ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGG.

Semester-5th
LECTURES NOTE

Subject –Analog and Digital Communication

 UNIT -1 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM-
Communication involves the transmission of information from one point to another.

Fig- 1.1

INFORMATION SOURCE-

Communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This message originates in the
information source. There can be various messages in the form of words, groups of words, code, symbols, sound
signals etc.

INPUT TRANSDUCER-

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. The message from the
information source may or may not be electrical in nature. When the message produced by the information
source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is used to convert it into a time varying electrical signal.

TRANSMITTER-

The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects. Inside the
transmitter, signal processing such as restriction of range of audio freqiuencies, amplification and modulation
are achieved.

THE CHANNEL AND THE NOISE-

There are two types of channels, namely point to point channels and broadcast channels. Examples of point to
point channels are wire lines, microwave links and optical fibers. Wire lines operate by guided electromagnetic
waves and they are used for local telephone transmission. Microwave links are used in long distance telephone
transmission. Optical fibers are used in optical communication. On the other hand the broadcast channels provide
a capability where several receiving stations can be reached simultaneously from a single transmitter. During
the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced in the system. Noise
is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere with the required signal. Noise may interfere with signal at any
point in a communication system.
RECEIVER-

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the distorted
received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as the demodulation.
Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter.

DESTINATION-

Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original form.

SOURCE OF INFORMATION-
Some of the important source of information in the communication environment given below-

(i) Speech (iii) Picture

(ii) Music (iv) Computer data

A source of information is basically a signal which carries the information.

Signal-
A signal may be defined as the single valued function of time. Time plays the role of an independent variable.
Thismeans that at every instant of time, the signal has a unique value.

The signals may be classified as:

(i) Speech

Speech involves transfer of information from the speaker to the listener. Such a transfer of information
takes place infollowing three stages:

(1) Production

(2) Propagation and

(3) Perception

(ii) Music signal-

It is originated from the instruments such as the piano, violin, flute etc. Music signal has following two
possiblestructure:

(1) Melodic structure

(2) Harmonic structure

(iii) Picture

The picture can be either static or dynamic. Examples of static picture is

thepicture sent by fax machine and that of a dynamic picture is the one produced on T.V.

(iv) Computer Data

Personal computers are used for electronic mail, exchange of software, and sharing of resources.

COMMUNICATION CHANNEL-
The medium over which the information is passed from the transmitter to the receiver is called as a
communicationchannel. Depending on the mode of transmission, the communication channels classified in to two
categories.

(i) channels based on guided propagation

(ii) channels based on free propagation

The classification of channels has been shown below:

Fig- 1.3

Some of the important characteristics of a channel

are:

i. power required to achieve the desired s/n ratio

ii. bandwidth of the channel

iii. amplitude and phase response of channel

iv. type of channel (linear or nonlinear)

v. effects of external interference on the channel

 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM-
Depending upon the message signal, communication system may be classified as under:

(i) Analog communication system

(ii) Digital communication system

Analog communication system

Analog communication is that type of communication in which the message or information signal to be
transmitted is analog in nature. This means that in analog communication the modulating signal is an analog
signal.

Digital communication system

In digital communication, the massage signal to be transmitted is digital in nature. This means that digital
communication involves the transmission of information in digital form.
According to the mode of propagation ,it is two types ;
1 . Line communication –It is the type of communication where transfer of signal takes place through medium,
such as wires , cables, optical fiber .
2 . Radio or wireless communication –It is the type of communication where the signal is transmitted in the form
of electromagnetic waves .free space as a communication medium .

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS-

Analog signal-
1
1It is a continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other time
varying quantity i.e, analogous to another time varying signal. For example, in an analog audio signal, the
instantaneous voltage of the signal varies continuously.

Digital signal-

A digital signal is a physical signal that is a representation of a sequence of discrete values, a signal that is
generatedby means of a digital modulation, to be transferred between modems. The signals that are discrete in
time and quantized in amplitude are digital signals.

TRANSFORMATION POWER AND CHANNEL BANDWIDTH:

Transformation Power: Communication system consisting of sub-systems and each sub-system is consisting of
different functional blocks. Each functional blocks consisting of different parameters like input and output
devices which performs a specific signal processing and information transmission. The power required for
transmission of a particular signal is known as transformation power.

Bandwidth: The frequency range or band of frequency needed for a particular given transmission is known as
Bandwidth.

MODULATION – It is the process of changing some characterstics of career waves in accordance with the intencity of
the modulating signal.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MODULATION –
AnalogModulation
 Amplitudemodulation
Example:Doublesidebandwithcarrier(DSB-WC),Double-sidebandsuppressedcarrier (DSB-SC),
Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC), vestigialsideband(VSB)

Anglemodulation(frequencymodulation&phasemodulation)
Example: Narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM), Wideband
frequencymodulation(WBFM),Narrowbandphasemodulation(NBPM),Widebandphasemodulation(NBPM)

PulseModulation
 Carrierisatrainofpulses
 Example:PulseAmplitudeModulation(PAM),Pulsewidthmodulation(PWM),Pulse
PositionModulation(PPM)

DigitalModulation
 Modulatingsignalisanalog
o Example: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Delta Modulation (DM),
AdaptiveDeltaModulation(ADM),DifferentialPulseCodeModulation(DPCM),Adaptive
DifferentialPulseCode Modulation(ADPCM)etc.
 Modulatingsignalisdigital(binarymodulation)
o Example: Amplitude shiftkeying (ASK),frequency ShiftKeying (FSK),Phase
ShiftKeying(PSK)etc

NEED OF MODULATION
1) To remove Interference
2) Reduction of noise
3) Multiplexing-
4) Practicality of Antenna
  Simultaneously transmission of multiple message over a single channel is known as multiplexing.
 If it transmits without modulation, the different message signal over a single channel will
interfere with one another.
 Multiplexing helps in transmitting numbers of message signal simultaneously over a single
channel & therefore a number of channel needed will be less.

UNIT – 2
AMPLITUDE MODULATION:-
Amplitude modulation may be defined as a system in which the maximum amplitude of the
carrierwave is proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

Sinusoidal Carrier wave

(𝑡 ) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

Where 𝐴 = Maximum Amplitude

𝜔𝑐 = Carrier Frequency

Let x(t) denotes the modulating or baseband signal, then according to amplitude modulation,
the maximum amplitude A of the carrier will have to be made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating signal x(t). Amplitude modulated signal expressed as:-

S (t) = x (t) cos𝜔𝑐 t + 𝐴 cos

𝜔𝑐 tS (t) = [𝐴 +x (t)] cos𝜔

𝑐 t
 Fig 2.1

MODULATION INDEX:-

| X(t)| max
M a=
𝑀𝑎 𝑥 𝑖 𝑚 𝑢 𝑚 𝑐 𝑎 𝑟 𝑟 𝑖 𝑒 𝑟 𝑎 𝑚𝑝 𝑙 𝑖 𝑡 𝑢 𝑑 𝑒

| X(t)| max
=
𝐴

This is also known as depth of modulation degree of modulation or modulation factor over modulation
if ma>1 the baseband signal is not preserved in the envelope. It means the baseband signal recovered
from the envelope will be distorted .this type of distortion is called envelop distortion.
POWER RELATION IN AM WAVE:-
 Generation of AM waves:
Two basic amplitude modulation principles are discussed .They are square law modulation and
switching modulator.

Switching Modulator

Switching Modulator The total input for the diodeatany instant is

given by

When the peak amplitude of c(t) is maintained more than that of information
signal,the operation is assumed to be dependentononlyc(t)irrespectiveofm(t).
When c(t) is positive, v2=v1since the diode is forward biased. Similarly, whenc(t)
is negative, v2=0 since diode is reverse biased. Based upon above operation,switching
response of the diode is periodic rectangular wave with an amplitude unityandis givenby
 The required AM signal centred at fc can be separated using band pass filter.The lower cut
off-frequency for the band pass filter shouldbe between w and fc-wand the upper cut-off frequency
between fc+w and 2fc. The filter output is given bythe equation
DEMODULATION

The process of extracting a modulating signal from the modulated signal is called demodulation. The
devices used for demodulation are called demodulators.

Types of detector (1) square-law detectors

(2) Envelopedetectors

AM signal with large carrier are detected by using the envelope detector uses the circuit which
extractsthe envelope of the am wave but detected by using square-low detectors.

SQUARE-LAW DETECTORS/LINEAR DIODE DETECTOR:-

The Square-Law Detector ckt is used for detecting modulated signal of small magnitude,so that
operating region may be restricted to the non –linear portion of the v-characteristics of the device
it may be observed that the circuit is very similar to the square law modulator. The only difference
is that in square low modulator the filter used is a band pass filter where in a square law detector, a
low pass filter is used.
 Fig. 2.2

In the circuit, the dc supply voltage VAA is used to get the fixed operating point in the non-linear
portion of the diode V-I characteristics. Since, the operation is limited to the non-linear region of
the diode characteristics, the lower half portion of the modulated wave form is compressed. This
produces envelopeapplied distortion. Due to this the average value of the diode –current is no longer
constant, rather it varies with time.

This distorted output diode current is

expressed byI =av+bv2

v=is the i/p modulated

voltageAM wave is expressed as

v=A(1+ma Cos 𝜔mt)Cos 𝜔

ctSubstituting, the value of v, we

get

I =a[A(1+maCos 𝜔mt)Cos 𝜔ct]+b[A(1+maCos 𝜔mt) Cos 𝜔ct]2

If above expression is expanded, then we get terms of frequencies like 2𝜔 c, 2(𝜔 c±𝜔 m), 𝜔 m& 2𝜔
mbesides the input frequency terms.

Hence this diode current I containing all these frequencies terms is passed through a low
pass filter, which allows to pass the frequency below or upto modulating frequency 𝜔 m and rejects
the other higher frequency components. Therefore, the modulating signal with frequency 𝜔 m is
recovered from the input modulated signal.
 Fig 2.3

ENVELOPE DETECTOR:-

A diode operating in a linear region of its V-I characteristics can extract the envelope of an AM
wave. This type of detector is known as envelope detector. Envelope detector is most popular in
commercial receiver circuits. Since it is very simple and is not expensive.

In the input portion of the ckt, the tuned transformer provides perfect tuning at the
desired carrier frequency. RC network is the time-constant network. If the magnitude of the
modulated signal at the input of the detector is 1 volt or more, the operation takes place in the
linear portion of the V-I characteristics of diode.

Fig. 2.4
Operation:-

First, let us assume that the capacitor is absent in the ckt. In this case, the detector ckt will work
as a half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the output waveform would be a half rectified modulated
signal. Now let us consider that the capacitor is introduced in the circuit. For the +ve half cycle b,
the diode conducts and the capacitor is charged to the peak value of the carrier voltage. However,
for a –ve half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. This means that the input
carrier voltage is disconnected from the RC circuit. Therefore the capacitor starts discharging
through the resistance are with a time constant 𝑟 = RC is suitably chosen, the voltage across the
capacitor C will not fall appreciably during the small period of –ve half cycle, and by that time the
next +ve cycle appear. Ths +ve cycle again charges the capacitor C to the peak value of the voltage
and thus this process repeats again and again.

Hence the output voltage across the capacitor C is spiky modulating signal. However spikes are
introduced because of charging and discharging of the capacitor C.

Fig. 2.5

AM Demodulator using Phase locked loop

Demodulated

PM Output~ 𝜃 𝑖