UNIT VI

WIRELESS NETWORK

Wireless Network
Wireless networks are s i m p l y computer networks that are connected without cables of any kind.
The use of a wireless network enables enterprises to avoid the costly process of introducing cables
into buildings or as a connection between different equipment locations. The basis of wireless systems
are radio waves, an implementation that takes place at the physical level of network structure.
Wireless networks use radio waves to connect devices such as laptops to the Internet, the business
network and applications. When laptops are connected to Wi-Fi hot spots in public places, the
connection is established to that business’s wireless network.

Differences Between Wireless and Wired Transmission

• Non-Correspondence Address to physical location: In a wireless network, address refers to a particular
station which need not be stationary. Thus, address may not always refer to a particular geographical
location.
• Dynamic topology and limited connectivity: The mobile nodes may often go out of reach of each other
resulting to partial network connectivity at times.
• Medium boundaries are not well-defined: The exact reach of wireless signals cannot be precisely
determined easily. It depends on various factors such as signal strength and noise levels.
• Error-prone medium: Error rates are significantly higher in the wireless medium because a node’s
transmissions in the wireless channel are affected by concurrent transmissions by neighboring nodes that
are located within the direct transmission range of the transmitting node.

Categories of Wireless Network

i. Infrastructural Wireless Network
ii. Infrastructure-less (Ad-hoc) wireless network
Infrastructure Wireless Network
Infrastructure networks contain access points (Aps) which are special nodes that are connected via
existing networks. APs are special in the sense that they can interact with wireless nodes as well as with
the existing wired network. The other wireless nodes, also known as mobile stations, communicate via
APs. The Aps (Wifi) also act as bridges with other networks. Its drawback is the large overhead of
maintaining the routing tables
 Figure 4.1a: Infrastructure wireless network.

Infrastructureless or Ad-hoc Network.

A decentralized type of wireless network that does not rely on any preexisting infrastructure such as
routers in wired networks or access points in wireless networks

Figure 4.1b: Infrastructureless or Ad-hoc Network

There are four main types of wireless networks:

• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): Links two or more devices using a wireless
distribution method, providing a connection through access points to the wider Internet.
• Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN): Connects several wireless LANs.
• Wireless Wide Area Network (WAN): Covers large areas such as neighboring towns and
cities.
 • Wireless Personal Area Network (PAN): Interconnects devices in a short span,
generally within a person’s reach.

Wireless technologies: Wimax, Wifi, Bluetooth, ad-hoc networks, GSM 802.11.802.15

Wireless technology is simply the technology that allows information to be transmitted without requiring
any cable or any wires through the air by the use of electromagnetic waves like Radion frequency (RF),
satellite, Infra-red rays (IR), etc.
There are different technologies for wireless connectivity which include; Wimax, Wifi, Bluetooth, ad-hoc
networks, GSM 802.11.802.15

WiMAX
This is a wireless broadband communications technology based around the IEE 802.16 standard providing
high speed data over a wide area. The acronmy WiMAX stand for Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access (AXess), and it is a technology for point to multipoint wireless networking. WiMAX
technology is able to meet the needs of a large variety of users for wireless connection and also use for
mobile applications, providing high speed data to users on the move.
WiMAX technology standard is for Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMANs) that has been
developed by working group number 16 of IEEE 802, specializing in point-to-multipoint broadband
wireless access. Initially 802.16a was developed and launched, but now it has been further refined.
802.16d or 802.16-2004 was released as a refined version of the 802.16a standard aimed at fixed
applications. Another version of the standard, 802.16e or 802.16-2005 was also released and aimed at the
roaming and mobile markets.

WiMAX broadband technology key technologies for providing, the high-speed data rates are:
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM, form of signal format that uses a large
number of close spaced carriers modulated with low-rate data stream has been incorporated into WiMAX
technology for provision of high-speed data without the selective fading and other issues of other forms
of signal format.
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): WiMAX technology makes use of multipath propagation using
MIMO. By using the existing the multiple signals, the MIMO either enables operation with lower signal
strength levels, or it allows for higher data rates.

Wi-Fi
Wireless Fidelity, commonly known as Wi-Fi is defined under the IEEE 802.11x standards lays down the
architecture and specifications of wireless LANs. Wi-Fi networks have a bandwidth of 20MHz, whereas
WiMAX networks have a flexible bandwidth option which ranges from 1.25MHz to 20MHz. Users
connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.

IEEE 802.11 (WIFI)Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows −
• Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected to the
wireless LAN. A station can be of two types−
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally
wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc. Each
station has a wireless network interface controller.
 • Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at the
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of operation−
o Infrastructure BSS − The devices here communicate with other devices through access
points.
o Independent BSS − The devices here communicate in a peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc
manner.
• Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
• Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Figure 4.2: IEEE 802.11 (WIFI)Architecture

802.11 Frame Types and Formats

There are three types of 802.11 frames namely:

i. Management Frames: used to manage BSS
ii. Control Frames: control access to communication medium
iii. Data Frames: contain payloads that are the layer 3-7 information

General Frame Format

802.11 frames consist of three major parts: header, body, and trailer
Figure 4.3: General Frame Format

The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −
• Frame Control: It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control
information of the frame.
• Duration: It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgment occupy the channel.
• Address fields: There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source, immediate
destination, and final endpoint respectively.
• Sequence: It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
• Data: This is a variable-sized field that carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size
of the data field is 2312 bytes.
• Check Sequence: It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.

Advantages of WLANs

• They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the network
at a greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network is not bounded
by the length of the cables.
• Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.
Disadvantages of WLANs

•Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more interference
from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors. So,
they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.
WiMax Vs WiFi
The WiMax Vs Wi-Fi table below provides the differences at a glance between the two. Or three, since
there are differences in various version as well.

Table 1.1: WMAX VS Wifi table

Features WiMax (802.16a) Wi-Fi (802.11b) Wi-Fi

(802.11a/g)

Primary Broadband Wireless Wireless LAN Wireless LAN

Application Access

Frequency Band Licensed/Unlicensed 2.4 GHz ISM 2.4 GHz ISM (g)
2 G to 11 GHz 5 GHz U-NII (a)

Channel Adjustable 25 MHz 20 MHz

Bandwidth 1.25 M to 20 MHz

Half/Full Duplex Full Half Half

Radio Technology OFDM Direct Sequence OFDM

(256-channels) Spread Spectrum (64-channels)

Bandwidth <=5 bps/Hz <=0.44 bps/Hz <=2.7 bps/Hz

Efficiency

Modulation BPSK, QPSK, QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shifting key) BPSK, QPSK,
16-, 64-, 256-QAM 16-, 64-QAM

Forward error Convolutional Code None Convolutional

correction (FEC) Reed-Solomon Code

Encryption Mandatory- 3DES Optional- RC4 Optional- RC4

Optional- AES (AES in 802.11i) (AES in 802.11i)

Mobility Mobile WiMax In development In development

(802.16e)

Mesh Yes Vendor Proprietary Vendor

Proprietary

Access Protocol Request/Grant CSMA/CA (Collision Sense Multiple CSMA/CA

Access/Collision Access)

Neither WiFi nor WiMAX is an internet rather with other connectivity protocols are networking mediums
to eventually get to another network from where you can get to some server or somebody else’s computer.

Wireless Ad hoc Network (WANET)

A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) is a type of local area network (LAN) that is built spontaneously to
enable two or more wireless devices to be connected to each other without requiring typical network
infrastructure equipment, such as a wireless router or access point.
In most cases, a PC, laptop or smartphone Wi-Fi interface is used to build an ad hoc network (Figure 1.1).
In other situations, devices such as wireless sensors are designed to work primarily in an ad hoc mode.

Figure 4.4: Connecting devices to the internet using an ad hoc network

The devices in the ad hoc network can access each other's resources directly through basic peer-to-
peer (P2P) or point-to-multipoint modes, therefore, central servers are unnecessary for functions
such as file sharing or printing. In a WANET, a collection of devices, or nodes -- such as a wireless-
capable PC or smartphone -- is responsible for network operations, such as routing, security,
addressing and key management.

How ad hoc network works.

Devices configured for ad hoc functionality require a wireless network adapter or chip, and they
need to be able to act as a wireless router when connected. When setting up a wireless ad hoc
network, each wireless adapter must be configured for ad hoc mode instead of infrastructure mode.
All wireless devices connecting to an ad hoc device need to use the same service set identifier (SSID)
and wireless frequency channel number.
Instead of relying on a wireless base station, such as a wireless access point (WAP) or Wi-Fi router,
an ad hoc device takes on this role and coordinates the flow of messages to each node in the network.
The individual wireless endpoints connected to an ad hoc network forward packets to and from each
other. Makeshift by nature, ad hoc wireless networks are most useful when wireless infrastructure
isn't available -- for example, if there aren't any access points or routers within range and cabling
cannot extend to reach the location where additional wireless communication is needed.
It's important to note that not all ad hoc networks are built using a PC or smartphone. In fact, Wi-Fi
access points can be configured to work in either ad hoc or infrastructure mode as well. Typically,
Wi-Fi networks configured for infrastructure mode are created and managed using equipment such
as Wi-Fi routers or a combination of WAPs and wireless controllers that provide the necessary
network intelligence. Ad hoc networks are also commonly set up to provide temporary wireless
network access created by a computer or smartphone. The use of more sophisticated network
protocols and network services found on infrastructure-based wireless networks, such as IEEE
802.1x authentication, usually are not suitable or necessary for short-lived ad hoc networks.

When should you use an ad hoc wireless network?

Deciding when to employ ad hoc versus infrastructure mode depends on the use. For example, users
who want a WAP to act as a permanent access point should choose infrastructure mode with an on-
site or cloud-based wireless LAN (WLAN) controller. But ad hoc mode might be a good option for
a user setting up a temporary wireless network between a small number of devices. A perfect
example of this is to use a cellular-connected smartphone that is configured in Wi-Fi ad hoc mode
so that Wi-Fi capable laptops can connect to the Wi-Fi ad hoc network to gain internet access over
the smartphone's cellular internet link. This method bypasses any need for a WAP or WLAN
controller.

Ad hoc networks require minimal configuration and can be deployed quickly, which makes them
suitable for emergencies, such as natural disasters, military conflicts or when traveling. Thanks to
the presence of dynamic and adaptive routing protocols, these networks can be configured quickly.
These impromptu, on-demand networks are useful for putting together a small, inexpensive all-
wireless LAN without the need for wireless infrastructure equipment. They also work well as
temporary access to the internet if wireless access points or routers fail.

Types of ad hoc wireless networks

Types of WANETs vary by application need and use. Choosing a wireless ad hoc network type
depends on the wireless equipment capabilities, physical environment and purpose of the
communication.

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)

A mobile ad hoc network involves mobile devices communicating directly with one another. A
MANET is a network of wireless mobile devices without an infrastructure that are self-organizing
and self-configuring. A MANET is sometimes referred to as an "on-the-fly" or "spontaneous
network." Examples of MANETs include smart home lighting, ad hoc streetlight networks, ad hoc
networks of robots, disaster rescue ad hoc networks and hospital ad-hoc networks. In many cases,
these networks use proprietary or non-TCP/IP networking standards for communication. The
primary challenge in building a MANET is equipping each device to continuously maintain the
information required for proper route traffic

Internet-based mobile ad hoc networks (IMANET)

Internet-based mobile ad hoc networks support internet protocols, such as TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The iMANET employs a
TCP/IP network-layer routing protocol on each connected device to link mobile nodes and set up
distributed routes automatically. IMANETs may also be used in the collection of sensor data for data
mining for a variety of use cases, such as air pollution monitoring.
Smartphone ad hoc networks (SPAN)
Smartphone ad hoc networks employ existing hardware, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, and software
protocols built into a smartphone operating system (OS) to create P2P networks without relying on
cellular carrier networks, wireless access points or other traditional network infrastructure
equipment. Different from traditional hub-and-spoke networks, such as Wi-Fi Direct, SPANs
support multi-hop relays. Multi-hop relay is the process of sending traffic from device A to device
C using intermediary device B. Therefore, device A and C do not need to have a direct P2P
connection established for traffic to reach its destination. Because SPANs are fully dynamic in
nature, there is no group leader in this type of application and, thus, peers can join or leave without
harming the network.

Vehicular ad hoc network (VAN)

This network type involves devices in vehicles that are used for communicating between them and
roadside equipment. An example is the in-vehicle safety and security system OnStar.

Wireless mesh networks (WMN)

Wireless mesh networks are comprised of radio networks set up in a mesh topology and frequently
consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways. In mesh networking, the devices -- or nodes --
are connected so at least some, if not all, have many paths to other nodes. This creates many routes
for information between pairs of users, increasing the resilience of the network if a node or
connection fails. WMNs are useful in situations where a temporary wireless network is required or
in more permanent scenarios where network cabling cannot be run to create an infrastructure-based
wireless network.

Advantages of an ad hoc network

Ad hoc mode can be easier to set up than infrastructure mode when just connecting a handful of
devices without requiring a centralized access point. For example, if a user has two laptops and is in
a hotel room without Wi-Fi, they can be connected directly in ad hoc mode to create a temporary
Wi-Fi network without a router. The Wi-Fi Direct standard -- a specification that allows devices
certified for Wi-Fi Direct to exchange data without an internet connection or a wireless router -- also
builds on ad hoc mode. It enables devices to communicate directly over Wi-Fi signals.
Other benefits of wireless ad hoc networks include the following:
Because ad hoc networks do not require infrastructure hardware such as access points or wireless
routers, they provide a low-cost way of direct client-to-client or client-to-internet communication.
Ad hoc networks are easy to configure and offer an effective way to communicate with devices
nearby when time is of the essence and running cabling is not feasible.
The temporary, often impromptu qualities of ad hoc networks can make them less vulnerable to
security threats.
An ad hoc network linking a small number of devices might be more practical than a traditional
infrastructure-based network that can connect many more devices.
Disadvantages of ad hoc networks
i. One major drawback of wireless ad hoc networking is that some Wi-Fi-enabled technology,
including certain Android devices, wireless printers and custom IoT sensors, don't support
ad hoc mode because of its limitations and will only connect to networks in infrastructure
mode by default. In some cases, third-party software can be installed on endpoint devices to
enable ad hoc communications.
 ii. Infrastructure mode is a better option than ad hoc mode for setting up a larger and more
permanent network that can support far more endpoints. Wireless routers that serve as access
points typically have higher-power wireless radios and antennas that provide coverage of a
wider area. Ad hoc networks often suffer from poor wireless communication range issues,
because antennas built into endpoints were not designed to be as powerful as purpose-built
WAPs.

iii. Non-scalability: As the number of devices in an ad hoc network increases, it becomes harder
to manage because often there is not a central device through which all traffic flows. For
example, when several devices are connected via a P2P MANET ad hoc network, more
wireless interference can occur, as each device must establish a direct P2P connection to
each of the other devices, instead of going through a single access point in a hub-and-spoke
architecture. When a device is too far from a device it needs to connect to, it will pass the
data through other devices on the way; this is slower than passing it through a single access
point acting as a centralized wireless bridge.
iv. Devices in an ad hoc network cannot disable SSID broadcasting like devices in infrastructure
mode can. As a result, attackers can find and connect to an ad hoc device if they are within
signal range.
v. Security options are limited due to a lack of network infrastructure services, such as access
to a RADIUS (remote authentication dial-in user service) server for 802.1x authentication
purposes.
vi. Some wireless ad hoc networks cannot bridge wired LANs or connect to the internet without
installing a special-purpose network gateway.
vii. Devices can only use the internet if one of them is connected to and sharing it with the others,
such as a cellular-connected smartphone operating in "hotspot" mode, which is a variation
of an ad hoc network. When internet sharing is enabled, the client performing this function
may face performance problems, especially if there are many interconnected devices. Ad
hoc mode requires the use of more endpoint system resources, as the physical network layout
changes when devices are moved around; in contrast, an access point in infrastructure mode
typically remains stationary from an endpoint perspective.

Ad hoc network security

As mentioned, many ad-hoc networks suffer from the fact that they were built to be temporary and
thus lack many of the advanced security features often found in stationary, infrastructure WLANs.
As such, many types of ad hoc networks can only be configured with basic security functionality.
A great example of this is the use of a smartphone operating in ad hoc mode. In this case, an ad hoc-
capable smartphone device can be configured to broadcast a Wi-Fi SSID so others can join.
However, this SSID cannot be hidden from others. Additionally, the smartphone device cannot
operate using more secure authentication standards such as WPA-Enterprise, which uses 802.1x
authentication to a RADIUS server. Instead, only WPA-Personal is available, which requires the use
and exchange of a static private key to protect against unauthorized access.
That said, because this type of ad hoc network is used temporarily, covers a smaller area and often
moves, the likelihood of an attacker gaining access to it is far lower compared to a wireless
infrastructure that is stationary and operational at all times.
 How to set up an ad hoc network
Perhaps the most basic and widely used ad hoc network today is to allow Wi-Fi-equipped devices to
connect to a smartphone with the purpose of sharing the smartphone's cellular internet access. This
is often referred to as tethering or hotspot access.
Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport layer protocol that serves as an interface between
client and server. The TCP/IP protocol is used to transfer the data packets between transport layer and
network layer. Transport protocol is mainly designed for fixed end systems and fixed, wired networks. It
does not cope with mobile networks where the devices can change from one network to another, thus to
handle inefficiency of TCP in mobile network, Mobile IP is introduced
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows the users
to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the communication will
continue without user’s sessions or connections being dropped.

Figure 4.7: Mobile IP Scenario

Terminology in Mobil IP
• Mobile node: Any hand-held communication device or router that changes its point of
attachment from one network to another. It may change its location while its IP address remains
unchanged. It continues communication with other nodes in the Internet from anywhere
maintaining its (constant) IP address, assuming link layer connectivity to a point of attachment is
available.

• Home network: It is a network possibly virtual, to which a mobile node originally belong to as is
indicated by its assigned IP address (Home address). Note that standard IP routing mechanism
will deliver datagrams destined to a mobile node’s home address to the mobile node’s home
network
 • Home address: It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home
network). It remains unchanged regardless of where the node is attached to the internet

• Home agent: It is a router in home network to which the mobile node was originally connected.
It tunnels datagram for delivery to the mobile node when it is away from home and maintains
current location information for the mobile node.

• Foreign network: Any network other than the mobile node’s home network to which the mobile
node is visiting.

• Foreign Agent: A router on a mobile node’s visited network which provides routing services to
the mobile node while registered. The packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent
which delivers it to the mobile node. The foreign agent detunnels and deliver datagrams to the
mobile node that were tunneled by the mobile node’s home agent. For datagram sent by a mobile
node, the foreign agent may serve as a default router for registered mobile nodes.

• Care of address (CoA): It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving
away from its home network.
• Correspondent Node: A peer with which a mobile node is communicating which can be any
mobile or stationery device on the internet..
• Link: A facility or medium over which nodes can communicate at the link layer. A link underlies
the network layer
• Node: Any communication device or a router
• Tunnel: The path followed by an encapsulated. While it is encapsulated, a datagram is routed to
knowledgeable decapsulating agent, which decapsulates the datagram and then correctly deliver
to its ultimate destination.

Working
Correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contains correspondent node’s
address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reaches to the home agent. But now mobile
node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign network. Foreign agent sends the care-
of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established
between the home agent and the foreign agent by the process of tunneling.
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called
encapsulation.
Now, home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which the source address is the
home address and destination is the care-of-address and sends it through the tunnel to the foreign agent.
Foreign agent, on other side of the tunnel receives the data packets, decapsulates them and sends them
to the mobile node. Mobile node in response to the data packets received, sends a reply in response to
foreign agent. Foreign agent directly sends the reply to the correspondent node.
 Protocols Support Mobile IP

Figure 4.8: Protocol Support for Mobile IP

Key Functions in Mobile IP:
i. Discovery
Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent advertisement
messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages observes whether the
message is from its own home agent and determines whether it is in the home network or
foreign network.

ii. Registration:
Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent, sends registration request (RREQ) to the foreign
agent. Foreign agent in turn, sends the registration request to the home agent with the care-of-
address. Home agent sends registration reply (RREP) to the foreign agent. Then it forwards the
registration reply to the mobile node and completes the process of registration.

iii. Tunnelling
It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an endpoint. It is
the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism called encapsulation.
It takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-of-address. Whenever
home agent receives a packet from correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with source
address as home address and destination as care-of- address.

Route Optimization in Mobile IP:

The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the correspondent node.
The binding cache contains bindings for mobile node’s home address and its current care-of-address.
Every time the home agent receives a IP datagram that is destined to a mobile node currently away from
the home network, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to update the information in the
correspondent node’s binding cache. After this the correspondent node can directly tunnel packets to
the mobile node.
Wireless Application Protocol
WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol designed for micro-browsers and it
enables the access of internet in the mobile devices. It uses the mark-up language WML (Wireless
Markup Language and not HTML), WML is defined as XML 1.0 application. It enables creating
web applications for mobile devices. In 1998, WAP Forum was founded by Ericson, Motorola, Nokia
and Unwired Planet whose aim was to standardize the various wireless technologies via protocols.
WAP protocol was resulted by the joint efforts of the various members of WAP Forum. In 2002,
WAP forum was merged with various other forums of the industry resulting in the formation of Open
Mobile Alliance (OMA).

Figure 4.9: WAP Gateway

WAP Model:
The user opens the mini-browser in a mobile device. He selects a website that he wants to view. The
mobile device sends the URL encoded request via network to a WAP gateway using WAP protocol.

Figure 4.10 WAP Model

The WAP gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP URL request and sends it
over the internet. The request reaches to a specified Web server and it processes the request just as it
would have processed any other request and sends the response back to the mobile device through
WAP gateway in WML file which can be seen in the micro-browser.

WAP Protocol Stack

Figure 4.11 WAP Protocol Stack

WAP Protocol stack:

1. Application Layer:
This layer contains the Wireless Application Environment (WAE). It contains mobile device
specifications and content development programming languages like WML.
2. Session Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). It provides fast connection suspension and
reconnection.
3. Transaction Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). It runs on top of UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) and is a part of TCP/IP and offers transaction support.
4. Security Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Transaction Layer Security (WTLS). It offers data integrity, privacy and
authentication.
5. Transport Layer:
This layer contains Wireless Datagram Protocol. It presents consistent data format to higher
layers of WAP protocol stack.

Mobile Routing
Packets in a network may need to transverse multiple links to get to destination. Mobility causes route
changes due to dynamic topology.
Figure 4.12: Mobile Route

Suppose MN is currently in the subnet 130.111.*, hence as shown in the figure, 130.111.111.111
becomes the FA for MN. If CN sends a packet to MN, it reaches the HA of MN (130.103.202.050)
along Path I. HA cannot find MN in the home network, but if it knows the location of MN, it can send
the packet along Path II by creating a tunnel,

Ad-Hoc Routing Protocol

• An ad-hoc routing protocol is a convention that controls how nodes decide which way to route packets
between computing devices in a mobile ad-hoc network
• Nodes are not familiar with the topology of their networks, thus they have to discover it
• a new node announces its presence and listens for announcements broadcast (beacon or “alive”
messages) by its neighbors
• Each node learns about others nearby and how to reach them, and may announce that it too can reach
them.

Types of Routing protocol

There are four types which include:
i. Table-driven (proactive) routing
ii. On-demand (reactive) routing
iii. Hybrid (both proactive and reactive) routing

Table-driven (proactive) routing: this maintains fresh lists of destinations and their routes by
periodically distributing routing tables throughout the network.

Features of Table-driven (Proactive) routing

• Every node maintains routing table containing information about network topology
 • Routing tables are updated periodically whenever the network topology changes
• These protocols maintain different numbers of routing tables varying from protocol to protocol

Advantages
• Route immediately available
• Minimize flooding

Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OSLR) is a proactive and table driven protocol in which nodes
periodically floods status of its links. Each node re-broadcasts link state information received from its
neighbour. Each node keep tracks of link state information received from other nodes, and uses this
information to determine next hope to each destination.

Link-State Algorithms

O-P O-P O-P

P-Q P-Q P-Q
Q-R Q-R Q-R
R-S R-S RR-S
O Q

O-P P S
P-Q O-P
Q-R P-Q
R-S Q-R
R-S
Figure 4.13a Link State algorithm
• Each node shares its link information for all nodes can build a map of the full network topology
• For a sufficiently long period of a stable topology, all nodes will have the same topology
information

O-P
O-P
O-P O-Q
O-Q
O-Q P-Q
P-Q
P-Q Q-R
Q-R
Q-R R-S
R-S
R-S
O-Q O-Q
Q
O-P R
O O-P
O-Q
O-Q
P-Q
P-Q
Q-R
Q-R
R-S O-Q
S R-S
P
Figure 4.13b Updating Link information
• Link information is updated when a link changes state (goes up or down) by sending small “hello”
packets to neighbors.
 • Nodes O and Q propagate the existence of link O-Q to their neighbors and, eventually, to the
entire network

On-Demand (reactive) Routing:

This finds a route on demand by flooding the network with Route Request (RREQ) packets. This routing
protocol includes:
i. Dynamic source Routing (DSR) protocol
ii. Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)
iii. Location-Based Routing(LBR)

i. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol is a simple and efficient reactive protocol for multi-
hop wireless ad-hoc network for mobile nodes. It allows a completely self-organizing and self-
configuring network without the need for existing network infrastructure or administration.
It works on the concept of source routing, that is a routing technique in which the sender of a
packet determines the complete sequence of nodes through which, the packets are forwarded.
The protocol is composed of the two main mechanisms:
a) Route Discovery
b) Route Maintenance
DSR requires each node to maintain a route – cache of all known self – to – destination pairs (a
header of each packet contains a route). If a node has a packet to send, it attempts to use this
cache to deliver the packet. If the destination does not exist in the cache, then a route discovery
phase is initiated to discover a route to destination, by sending a route request.
This request includes the destination address, source address and a unique identification number.
If a route is available from the route – cache, but is not valid any more, a route maintenance
procedure may be initiated.
A node processes the route request packet only if it has not previously processes the packet and
its address is not present in the route cache. A route reply is generated by the destination or by
any of the intermediate nodes when it knows about how to reach the destination.

Figure 4.14a: Route Discovery

Figure 4.14a shows the route discovery procedure where S1 is the source node and S7 is the destination
node.
 Figure 4.14b: Using Route record to send the Route reply

In Figure 4.14b, the destination S7, gets the request through two paths. It chooses one path based on the
route records in the incoming packet and sends a reply using the reverse path to the source node. At each
hop, the best route with minimum hop is stored. In this example the route record status at
each hop to reach the destination from the source node is shown. Here, the chosen route is S1-S2-S4-S5-
S7.

Advantages:
DSR uses a reactive approach which eliminates the need to periodically flood the network with table
update messages which are required in a table-driven approach. The intermediate nodes also utilize the
route cache information efficiently to reduce the control overhead.

Disadvantages
The disadvantage of DSR is that the route maintenance mechanism does not locally repair a broken
down link. The connection setup delay is higher than in table- driven protocols. Even though the
protocol performs well in static and low-mobility environments, the performance degrades rapidly with
increasing mobility. Also, considerable routing overhead is involved due to the source- routing
mechanism employed in DSR. This routing overhead is directly proportional to the path length.

ii. Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)

Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol is a type of reactive protocol that uses
hop-to-hop routing procedure. If a node requires to know the route to a specific destination, it creates
the Route Request (RREQ.) The intermediate nodes forward the route request and these intermediate
nodes simultaneously generate a reverse route to the destination. When the node gets the request that has
the route to the destination, it creates a Route Reply (RREP) which contains a number of hops that are
needed to appear at the destination. Each node that assists in sending this response to the source node
makes a forward route to the destination.

AODV Routing Messages

There are three types of AODV Routing Messages, these are:
a. Route Request (RREQ)multicast message
b. Route Reply (RREP)message
c. Route Error(RERR) message

When a node requires to share a packet, and it doesn’t understand the route to the destination, it starts
route discovery, by sharing a RREQ multicast message. The neighbouring nodes detect where the
message came from and forwards it to their neighbours until the message is received to the destination
node.

Figure 4.15a Route Request in AODV

Figure 4.15b: Route Request in AODV

The destination node responds with an RREP, which gets back to the source in the reverse direction along
which the RREQ appears. Forward routes start in the intermediate nodes as the RREP carries back to the
source. An intermediate node can also share an RREP in reply to a received RREQ if it understands the
route to the destination, thus nodes can join in a current route.
 Figure 4.15c Route Request in AODV, RREP travels in reverse path.

The RERR message denotes the destination which is inaccessible. Nodes taking the message produce
the route inactive (and usually the route is eliminated). The next packet to be sent triggers route
finding.

AODV: Summary
i. Routes need not be included in packet headers
ii. Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for routes that are in active use
iii. At most one next-hop per destination maintained at each node
iv. DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination
v. Sequence numbers are used to avoid old/broken routes
vi. Sequence numbers prevent formation of routing loops
vii. Unused routes expire even if topology does not change

iii. Location-Based Routing(LBR)

In Location based routing, routing decisions are taken using the location information. It is very efficient in
terms of routing data packets as they take advantage of pure location information instead of global topology
information. The source node (a node that has a packet to send) adds a destination location (Sink) in each
data packet. Intermediate nodes in the path receive this packet and send it to next one-hop neighbour which
are geographically nearest to the destination. The process continues until the data packet gets to the
destination node. Location-based routing does not require establishment or maintenance of routes, thereby
conserves energy and bandwidth since route request and state propagation are not required after one-hop
distance.
LBR uses the location information for nodes obtained from location broker (GPS) to provide higher
efficiency and scalability.
Three basic facts in LBR are:
• Each node in the network must know its location information by GPS or any other method
• Each node must know its one-hop away neighbour’s information
• Source node must be aware of Destination node location

Types of LBR
a. Unicast: single destination
b. Multicast: multiple destinations
c. Geocast: data is propagated to nodes within certain geographic area

Unicast destination
• Each forwarding node makes localized decision based on the location
of the destination and the node’s neighbors (greedy forwarding)
• Challenge: packet may arrive at a node without neighbors that could
bring packet closer to the destination (voids or holes)

Figure 4.16: Unicast/Single destination

Multicast Location-Based Routing

• Multicast: deliver the same packet to multiple receivers
• Simple solution 1: deliver copies of same packet to each individual receiver via unicast routing
(resource-inefficient)
• Simple solution 2: flood the entire network (resource-inefficient)
• Concerned with efficiently delivering the same packet to receivers, i.e., minimize the number of links
the packet
has to travel.
• Common approach: multicast tree rooted at source and destinations are leaf nodes

Geocasting
• Packet is sent to all or some nodes within specific geographic region
• Example: query sent to all sensors within geographic area of interest

Challenge of geocasting:
• propagate a packet near the target region (similar to unicast routing)
• distribute packet within the target region (similar to multicast routing)
Hybrid (both proactive and reactive) routing protocol (HRP)also known as Balanced Hybrid
Routing (BHR)
This combines proactive and reactive routing features. It is used to determine optimal network destination
routes and reports network topology data modifications.
Features of HRP
• The features are as follows:
• Requires less memory and processing power than LSRP
• Integrates reactive and proactive routing advantages
• Serves activated nodes through reactive flooding.