 metres | | Different data transmission rates |
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the | | Backwards compatible | | | Industry-standard | |
data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent
independently from start to end and reassembled at the
receiver’s computer. 2.3. Methods of Error Detection
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | There is no need to Parity Checks
create a single line of communication | Packets may be lost | |
Possible to overcome failed or busy nodes | More prone to It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
errors in real-time streaming | | High data transmission speed Two Types -
| Delay at the receiver while the packets are being re-ordered | Even - Even number of 1-bits
| Easy to expand package usage | | Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Example (Even Parity) -
Data Transmission
|0|1|0|1|1|0|1|0| |:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---|:---| ||
Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number of
computer to printer) 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not <center><b>Limitations with Parity Checks</b></center>
at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie) Two bits may change during transmission; therefore error is
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
not found
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the
line) bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
time over a single wire Parity Blocks
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.

Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

| Serial | Parallel | |----|----| | Better for longer distances
(Telephone Lines) | Better for short distances (Internal circuits)
| | Cheaper Option | Expensive (More hardware required) | |
Used when the size of data transmitted is small | Used when
speed is necessary | | Slower Option | Faster than Serial | |
Easier to synchronise as there's only one data stream. |
Difficult to synchronise due to skew between bits. |

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To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
would be used. user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout, the
data will be sent again to the receiver.

2.4. Encryption
Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
Checksum other attackers.

Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender Plaintext and Ciphertext
would calculate the checksum value using a specific
algorithm. Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would calculate Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
the checksum again with the same set of data and the same
algorithm used before. Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
The receiver would then compare the value received and
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A Symmetric Encryption:
request is made to re-send the data. It uses an encryption key for the encryption process; the
same key is used for encrypting and decrypting the
Echo Check data.
Asymmetric Encryption:
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
data back to the sender for verification. available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
The sender would compare the received and original data available to the user.
for errors. The receiver would have the private key, and they would
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error send the public key to the sender. The sender can
occurred when sending the data or sending the data back encrypt the message with the public key, and the data
for verification. can be decrypted using the private key.

Check Digits
3. Hardware
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
the code. 3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as - Neumann Architecture
6372 typed as 6379
8432 typed as 842 The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs) computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture:

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Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and Logic 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Unit (ALU) fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
memory, processor and input/output devices 3. The instruction is fetched from the main memory (RAM)
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like via the data bus.
calculations 4. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing temporarily
signals on the control bus 5. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
6. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to the
Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its next instruction to be fetched
types. 7. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Address bus – unidirectional
Data Bus – bi-directional
Stored Program Concept
Control Bus – bi-directional Instructions are stored in the main memory
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to be Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by
processed, which are fetched by the CPU the processor
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
Memory Concept
|REGISTER|ABBREVIATION|FUNCTION| |:---|:---|:---|
|CIR|Current instruction register|Stores the instruction the A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
CPU is currently decoding or executing| |MAR|Memory partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
address register|Stores the Address of the instruction, copy it,
and sends it to MDR| |MDR|Memory data register|Stores the |MEMORY LOCATION|CONTENT| |:---|:---|
Data from the address received from the MAR and sends data |10101010|01010110|
to CIR| |PC|Program counter|Stores the address of the next Instruction Set:
instruction to be fetched from memory| An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU can
|ACC|Accumulator|During calculations, data is temporarily process, and the commands are machine code
held in it|
3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
System’s Clock
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all computer
operations. By increasing the clock speed, the computer's
processing speed also increases. This doesn’t mean that the
computer's performance is increased, however.

Overclocking
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed
The Fetch-Execute Cycle for.
It leads to multiple issues.

Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer would

frequently crash and become unstable)
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Length of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
the computer

Cache

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Cache memory is located within the CPU itself
-- allows faster access to the CPU 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be dimensional image
accessed faster, which improves CPU performance Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU magnetic, white light)
performance The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working model
Cores Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
performance represent the passport pages
But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down the Text can be stored in ASCII format
system performance as the communication between each The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
core increases, and so do the data cables between each. stored as jpeg image
Which in turn reduces the potential system performance. The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
You might have heard about quad and dual cores as well as camera and compared to using face recognition software
septa and octa cores as they are becoming increasingly Key parts of the face are compared (distance between eyes,
common. width of nose)

Barcode readers/scanners
3.3. Input Devices
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
Two-dimensional Scanners: varying thicknesses
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique series
Used to input hard-copy documents of lines
The image is converted into an electronic form, which can The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
be stored in the computer using guard bars
The document is placed on a glass panel Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
A bright light illuminates the document The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
A scan head moves across the document until the whole Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect little
page is scanned. An image of the document is produced light, which allows the bars to be read
and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
The lens focuses on the document image The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated Quick Response (QR) Codes
circuits
Another type of barcode is the QR codes
The software produces a digital image in the electronic
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
form
background
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
converts scanned documents into a text file format
Advantages of QR codes:
If the original document was a photo/image, then the
No need for the user to write down the website address
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG
QR codes can store website addresses
Three-dimensional Scanners QR Codes are easier to use as they can be read by
phone cameras

Digital Cameras

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It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the shutter Capacitive (medium cost tech)
speed, focuses the image, etc. Made up of many layers of glass
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
a light sensitive cell When the top layer of glass is touched, electric current
The cell is made up of pixels changes
The number of pixels determines the size of the file Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
determined by an on-board microprocessor
Keyboards Infra-red heat (expensive)
Use glass as the screen material
Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
wireless connection Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a Infra-red optical (expensive)
digital signal Uses glass as screen material
Slow method Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
Prone to errors
touched
Pointing devices Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of glass
Mouse/trackball When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port bottom layer complete a circuit
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
microprocessor to determine where the screen was
Microphones touched
Used to input sound to a computer
Sensors
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates,
producing an electric signal
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital
values and stored in a computer
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
digital

Touchscreens

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Devices that read or measure physical properties The light sensor sends data to the ADC
Data needs to be converted to digital The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical values Microprocessor samples data every minute
into digital If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Sensors and their purposes: Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Lamp switched on
converts sound to electric pulses.
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's 3.4. Output Devices
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Inkjet Printers
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
gas in the environment. Used to print one-off pictures and documents
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Data from the document sent to the printer driver
the air or any sample. The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, it available
changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
detector. memory (printer buffer)
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
emitted by any object. available in the paper tray
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
level. four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
generate electric current based on light brightness. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
magnetic field. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water content
wherever this sensor has been installed. Laser Printers
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. Used to print flyers, high quality
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to produce
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects text and images
around the sensor Prints the whole page in one go
Temperature - These sensors measure the temperature
of the environment. 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of the 2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.) drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it;
removing the positive charge leaves negatively charged
Control of Street Lighting­­ areas which match the text/image
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner; it
only sticks to negatively charged parts of the drum
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
produce a copy of the page
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated rollers);
heat melts the ink so it is permanent
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the
drum, ready to print on the next page

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
3D Printers
Uses millions of micromirrors
Used for models of cars the number of micromirrors and the way they are arranged
Produce solid objects that work on the DLP chip determines the resolution of the image
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
powder are on
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD) When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source, they
are off
2D and 3D Cutters This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours
Actuators
LCD Projectors
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
processes. Older technology than DLP
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
Used in many control applications involving sensors and
devices (ADC and DAC) This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different
Loudspeakers/Headphones wavelengths
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light has
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from the These three different lights pass through three LCD
loudspeaker screens; these screens show the image to be projected as
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the millions of pixels in grayscale
speaker at different frequencies When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a
red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
LCD and LED Monitors Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal the screen
Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in threes as
pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL has a
yellow tint
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
LEDs consume very little power
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen, - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
which supplies the light source

<span class="underline">Light Projectors:</span> 3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media

Two common types of light projectors: Primary vs. Secondary Storage
Digital Light Projector (DLP)
LCD Projector
Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger
screens/interactive whiteboards

Digital Light Projectors (DLP)

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

The CPU directly accesses primary storage

RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples of
primary storage
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
examples of secondary storage

<span class="underline">Primary Memory:</span>

Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and access
data that is actively being used or processed by the user
immediately. You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
Features of RAM The main advantages of virtual memory are
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is They can be larger than the physical memory provided
turned off) in the RAM.
Used to store; data, files Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could be
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of expensive
the memory can be changed The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer will data.
operate
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run slow Read Only Memory (ROM)
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the Features of ROM
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
new data even when ROM is turned off)
RAM is of two types:
Used to store start-up instructions (basic input/output
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) systems)
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
cannot be changed

<span class="underline">Secondary Storage:</span>

Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface of

the disks (platter)
A number of read/write heads can access all of the surfaces
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science
of the disk
- Second Edition (Hodder Education) Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
Virtual memory store the data
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
memory management; thus, the system has a high chance HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes into the Solid-State Drive (SSD)
picture.
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
storages are discussed below)

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
same time (not like HDD) customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons within companies
NAND chips, as 1s and 0s Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
Non-volatile rewritable memory environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD: and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a
More reliable (no moving parts) single entity
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops) Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
Lower power consumption environments; some data resides in the private cloud, and
Run much cooler than HDDs less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a
Very thin public cloud storage provider
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
<span class="underline">Off-Line Storage:</span>
CD/DVD Disks

Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the

surface of the disk.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge 3.6. Embedded System
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
A combination of hardware and software is designed to
capacity (two individual recording layers)
carry out a specific set of tasks.
Blu-ray Disks Embedded systems may contain -
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations peripherals on one single chip
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
(stores up to five times more data than DVD) System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports,
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent piracy storage and memory
and copyright infringement) Process of Embedded Devices -
Used as backup systems Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor (ADC
needed if the data is analogue)
USB Flash Memories Data from the user interface is also sent to the
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files microprocessor
Small back-up devices for photo, music The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care which are the output
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
Cloud Storage: need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is Connecting the device to a computer and downloading
stored on remote servers the update
The same data is stored on more than one server in case of Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data at link
any time. This is known as data redundancy.

The following are its types:

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
systems IP address allocation:
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Small in size, The network allocates IP addresses.
therefore can easily fit into devices | Can be difficult to Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
upgrade | | Low cost to make | The interface can be confusing Static IP addresses:
sometimes | | Requires very little power | Troubleshooting is a Assigned manually to a device.
specialist’s job | | Very fast reaction to changing input | Often Does not change over time.
thrown away as difficult to upgrade and faults are harder to Dynamic IP addresses:
find | | Dedicated to one task only | Increased garbage as they Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
are thrown away | | Can be controlled remotely | Any Configuration Protocol) server.
computerised system is prone to attacks | Changes periodically or when the device connects to a
different network.
Applications of Embedded devices IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
GPS systems Widely used protocol.
Security Systems Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated
Vending Machines by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
Washing Machines Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
Oven IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Microwave Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated
3.7. Network Hardware by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Network Interface Card (NIC) Provides an extremely large number of unique
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion).
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to Differences between IPv4 and IPv6:
connect to a network (such as the Internet). Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6
uses a 128-bit address.
Media Access Control (MAC) Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion
addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 undecillion
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six addresses.
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
serial number. primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.

These do not change and are primarily constant for every Routers
device
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Administered MAC Address (LAA)

The only difference between the two types is that UAA is made
Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the opposite for
LAA.

IP Addresses

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Router functionality: Operating Systems are designed to establish

A router is a networking device that directs data packets communication between the user and the computer
between different networks. Functions of a typical operating system -
It determines the most efficient path for data -managing files
transmission. – handling interrupts
Sending data to a specific destination on a network: – providing an interface
A router examines the destination IP address of – managing peripherals and drivers
incoming data packets. – managing memory
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the – managing multitasking
next router on the path to the destination. – providing a platform for running applications
The router forwards the data packet to the appropriate – providing system security
next hop. – managing user accounts
Router's role in IP address assignment: WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
devices on a local network.
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a predefined
range to connected devices.
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration and
simplifies network management.
Connecting a local network to the Internet:
A router serves as the gateway between a local network
and the internet.
It connects the local network to an internet service
provider (ISP) network.
The router receives data packets from devices on the
local network and forwards them to the internet. Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
It also receives incoming data packets from the internet Second Edition (Hodder Education)
and routes them to the appropriate devices on the local
network. Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
3.8. Operating Systems Security Management - Providing security features such as
Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Renaming,
and many more functions
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources with
each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
users to customise their accounts individually.

Running of Applications

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)

through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
the location of the OS in the storage.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science

- Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language

Few programmers use assembly language to -

Make use of special hardware
Interrupts Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
Signal that causes the microprocessor to stop what it's Assembly language must be translated into machine
doing and service the task code using an assembler to run.
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it 3.10. Translators
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Compiler
continues Translates a program written in a high-level language into
machine code
3.9. Programming Languages, Used without compiler
Executable file of machine code produced
Translators and IDEs One high-level language translated into several machine
Computers can only understand machine code; therefore, code instructions
translators are needed Used for general use
Interpreter
High-Level Languages
Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
It is easier to read and understand as the language is closer
to human language. No executable file of machine code produced
Easier to write in a shorter time One high-level language program statement may require
Easier to debug at the development stage several machine code instructions to be executed.
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
Easier to maintain once in use
interpreter
Low-Level Languages Used when the program is being developed

Refer to machine code Assembler

Binary instructions that the computer understands

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Translates a low-level language program into machine code 1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
Executable file of machine code produced programs and device drivers
One low-level language translated into one machine code 2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
instructions processor, etc.
It can be used without an assembler
Used for general use System Software:
| Compiler | Interpreter | Assembler | |----|----|----| | these are a set of programs which control and manage the
Translates a high-level language program into machine code. | operations of hardware
Executes a high-level language program one statement at a gives a platform for other software to run
time. | Translates a low-level assembly language program into it is required to allow hardware and software to run without
machine code. | | An executable file of machine code is problems
produced. | No executable file of machine code is produced. | provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
An executable file of machine code is produced. | | One high- controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources
level language statement can be translated into several
machine code instructions. | One high-level language program Application Software:
statement may require several machine code instructions to be
executed. | One low-level language statement is usually allows a user to perform specific tasks using the computer’s
translated into one machine code instruction. | | Compiled resources
programs are run without the compiler. | Interpreted maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a suite
programs cannot be run without the interpreter. | Assembled of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
programs are used without the assembler. | | A compiled user can execute the software when they require, and it is
program is usually distributed for general use. | An interpreter mostly not automatic
is often used when a program is being developed. | An
assembled program is usually distributed for general use. | Examples
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science
- Second Edition (Hodder Education) System Software:

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
An IDE would usually have these features - tasks without re-compilation.
Code Editor Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into a
Translator single program, allowing the use of separately written code
Debugger modules in the final program.
Error Reports Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction communicate with a computer's operating system, without
Auto-Documenter which a device like a printer would be unable to work.
Pretty Printing Operating system: Software that manages basic computer
functions such as input/output operations, program loading
and running, and security management, making computers
4. Software more user-friendly.
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
controls computer resources by carrying out specific tasks,
4.1. Types of Software and Interrupts such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
management, and security.
Types of Software
Application Software:

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
documents, including creating, editing, and formatting text microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific
with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and intervals.
importing images. Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with the microprocessor's activities.
each cell identified using a unique combination of columns Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer,
and rows. It can calculate using formulas, produce graphs, signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and
and do modelling and "what if" calculations. address the hardware problem.
Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific
manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that hold keys on a keyboard (e.g., <CTRL><ALT><BREAK>), leading to
records and fields. It provides the ability to query and an interrupt in the system's operation.
report on data and add, delete, and modify records in a Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files
table. needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to divide
interface with sensors and allow a computer or by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting the
microprocessor to measure physical quantities and control microprocessor to handle the issues.
applications by comparing sensor data with stored data and
altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging from
games to sophisticated software such as phone banking.
Common examples include video and music streaming,
GPS, and camera facilities.
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos, - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
transitions between clips. 4.2. Utility Software
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap Computer users have access to utility programs as part of
graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different system software
image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines, Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
curves, and text to alter the stored image as required. background without user input
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
Interrupts defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools,
file compression and management software, backup
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either from software, security tools, and screensavers.
a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to pause
its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt temporarily. Various Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software
factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for Backup software is a utility software that helps create and
protecting computers from malware. manage backup copies of data files and programs.
They should be kept up to date and run in the background Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
to maintain their effectiveness. drives are good practices, but operating system backup
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or utilities are also recommended.
loaded and compares possible viruses against a database Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup
of known viruses. files if changes have been made to them.
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that There could be three file versions for total security: the
are not yet on the database. current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic deletion backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup on
or for the user to decide. cloud storage.
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
constantly discovered. Security Software
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect
dormant viruses. Security software is a utility software that manages access
control, user accounts, and links to other utilities such as
Disk Defragmentation Software virus and spyware checkers.
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to prevent
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on a unauthorized access.
hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous sectors, Security software uses encryption and decryption to ensure
reducing head movements and improving data access time. intercepted data is unreadable without a decryption key.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to and prevent malicious software from being installed.
retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords to
movements to find the data. secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to become Screensavers
more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store Screensavers display moving and still images on the
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing for monitor screen after computer inactivity.
faster data access and retrieval. They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
The defragmentation process can free up previously from 'phosphor burn'.
occupied sectors and empty some tracks. Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a device
and as a part of computer security systems.
Backup Software They automatically log out of the user after a certain period
of inactivity.
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.

Device Drivers

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Device drivers translate data into a format that can be HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
understood by the hardware device they are associated stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
with. They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device data.
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
by the operating system. Web Browsers
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial number It is software used to connect to the internet
that allow the operating system to identify the device. It translates the HTML code
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a Offers additional features like search history & ad blockers
computer simultaneously.
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
(DNS)
5. The Internet and Its Uses DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
5.1. The Internet and the World Wide Browser interprets the HTML
Web
Cookies
| Internet | World Wide Web (WWW) | |----|----| | Uses
transmission protocols such as TCP and IP (Internet Protocols) Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
| Collection of webpages and other information on websites | They are used to track data about the users and autofill
| Allows the user to communicate with other users via chat, forms or give suggestions accordingly
email, calling and more | Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are Types of Cookies -
written using Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) | | | Session Cookie | Persistent Cookie | |----|----| | Temporary
Worldwide Collection of Interconnected Networks and Devices cookies are stored in the RAM till the browser is closed. |
| URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) are used for the location of Remembers the user’s login details so the user doesn’t have to
the web pages | | | Web browsers can access web pages. | log in every time they visit a website | | Doesn’t collect any
information on the user | Stored on the hard disk on the
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs) computer until their expiry date or the user deletes them | | A
good example is the virtual shopping basket on e-commerce
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The typical websites. | |
format of URLs is -

The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS 5.2. Digital Currency

The website address would contain -
domain host (www) Form of payment to pay for goods and services
domain name (website name) A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, Apple
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy) Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem in
The path would usually become the file directory roots. for centralised banking systems.
example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
The /computer-science is the file name transactions.
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
HTTP and HTTPS Blockchain Network

Blockchain Network

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Blockchain Network involves several interconnected This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
computers where the transaction data is stored wireless transmission line
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be changed internet connections illegally
without the consent of all the network members Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The back to the attacker
block would contain - Effect:
It can cause a computer to crash
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
money and more Can delete or corrupt files/data
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm To remove risk:
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block in Install anti-virus software
the chain Don’t use software from unknown sources
Be careful when opening emails from unknown

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)

An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a

network
Usually temporary but may be damaging
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Accessing their emails
Accessing websites
Accessing online services

Hacking
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point to
any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000) The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Effect:
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal information
5.3. Cyber Security Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk:
Brute Force Attack: Firewalls
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the Strong passwords/ user IDs
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. Use of anti-hacking software
Effect: Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit cards, Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
passwords and more) Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
To remove risk: malicious
Use stronger passwords with more characters and Malware
symbols

Data Interception:

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Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are - Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the different people (for example - Only doctors can have
intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a access to patient’s data)
computer malfunction Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware attacks
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until a Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
certain amount of money is paid common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen biometrics and more)
Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as legitimate
software |Biometric Methods|Benefits|Drawbacks| |:---|:---|:---|
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the user |Fingerprint Scans|Most development methods are very easy
to the attacker to use and require very low storage space to store the
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with biometric data.|Intrusive as used to identify criminals, Can’t be
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead of used if the finger gets dirty or damaged (e.g. cuts)| |Retina
the computer alone Scan|With very high accuracy, it Impossible to replicate a
person’s retina|It is very intrusive, Takes longer to verify,
Phishing Expensive to install and set up| |Face Recognition|Non-
intrusive method, Relatively cheaper|Can’t identify if there are
Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user any changes in the lighting or a person’s age or if the person is
into giving out their information. wearing glasses| |Voice Recognition|Non-Intrusive method,
To remove risk: verification is done quickly and relatively cheaper|Voices can
Don’t open links from unknown receivers be recorded and used for verification, but low accuracy and
Use anti-phishing tools illnesses such as colds or coughs can affect a person’s voice,
Block pop-up ads making identification impossible.|
Have an up-to-date browser

Pharming
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
which redirects the user to fake websites
Effect:
The user gives out login details and other personal
details
To remove risk:
Using anti-virus software
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Make sure that the green padlock is present in the URL
bar
Social Engineering

Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims

giving out their details (For example - Spam calls informing
them that their account has been hacked)

Keeping data safe from threats

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| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Faster and Safer |
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of Expensive to set up and maintain | | Any changes can be
authentication to prove who the user is identified quickly | Any computerised systems are prone to
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain attacks | | Less Expensive in the long run | Over-reliance on
patches which improve device security automated systems may cause humans to lose skills | | Higher
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong spelling Productivity and Efficiency | |
and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and the tone You should be able to describe the advantages and
would also seem urgent disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the traffic scenario.
between a network and the user’s computer Including scenarios from:
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the user’s
computer and the web server. They are used for - industry
Filtering Internet traffic transport
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential agriculture
Blocking access to certain websites weather
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy server, gaming
keeping the web server safe. lighting
Acts as a firewall as well. science
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
user’s profile 6.2. Robotics
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
communicating with other users on the internet. Robotics is the branch of computer science that combines
robot design, construction and operation.
6. Automated and Emerging Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
A robot may not injure a human through action or
Technologies inaction
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
comes into conflict with Law 1
6.1. Automated Systems a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
either law 1 or 2.
Automated Systems are a combination of software and Characteristics of a robot -
hardware designed to function without human Ability to sense their surroundings
intervention. Have a degree of movement
Process of Automated Systems Programmable
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it has NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC) REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
The microprocessor processes the data and makes the CHARACTERISTICS
necessary decisions based on its program Types of Robots -
The actions are then executed by the actuators (Motors, Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
wheels and so on) completely replace humans
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
interface, can supplement but can’t completely replace
humans

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| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Robots can work
24/7 | Robots can find it difficult to do non-standard tasks | |
Robots can work in hazardous conditions | Robots can lead to
higher unemployment | | They are less expensive in the long
run | Risk of deskilling as robots replace humans in some task
| | They have high productivity and are more consistent |
Expensive to install and maintain in the short run | | | Robots
have the risk of getting hacked. |

6.3. Artificial Intelligence

AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots, diagnosis
in the medical industry, financial calculations and so on

| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | High level of

Expertise | Setup and Maintenance costs are very high | | High
Accuracy and Consistent | Can only rely on the information in
the system | | High response times | Tend to give cold
responses sometimes |
Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines
are trained to learn from past experiences.

| AI | Machine Learning | |----|----| | Representation of human

intelligence in machines | Machines are trained to make
decisions without being programmed to | | The aim is to build
machines that think like humans | The aim is to make
machines learn through data acquisitions |

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CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE (0478)
THEORY

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