Module 1: Personality

Unit 1: Definition and the concept of self and personality.

Definition and the concept of self and personality.

Gordon Allport in 1961 defined “personality as the dynamic organization within an

individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his/her characteristic
behavior and thought.

Personality is psychophysical in nature as it combines both the body and mind. He uses
the term psychophysical to stress that the personality is an integration of capacities of
mind(psycho) such as feelings, ideas and beliefs, and body (physical) such as hormones
and nervous system. Personality is a determinant of behavior. Personality serves as a
directive and activating force in individuals' adaptive and expressive thoughts and
behavior.

Concept of self;

The self is an elusive concept which is never completely captured by any of the theorists.
Self is an individual’s awareness of his or her own personal characteristics and level of
functioning.

Self-concept is the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important
significant people in one’s life. Self-concept is a collection of beliefs one holds about
oneself and the responses of others. Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious
experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings with regard to himself or herself.

There are two kinds of self.

Personal Self;

It is primarily concerned with oneself, such as personal freedom, personal responsibility,

personal achievement, or personal comforts.

Social Self;

It emerges in relation to others, such as co-operation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice, support,

or sharing. This self-values family and social relationships.

 The field of personality addresses three issues

(1) Human Universals: It discusses the universal features of human nature and what is
generally true about people.

(2) Individual Differences: It addresses the way individuals differ from one another
and the existence of a basic set of individual differences.

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(3) Individual Uniqueness: It explains the uniqueness of an individual personality in a
scientific manner.

Personality comes from the Latin word “Persona” which means ‘mask’.

Personality is more than outward appearance. Personality refers to psychological

qualities that contribute to an individual’s enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling,
thinking, and behaving. Personality includes all relatively permanent traits or
characteristics that render consistency to a person’s behavior.

Enduring: refers to personality characteristics or qualities that are consistent across

time and different situations of a person’s life.

Distinctive: refers to psychological features that differentiate people from one another.

“Thinking, feeling and behaving”: indicates the mental life, their emotional
experiences, and their social behavior.

Major determinants of Personality:

The determinants of personality can be grouped into five broad categories:

1. Biological Factors

2. Cultural Factors

3. Family Factors

4. Social Factors

5. Situational Factors

1. Biological factors

Heredity

Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature,
facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level,
and biological rhythms are characteristics that are inherent from one’s parents. Multiple
twin studies have found that identical twins do have higher correlations in personality
traits than fraternal twins. While identical twins may have some similar personality traits,
however, they still have distinct personalities, suggesting that genetics is not the only
factor in determining personality.

Brain

Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give an
indication that a better understanding of human personality and behavior might come
from the study of the brain. Researchers using a biological perspective will seek to
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understand how hormones, neurotransmitters, and different areas of the brain all
interact to affect personality. The endocrine glands are characterized by interaction and
interdependence. These glands secrete hormones. Any over-activity or under-activity of
these glands can cause an increase or decrease in hormones resulting in personality
disorder. The autonomic nervous system and the central nervous system are responsible
for developing personality.

Physical features

How one appears physically actually plays an important role in how they are perceived
by others. Whether one is short, tall, slim, fat, black or white will obviously have an
impression on others and this will have an influence on the self-conception of the
individual. Physical characteristics include but are not limited to height, skin tone,
weight, hair color, and beauty.

2. Cultural Factors

Culture can define which traits and behaviors are considered important, desirable, or
undesirable.

Gender roles and identity - Gender roles can determine which traits are considered
positive or desirable. These traits vary from culture to culture. Each culture trains and
expects its members to behave in a way that is acceptable to society. Cultural norms can
dictate what traits are considered important to a personality.

Religion/spirituality appears to be the most significant cultural factor affecting

people’s lives and personal development.

3. Social Factors

Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously
wide range of behavioral potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are
ultimately synthesized and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial contact between
a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediate family –
father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group: peers,
school friends and members of the work group – play influential roles. Social media
influencers hold an authoritative power to influence the masses around the globe.

Agents of socialization

Primary agencies are:

Parents

Neighborhood

Peer group and

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friends

School

Secondary agencies are:

Religion

State/ Country

4. Family factors

The overall home environment created by parents is critical to personality development.

The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is
important to the person’s early development.

The nature of family influence depends on

1. SES of family

2. Family size

3. Birth order and siblings

4. Race

5. Religion

6. Parental education

7. Geological location

5. Situational factors

The effect of the environment on our behavior is strong. According to Milgram, “Situation
exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may provide a
push. In certain circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind
of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions”. We should therefore not
look at personality patterns in isolation. Sometimes a sudden experience leaves an
abiding influence upon the personality of an individual. A child may get frightened at the
view of a bloody accident, and even after the accident he/she may be obsessed of the
horror of fear. Sometimes a girl’s experience with a rapist may condemn her to a life of
sexual maladjustment

Unit 2: Personality development: Critical periods / influences in development.

Critical periods in development

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Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and
attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the
ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environment.

Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon after
birth. Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child's
approach to the world and how the child learns about the world.

A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child's

specific environment. Temperament and environment—influence the development of a
person's personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic factors, is
sometimes referred to as "nature," while environmental factors are called "nurture."

All experts agree that high-quality parenting plays a critical role in the development of a
child's personality. When parents understand how their child responds to certain
situations, they can anticipate issues that might be problematic for their children. They
can prepare the child for the situation or in some cases they may avoid a potentially
difficult situation altogether. Parents who know how to adapt their parenting approach to
the temperament of their child can best provide guidance and ensure the successful
development of their child's personality.

Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional, cognitive,

and behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks,
feels, and behaves. A person's character continues to evolve throughout life, although
much depends on inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a
person's moral development.

Key Theories of Personality Formation

When we meet new people, it is often their personality that grabs our attention.
Understanding how personality develops can provide insight into who someone is and
their background while also increasing our understanding of what is behind our own
personality traits and characteristics.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

In his well-known stage theory of psychosexual development, Sigmund Freud suggested

that personality develops in stages that are related to specific, erogenous zones. These
stages are:

• Stage 1: Oral stage (birth to 1 year)

• Stage 2: Anal stage (1 to 3 years)

• Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)

• Stage 4: Latent period (age 6 to puberty)

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• Stage 5: Genital stage (puberty to death)

Freud also believed that failure to complete these stages would lead to personality
problems in adulthood.

Freud's Structural Model of Personality

Freud not only theorized about how personality developed over the course of childhood,
but he also developed a framework for how overall personality is structured.

According to Freud, the basic driving force of personality and behavior is known as the
libido. This libidinal energy fuels the three components that make up personality: the id,
the ego, and the superego.

• The id is the aspect of personality present at birth. It is the most primal part of the
personality and drives people to fulfill their most basic needs and urges.

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• The ego is the aspect of personality charged with controlling the urges of the id and
forcing it to behave in realistic ways.

• The superego is the final aspect of personality to develop and contains all the ideals,
morals, and values imbued by our parents and culture.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson’s eight-stage theory of human development is another well-known theory in

psychology. While it builds on Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, Erikson
chose to focus on how social relationships impact personality development. The theory
also extends beyond childhood to look at development across the entire lifespan.

Erikson's eight stages are:

• Stage 1: Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year)

• Stage 2: Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 2 years)

• Stage 3: Initiative versus guilt (3 to 5 years)

• Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority (6 to 11 years)

• Stage 5: Identity versus role confusion (12 to 18 years)

• Stage 6: Intimacy versus isolation (19 to 40 years)

• Stage 7: Generativity versus stagnation (41 to 64 years)

• Stage 8: Integrity versus despair (65 years to death)

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development remains one of the most frequently cited
in psychology, despite being subject to considerable criticism. According to Piaget,
children progress through a series of four stages that are marked by distinctive changes
in how they think about themselves, others, and how the world around them plays an
important role in the formation of personality.

Piaget's four stages are:

• Stage 1: Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)

• Stage 2: Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)

• Stage 3: Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)

• Stage 4: Formal operational stage (12 years and up)

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of personality development that focused on the

growth of moral thought.

Building on a two-stage process proposed by Piaget, Kohlberg expanded the theory to

include six different stages:

• Stage 1: Obedience and punishment

• Stage 2: Individualism and exchange

• Stage 3: Developing good interpersonal relationships

• Stage 4: Maintaining social order

• Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights

• Stage 6: Universal principles These stages are separated by levels.

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Level one is the pre-conventional level; it includes stages one and two and takes place
from birth to 9 years.

Level two is the conventional level; it includes stages three and four and takes place
from age 10 to adolescence.

Level three is the post-conventional level; it includes stages five and six and takes place
in adulthood.

Although this theory includes six stages, Kohlberg felt that it was rare for people to
progress beyond stage four, also stressing that these stages of moral development are
not correlated with the maturation process.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been criticized for a number of different
reasons. One primary criticism is that it does not accommodate different genders and
cultures equally.

The Bottom Line

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While these theories suggest different numbers and types of stages, and different ages
for progressing from one stage to the next, they have all influenced what we know today
about personality development.

Personality development in childhood

According to Erikson, the first feeling that a child should gain is the feeling of trust. Early
childhood is a period when the child - perhaps in connection with the sense of trust - is
open to influence. No subsequent period can produce such an influence over the child.

The child's innate sense of attachment and openness to influence naturally leads us to
the concept of the "role model." Psychologists agree that children need models and
examples to follow in terms of their development.

Accordingly, it can be said that one of the greatest tasks befalling a family in properly
developing the child's personality is to be a correct model and an example. The most
important characteristic of children is that they mimic their parents. Imitation is the most
important learning tool, particularly in early childhood. The religious/ethical attitudes and
behaviors displayed by the family will directly affect the attitudes and approaches of
those children who are very good observers.

Preadolescents

Freud halts personality development at the age of five. According to him, no notable
change in personality ever takes place after the age of five. The individual's childhood
makeup continues unchanged until they die. Neo-Freudian psychologist Sullivan is not as
rigid as Freud when it comes to personality change. Sullivan believes that even though
the first five years are crucially important, a second chance exists to correct the
mistakes made in that period. The preadolescent period is the last chance for which
Erikson asserts that in the absence of hope, life cannot begin or end in a meaningful
fashion. According to him, faith is the perfect form of hope. He thinks that within the
cycle of life hope and faith exist in the purest form of human behavior.

This period, which coincides with the last term of primary school and the first term of
secondary school, expresses a process that requires family-school collaboration. In
addition to supporting the positively developing personality structure at school, this
collaborative effort also involves correcting the mistakes made at home in the school
environment. The onus here largely falls on teachers. The first stage of this task is to
correctly define the students' personality traits. What needs to be done next is to
support the correct traits and rectify the incorrect ones.

Adolescents

Adolescence is a period that can be examined in various ways. This period in which the
individual matures biologically, psychologically, mentally and socially comes with its own
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peculiar set of problems. However, this study focuses on the direction of "identity
construction" during adolescence and tries to reveal the risks and problems that may
arise in terms of religious and moral development.

According to Erikson, stability, when a young adult commits himself to something,

depends to a large degree on the outcome of the identity struggle during adolescence. A
youth who has reached adolescence is faced with two choices. The first is to selectively
adhere to childhood identifications while the other is to reject them. The adolescent
period's process of identity construction is more than the sum of the childhood period's
identifications.

The adolescent period houses a passionate interest in all forms of ideological values
(religious, political, intellectual). The most powerful feature emerging in adolescence is
loyalty. This loyalty is closely related to both infantile trust and mature belief. During this
time, a person's need for orientation shifts from parents to mentors and people they
consider leaders. The sense of loyalty includes the enthusiastic adoption of these
people's ideological guidance.

Middle age

Contrary to Freud, Jung regards human personality as a dynamic and evolutionary

process that continues throughout a person's life. Jung believes that people are
continually learning new skills and creating new goals on the path to self-realization. One
of the best representatives of psychoanalysis school, Jung ascribes special importance to
the mid-life period in personality development. In identity development, Jung regards
"individuation" as the most crucial factor for success for the mid-life period. He defines
individuation as every person developing according to the model found in their own
existential self.

Jung states that individuation is a natural process. According to Jung, a person needs the
appropriate instruction and experiences in order to achieve healthy individuation. It can
be said that the relationship with the divine/holy is one such instruction and experience.
In this situation, the instruction received in the previous periods going back as far as
childhood experiences and religious instruction in particular all have important roles to
play in the midlife period taking place in a healthy and successful fashion starting at
around 35-40 as far as the old age period.

Old age

The old age period begins at around 60 years of age and continues until life's end.
Productivity comes to an end during this period. Having reached this period, the
individual realizes that he can no longer produce or reproduce. The old age period, which
manifests in such forms as loss of autonomy and loss of initiative, is reason enough for a
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person to succumb to despair. On top of this, the aged individual will take stock of his
body's physical inadequacies and decrepitude as well as the narrow identities he
embraced in previous periods. Efforts transformed during this period into teaching the
younger generations can give a sense of altruism, usefulness and productivity. Stating
that the hope that gives meaning to life and death in old age is the same hope for life
that exists in childhood, Erikson says that when children can engage with old people
cultures are able to survive.

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Unit 3: Introduction to Structure and dynamics of personality (Note) the
following theories should be studied on the basis of it.

Psychodynamic Approach

This view owes largely to the contributions of Sigmund Freud. He was a physician and
developed this theory in the course of his clinical practice. Early in his career, he used
hypnosis to treat people with physical and emotional problems. He noted that many of
his patients needed to talk about their problems, and having talked about them, they
often felt better. Freud used free association (a method in which a person is asked to
openly share all the thoughts, feelings and ideas that come to her/his mind), dream
analysis, and analysis of errors to understand the internal functioning of the mind.

Levels of Consciousness

Freud’s theory considers the sources and consequences of emotional conflicts and the
way people deal with these. In doing so, it visualizes the human mind in terms of three
levels of consciousness.

The first level is conscious, which includes the thoughts, feelings and actions of which
people are aware. The second level is preconscious, which includes mental activity of
which people may become aware only if they attend to it closely. The third level is
unconscious, which includes mental activity that people are unaware of. According to
Freud, the unconscious is a reservoir of instinctive or animal drives. It also stores all
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ideas and wishes that are concealed from conscious awareness, perhaps, because they
lead to psychological conflicts. Most of these arise from sexual desires which cannot be
expressed openly and therefore are repressed. People constantly struggle to find either
some socially acceptable ways to express unconscious impulses, or to keep those
impulses away from being expressed. Unsuccessful resolution of conflicts results in
abnormal behavior. Analysis of forgetting, mispronunciation jokes and dreams provide us
with a means to approach the unconscious. Freud developed a therapeutic procedure
called psychoanalysis. The basic goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to bring the repressed
unconscious materials to consciousness, thereby helping people to live in a more self-
aware and integrated manner.

Structure of Personality

According to Freud’s theory, the primary structural elements of personality are three, i.e.
id, ego, and superego. They reside in the unconscious as forces, and they can be inferred
from the ways people behave.

Id : It is the source of a person’s instinctual energy. It deals with immediate gratification

of primitive needs, sexual desires, and aggressive impulses. It works on the pleasure
principle, which assumes that people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain. Freud
considered much of a person’s instinctual energy to be sexual, and the rest as
aggressive. Id does not care for moral values, society, or another individual concept.

Id has two major instincts: Eros and Thanatos

Eros: life instinct =motives people to focus on pleasure seeking tendencies (sexual urge).

Thanatos: Death instinct =To use aggressive urges to destroy.

Ego: It grows out of id and seeks to satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in

accordance with reality. It works by the reality principle and often directs the id towards
more appropriate ways of behaving. For example, the id of a boy, who wants an ice-
cream cone, tells him to grab the cone and eat it. His ego tells him that if he grabs the
cone without asking, he may be punished. Working on the reality principle, the boy
knows that the best way to achieve gratification is to ask for permission to eat the cone.
Thus, while the id is demanding, unrealistic and works according to the pleasure
principle, the ego is patient, reasonable, and works by the reality principle.

Superego: The best way to characterize the superego is to think of it as the moral branch
of mental functioning. The superego tells the id and the ego whether gratification in a
particular instance is ethical. It helps control the id by internalizing the parental authority
through the process of socialization. For example, if a boy sees and wants an ice- cream
cone and asks his mother for it, his superego will indicate that his behavior is morally
correct. This approach towards obtaining the ice cream will not create guilt, fear or
anxiety in the boy. Thus, in terms of individual functioning Freud thought of the
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unconscious as being composed of three competing forces. In some people, the id is
stronger than the superego; in others, it is the superego. The relative strength of the id,
ego, and superego determines each person’s stability.

It consists of two parts

Consciences: rational of right /wrong

Ego ideal: how we ideally like to be

Freud also assumed that id is energized by two instinctual forces, called life instinct and
death instinct. The instinctual life force that energizes the id is called a libido. It works on
the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

According to Freud, much human behavior reflects an attempt to deal with or escape
anxiety. Thus, how the ego deals with anxiety largely determines how people behave.
Freud believed that people avoid anxiety mainly by developing defense mechanisms that
try to defend the ego against the awareness of instinctual needs. Thus, the defense
mechanism is a way of reducing anxiety by distorting reality. Freud has described many
different kinds of defense mechanisms.

The most important thing is repression, in which anxiety- provoking behaviors or

thoughts are totally dismissed by the unconscious. When people repress a feeling or
desire, they become totally unaware of that wish or desire. Thus, when a person says, “I
do not know why I did that”, some repressed feeling or desire is expressing itself. Eg: A
rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack.

In projection, people attribute their own traits to others. Thus, a person who has strong
aggressive tendencies may see other people acting in an excessively aggressive way
towards him. Eg: A group therapy client strongly dislikes another member but claims
that it is the member who dislikes her.

In denial, a person totally refuses to accept reality. Or avoid becoming aware of

contradictory information or painful situations Eg: A person disbelieves that she is aging,
asserting that I am not getting older.

In reaction formation, a person defends against anxiety by adopting behaviors

opposite to her/his true feelings. Eg: A person with strong sexual urges, who channels
her/his energy into religion, presents a classical example of reaction formation.

In rationalization, a person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behavior seem

reasonable and acceptable. For example, when a student 36 buys a set of new pens after
doing poorly in an examination, s/he may try to rationalize her/his behavior by asserting,
“I will do much better with these pens”.
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People who use defense mechanisms are often unaware of doing so. Each defense
mechanism is a way for the ego to deal with the uncomfortable feelings produced by
anxiety. However, Freud’s ideas about the role of defence mechanisms have been
questioned. For example, his claim that projection reduces anxiety and stress has not
found support in several studies.

Stages of Personality Development

Freud claims that the core aspects of personality are established early, remain stable
throughout life, and can be changed only with great difficulty. He proposed a five-stage
theory of personality (also called psychosexual) development. Problems encountered at
any stage may arrest development and have a long-term effect on a person’s life.

A brief description of these stages is given here.

Oral Stage: A newborn’s instincts are focused on the mouth. This is the infant’s primary
pleasure-seeking Centre. It is through the mouth that the baby obtains food that reduces
hunger. The infant achieves oral gratification through feeding, thumb sucking, biting,
and babbling. It is during these early months that people’s basic feelings about the world
are established. Thus, for Freud, an adult who considers the world a bitter place,
probably had difficulty during the oral stage of development.

Anal Stage: It is found that around ages two and three the child learns to respond to
some of the demands of society. One of the principal demands made by parents is that
the child learns to control the bodily functions of urination and defecation. Most children
at this age experience pleasure in moving their bowels. The anal area of the body
becomes the focus of certain pleasurable feelings. This stage establishes the basis for
conflict between the id and the ego, and between the desire for babyish pleasure and
demand for adult, controlled behavior.

Phallic Stage: This stage focuses on the genitals. At around ages four and five children
begin to realize the differences between males and females. They become aware of
sexuality and the sexual relationship between their parents. During this stage, the male
child experiences the Oedipus Complex, which involves love for the mother, hostility
towards the father, and the consequent fear of punishment or castration by the father
(Oedipus was a Greek king who unknowingly killed his father and then married his
mother). A major developmental achievement at this stage is the resolution of the
Oedipus complex. This takes place by accepting his father’s relationship with his mother
and modeling his own behavior after his father. For girls, the Oedipus complex (called
the Electra Complex after Electra, a Greek character, who induced her brother to kill
their mother) follows a slightly different course. By attaching her love to the father, a girl
tries to symbolically marry him and raise a family. When she realizes that this is unlikely,
she begins to identify with her mother and copy her behavior as a means of getting (or,
sharing) her father’s affection. The critical component in resolving the Oedipus complex
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is the development of identification with the same sex parents. In other words, boys give
up sexual feelings for their mothers and begin to see their fathers as role models rather
than as rivals; girls give up their sexual desires for their father and identify with their
mother.

Latency Stage: This stage lasts from about seven years until puberty. During this period,
the child continues to grow physically, but sexual urges are relatively inactive. Much of a
child’s energy is channeled into social or achievement-related activities.

Genital Stage: During this stage, the person attains maturity in psychosexual
development. The sexuality, fears and repressed feelings of earlier stages are once
again exhibited. People learn to deal with members of the opposite sex in a socially and
sexually mature way. However, if the journey towards this stage is marked by excessive
stress or over-indulgence, it may cause fixation to an earlier stage of development.

Freud’s theory also postulates that as children proceed from one stage to another stage
of development, they seem to adjust their view of the world. Failure of a child to pass
successfully through a stage leads to fixation on that stage. In this situation, the child’s
development gets arrested at an earlier stage. For example, a child who does not pass
successfully through the phallic stage fails to resolve the Oedipal complex and may still
feel hostile toward the parent of the same sex. This failure may have serious
consequences for the child’s life. Such a boy may come to consider that men are
generally hostile and may wish to relate to females in a dependable relationship.
Regression is also a likely outcome in such situations. It takes a person back to an earlier
stage. Regression occurs when a person’s resolution of problems at any stage of
development is not adequate. In this situation, people display behaviors typical of a less
mature stage of development.

Trait model

The big five model

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TYPES OF MOTIVATION

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: it refers to motivation driven by interest and enjoyment and

exists within a person rather than external pressure.it is associated with high educational
development and students enjoyment.it is the personal gratification and feeling of
fullfillment,rather than just achieving a goal.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION: A kind of motivation that comes from outside of the individual is
extrinsic motivation. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards, money, incentives,
popularity, competition, achievement and the threat of punishment.

Adaptation vs Adjustment

To survive for people, it depends on the physical environment. They adapt to it and
modify it to suit their changing needs for things such as food, clothing, water, shelter and
energy

In meeting their needs, humans bring knowledge and technology to cope with physical
systems.

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Unit 4: Introduction to View of human nature: freedom, optimism, rationality,
holism, constitutionalism, changeability, subjectivity, reactivity, homeostasis,
knowability.

Introduction to view of human nature

An important aspect of any personality theory is the image of human nature formulated
by the theorist. Each theorist has a conception of human nature that addresses the basic
issues of what it means to be human. Those believing in free will assume that people can
consciously direct their own course of action, can spontaneously choose among
alternatives and direct our thoughts and behavior by rationally selecting among the
alternatives, have conscious awareness and measure of self-control, and are masters of
our fate. Determinists believe that we are victims of our experience, biological factors,
unconscious forces, or external stimuli—forces over which we have no conscious control
and external events shaped our personality and so we are incapable of changing our
behavior.

Nature or Nurture

Nature

Inherited traits and attributes (our nature or genetic endowment) have an important
influence on behavior; the abilities, temperaments, and predispositions we inherit
determine our personality.

Nurture: features of our environment (our upbringing, education, and training) have an
important influence on behavior. We are shaped more strongly by the conditions under
which we live.

Freedom-Determinism

Freedom - what degree of internal freedom human beings possess in directing and
controlling everyday events. Determinism- human behavior is controlled by definable
factors like unconscious motives, external reinforcement, early experiences,
physiological processes, cultural influences.

Rationality-Irrationality

Rationality- people make decisions logically and try to understand the world.
Irrationality- people are driven by their emotions and other irrational influences.

Changeability-Unchangeability

Changeability- Personality is subject to continuous change throughout the individual’s

life cycle. Unchangeability- an assumption that one’s personality structure is established
in their early life and remains the same.

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Subjectivity-Objectivity

Subjectivity-an assumption that each person has a highly personal, subjective world of
experience that has a major influence on their personality.

Objectivity-an assumption that human behavior is largely a result of external and

definable factors acting upon the person.

Proactivity- Reactivity

Proactivity focuses on eliminating problems before they have a chance to appear.

Reactivity is based on responding to events after they have happened.

Homeostasis-Heterostasis

Homeostasis-an assumption that individuals are motivated primarily to reduce tension

and maintain an internal state of balance.

Heterostasis- an assumption that individuals are motivated primarily towards growth,

stimuli seeking, and self-actualization.

Knowability – Unknowability

Knowability-an assumption that principles governing human behavior will eventually be

discovered through scientific enquiry.

Unknowability-an assumption that human behaviour is beyond the potential of scientific

understanding.

Holism vs Reductionism

Holism focuses on understanding systems as cohesive wholes, emphasizing the

interrelationships and evolution of parts, while reductionism seeks to analyze systems by
breaking them down into smaller components, which can overlook the interactions
between these components.

Constitutionalism vs absolutism

Absolutism is a political system in which a monarch has absolute power and authority
over the state.

Constitutionalism is a political system in which power is shared between the government

and the citizens, and a constitution limits the government.

Unit 5: Introduction to the Evaluation of theory on critical evaluation

parameters: verifiability, heuristic value, parsimony, internal consistency,
comprehensiveness & functional significance. (Note) each theory should be
discussed on the lines.

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Introduction to Evaluation of theory on critical evaluation parameters

1. Verifiability

2. Heuristic Value

3. Parsimony

4. Internal Consistency

5. Comprehensiveness

6. Functional Significance

Verifiability

It means whether the concepts postulated by a theory lend themselves to testing by

independent investigators. For this to happen, it is important that concepts embedded in
the theory be precisely defined and have logical connections with each other. This allows
logical testing of empirical consequences of the theory and all the hypotheses generated
by it can be tested.

Heuristic value

It refers to the extent to which research is stimulated by a theory. A good theory

generates research in two ways – one, descriptive and second, hypotheses testing.
Descriptive research is aimed at expanding and elaborating the present theory. In a way
it prepares the building blocks of the theory. Hypotheses testing gives a fair estimation
of the utility of a theory. When different concepts of a theory do not lend themselves to
operational definition, its heuristic value becomes nil.

Internal consistency

Principles or concepts in a theory should not contradict themselves but should have
harmony between them. It is known as internal consistency.

Parsimony

The soundness of a theory is also judged in terms of the concepts required to explain
human behavior. The principle of parsimony states a good theory of personality should
use a minimum number of concepts to explain human behavior. A theory requiring
different concepts to explain different aspects of behavior can’t be regarded as good.
Although, there is no hard and fast rule of parsimony, the number of concepts used to be
kept reasonably minimum.

Comprehensiveness

It means the diversity and range of events included in a theory, Higher the diversity and
range of events the better it is. Comprehensive theory of personality lays emphasis on
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biological, emotional, cultural, cognitive, social, and cultural factors. Such a theory has
the element of wholeness and specialty.

Functional Significance

A theory of personality is judged by its functional value that means to what extent the
theory is useful in understanding different aspects of human behavior. This element of a
theory is particularly important for clinical psychologists.

Unit 6: Personality assessment: Objective, projective, semi- projective tests.

(Note) To read, not for assessment.

Personality assessment

Personality Assessment is a proficiency in professional psychology that involves the

administration, scoring, and interpretation of empirically supported measures of
personality traits and styles to:

Refine clinical diagnoses

Structure and inform psychological interventions and

Increase the accuracy of behavioral prediction in a variety of contexts and settings (e.g.,
clinical, forensic, organizational, educational).

According to Nunnally (1979) personality measurement aims at Studying the following 4

broad types of traits.

1. Social traits: Traits which determine how persons interact with other persons in
society. It includes traits related to Temperament and character. E.g.: Friendliness,
honesty, Dominance, responsibility, shyness etc.

2. Motives: Include the drives such as need to earn money and Prestige, need for
academic achievement, need for affiliation, Aggression etc.

3. Personal Conceptions: Under the trait of personal Conceptions are included those
methods which determine People’s attitude toward the self and others, a person’s
values, Interests etc.

4. Adjustment: It includes traits like the freedom from emotional Worries or instability
and other disruptive behavior. Maladjustment is the opposite of adjustment and includes
Pathological traits like hallucinations, hysteria, psychoses etc.

Objective tests

An objective test is a psychological test that measures an individual’s characteristics in a

way that isn’t influenced by the examiner’s own beliefs- they are said to be independent

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of rather bias. They usually involve the administration of a bank of questions that are
marked and compared against standardized scoring mechanisms.

Objective tests tend to have more validity than projective tests; however, they are still
subject to the willingness and ability of the examinee to be open, honest, and self
reflective enough to accurately represent and report their true personality. Self-report
measures rely on information provided directly by participants about themselves or their
beliefs through a question and-answer format. There are a number of test formats, but
each one requires respondents to provide information about their own personality. They
typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Strength

It is a relatively simple way to collect data from many people quickly and at low cost.

self-report data can be collected in various ways to suit the researcher’s needs

Weakness

Researchers must ensure that measures are reliable and valid.

Threats to validity may arise from the way the measure is Designed, such as using
ambiguous words or words that are not Appropriate for the reading level of the
respondents.

Responses may not be always honest

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed in 1937 by

clinical psychologist Starke R. Hathaway and neuropsychiatrist J. Charnley McKinley at
the University of Minnesota.

It tests the abnormal behavior patterns in personality.

It consists of 567 statements. The answers to the statements must be “true”, “false”, or
“cannot say”. It takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete.

MMPI-2 with 550 items is the most common personality Inventory

It has 10 clinical scales and eight validity scales to test behaviors ranging from mild to
more serious disorders such as schizophrenia and depression

It also consists of a validity scale that ascertain that the person taking the inventory is
responding honestly or not.

The MMPI can be administered individually or in groups

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Both the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-2-RF are designed for individual’s age 18 years and older.

The test can be scored by hand or by a computer, but the results should always be
interpreted by a qualified mental health Professional that has had extensive training in
MMPI Interpretation.

10 Clinical Scales

Scale 1—Hypochondriasis

Scale 2—Depression

Scale 3—Hysteria

Scale 4—Psychopathic deviate

Scale 5—Masculinity-femininity

Scale 6—Paranoia

Scale 7—Psych asthenia

Scale 8—Schizophrenia

Scale 9—Hypomania

Scale 10—Social introversion

Personality Questionnaire

Developed by Cattell based on 16 personality factors. It’s used in Career counselling,

marital counselling, and in business for Employee testing and selection.

The respondent must choose one of three different alternatives.

Personality traits are then represented by a range, and the individual score falls
somewhere on the continuum between highest and lowest extremes.

The pencil and paper version of the test takes around 35 to 50 Minutes to complete,
while the computer version of the Questionnaire takes around 30 minutes.

16 personality dimensions described by Cattell.

Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical

Apprehension: Worried versus confident

Dominance: Forceful versus submissive

Emotional Stability: Calm versus high-strung

Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained

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Openness to Change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar

Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined

Privateness: Discreet versus open

Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete

Rule-Consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming

Self-Reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent

Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded.

Social Boldness: Uninhibited versus shy

Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed

Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting

Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved

Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a questionnaire to assess the personality

traits of a person.

It was devised by the psychologists Hans Jürgen Eysenck and Sybil B. G.

Eysenck Dimensions: E – Extraversion/Introversion:

Extraversion is characterized by being outgoing, talkative, high on positive affect (feeling

good), and in need of external stimulation.

According to Eysenck’s arousal theory of extraversion, at very low and very high levels of
arousal, performance is low but at a better mid-level of arousal, performance is
maximized.

Arousal can be measured by skin conductance, brain waves, or sweating.

Extraverts are chronically aroused and bored and are therefore in need of external
stimulation to bring them up to an optimal level of performance.

Introverts, on the other hand, are chronically over-aroused and jittery and are therefore
in need of peace and quietness to bring them down to an optimal level of performance.

N – Neuroticism/Stability:

Neuroticism or emotionality is characterized by high levels of negative effects such as

depression and anxiety.

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Neuroticism, is based on activation thresholds in the sympathetic nervous system or
visceral brain.

P – Psychoticism/Socialization:

Psychoticism is associated not only with the liability to have a psychotic episode (or
break with reality), but also with aggression. Psychotic behaviour is rooted in the
characteristics of tough mindedness, non-conformity, inconsideration, recklessness,
hostility, anger and impulsiveness.

The physiological basis suggested by Eysenck for psychoticism is testosterone, with

higher levels of psychoticism associated with Higher levels of testosterone.

Projective tests

Projective personality tests are based on a fundamentally different assumption: People

will “project” their personalities if presented with unstructured, ambiguous stimuli and
an unrestricted opportunity to respond. Clients are given freedom to make sense of
these stimuli in any way they choose—they are not restricted to multiple-choice or
true/false options.

Scoring projective tests is highly subjective, so interpretations of answers can vary

dramatically from one examiner to the next. The respondent's answers can be heavily
influenced by the examiner's attitudes or the test setting.

Classification of Projective Techniques

Constructive: tests and situations where the construction of some specific tasks is to be
done by the examinee.

Constitutive: tests which require the examinee to constitute structures upon some given
unstructured materials.

Cathartic: situations where the examinee can release his wishes, inner demands,
conflicts etc. through some manipulative tasks.

Interpretative: add a detailed meaning to the given situation.

Refractive: includes all those techniques through which the examinee gets the
opportunity to depict his personality in the form of drawing, painting, etc.

Strengths

They expose certain aspects of personality that are impossible to measure by means of
an objective test. They are more reliable at uncovering unconscious personality traits or
features.

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Projective Methods can be used to have a good effect on children and adolescents as
well as adults.

Limitations subjective in nature

Interpretation needs deep analytic and artistic traits.

Problems with reliability and have poor predictive ability

Instructions on the part of the examiner influence the scores.

Not guided by any consistent, meaningful, and testable theories.

No standard grading scales for projective tests.

Situational variables may influence responses.

Thematic Apperception Test

Developed by Henry Murray and his colleagues.

TAT consists of 20 pictures which are all black and white.

After showing the picture, a story is to be told by the client about the person or people in
the picture. They have to say what is happening in the picture, what has caused the
event and what could have taken place in the past and what would happen in the future
and the feelings and thoughts of the character.

Thus, the TAT is a narrative-making task whose instructions, though seemingly simple,
are thought to push the teste to respond in a manner consistent with the social and
emotional demands of “real-life.”

The story narrated by the client is interpreted by the psychologist, who tries to look for
revealing statements and projection of the client’s hidden emotions onto the characters
in the pictures

The TAT evaluates the capacity to link past and present with future.

In the original interpretation method of TAT scores, the examiner first determines who is
the “hero”, the character of either sex with whom the respondent presumably identifies
himself or herself.

The content of the stories is then analyzed in reference to Murray’s List of “needs” and
“press”. Achievement, affiliation and aggression are the examples of needs whereas
“press” refers to environmental forces that may facilitate or interfere with need
satisfaction

TAT has been used extensively in the research of personality but the high variations in
administration and scoring procedures associated with TAT has made it quite
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difficult to investigate the psychometric properties of the TAT.

Draw-a-Person Test It is a simple test in which the subject is asked to draw a person on a
sheet of paper. A pencil and eraser are provided to facilitate drawing. After the
completion of the drawing, the subject is generally asked to draw the figure of an
opposite sex person. Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if
s/he was a character in a novel or play.

The Rorshach Inkblot Test

Developed in 1921 by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach.

consists of 10 inkblots, five chromatic cards and 5 achromatic cards.

measures both intellectual and non-intellectual personality traits.

The subjects are asked to simply state whatever each inkblot looks like to them.

Responses are scored by the psychologists using predetermined categories, on key

factors such as colour and shape, movement, whether the whole or part blot has been
seen, and whether the response is given in content to the whole or to peculiar details in
the blot.

These blots are frequently used for personality description, diagnosis of mental disorders
and for behaviour predictions. The whole procedure of the Rorschach test is a combined
set of three components, viz., performance proper, inquiry, and scoring.

Semi-projective tests

Semi-projective tests are partly structured, like there would be completion of sentence,
story, or word association. Eg. Sentence completion test Sentence Completion Test This
test makes use of several Incomplete sentences. The starting part of the sentence is first
presented, and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence. It is held that the
type of Endings used by the subjects reflect their attitudes, motivation and conflicts. The
test provides subjects with several opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious
motivations. A few sample items for a sentence completion test are given below.

1. My father——————————————.

2. My greatest fear is —————————.

3. The best thing about my mother is ——————————.

4. I am proud of ————————————————————

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