BEEE Quick Reference & Problem-Solving Guide

by Dr. A. B. Patil

Module 2: AC Circuits
Important Terms and Definitions
Waveform: A waveform is a graphical representation of how a quantity, like voltage,
current, or power varies over time.
Instantaneous value: refers to the value of the current or voltage at a specific point in
time. Since AC constantly changes direction and magnitude, its value is not constant.
Cycle: A cycle is one complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating
quantity.
Frequency (f): The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is
its frequency. It's measured in Hertz (Hz), which means cycles per second. So, a 50 Hz AC
current completes 50 cycles in one second.
Time Period (T): The time it takes for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
called its time period. It’s the reciprocal of frequency and is denoted by T. The relationship
can be expressed as: T = 1/f. In other words, the higher the frequency, the shorter the time
period. The unit is ‘second’.
Peak: A peak is the highest or lowest point of a wave. A wave can have a positive peak
(highest point) and a negative peak (lowest point). So, there can be two peaks for each
cycle of a wave. It's important to note that for an ac signal, a peak represents a maximum
value in its positive or negative direction within a single cycle. Peak values are commonly
denoted as Im or Imax for peak current, Vm or Vmax for peak voltage, Pm or Pmax for
peak power.
Peak-to-peak (peak-to-peak amplitude) refers to the total vertical distance between the
positive peak and the negative peak of a wave in a single cycle.
Phase: The phase of an alternating quantity refers to the time that has elapsed since it last
crossed zero, relative to a reference point. It's typically measured in degrees (°) or radians
(rad). Phase is important when dealing with multiple AC signals, as it helps us understand
their relative positions within their cycles.

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Angular Frequency (ω):
Angular frequency (omega, ω) represents the rate of change of the phase angle of a
waveform per unit of time. It’s related to the regular frequency (f) by the following
equation:
ω = 2πf
where:
• ω is the angular frequency in radians per second (rad/s)
• f is the regular frequency in Hertz (Hz)
• π (pi) is a mathematical constant (approximately equal to 3.14159)
Sinusoidal AC: The instantaneous values of an AC that vary as a sine function are referred
to as a sinusoidal AC. A sinusoidal waveform, also known as a sine wave or sinusoid.

Mathematical Representation:
A sinusoidal waveform for voltage can be expressed as:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Similarly, for current:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
where:
𝑣(𝑡) or 𝑖(𝑡) is the instantaneous value of the voltage or current at time 𝑡.
𝑉𝑚 or 𝐼𝑚 is the maximum (peak) value of the voltage or current.
𝜔 is the angular frequency, given by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, where 𝑓 is the frequency,
𝑡 is the time.
𝜙 is the phase angle, indicating any horizontal shift from the origin, measured in
degrees or radians.

For convenience, the time dependence (t) is dropped when referring to the instantaneous
voltage (𝑡) or (𝑡) and are represented simply by 𝑣 or 𝑖. This implies we're talking about the

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value at a specific time, but the equation itself doesn't explicitly show the time dependence.
The simplified equations for voltage and current are
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

When 𝜙 = 0, it means there's no horizontal shift, and the waveform crosses the horizontal
axis (zero value) at the origin (t = 0). This is a common reference point. With 𝜙 = 0, the
equations become even simpler.
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

Sinusoidal waveforms can be graphically shown in two ways depending on the variable on
the x-axis:
1. Time Axis (t): This is the most common representation. The x-axis represents actual
time in seconds (s). This allows us to directly visualize how the voltage or current
changes over time. We can easily identify the period (T), which is the time it takes
for the waveform to complete one cycle.
2. Angular Frequency Axis (ωt): Here, the x-axis represents angular frequency (ω)
multiplied by time (t). The unit for ωt is radians. Angular frequency relates to the

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 frequency (f) by the equation: ω = 2πf. This representation is useful for analyzing
the behavior of the waveform at different frequencies.
Sinusoidal Current Waveform with Time Axis (t):

When representing a sinusoidal current waveform with the x-axis representing time (t) in
seconds, we can identify key characteristics based on the period (T):
• Period (T): This represents the time it takes for the waveform to complete one full
cycle. It's measured in seconds and is calculated as T = 1 / f, where f is the frequency
in Hertz (Hz).
• The current reaches its positive maximum at T/4 seconds after the beginning of the
cycle.
• It crosses zero and starts decreasing at T/2 seconds.
• The current reaches its negative maximum at 3T/4 seconds.
Sinusoidal Current Waveform with Angular Frequency Axis (ωt):

When representing a sinusoidal current waveform with the x-axis representing angular
frequency axis (ωt) in radians, the key characteristics are expressed in terms of multiples
of π (pi) instead of fractions of the period (T).

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 • The current reaches its positive maximum at π/2 radians after the beginning of the
cycle.
• It crosses zero and starts decreasing at π radians.
• The current reaches its negative maximum at 3π/2 radians.
Phase Difference
The term "phase difference" is used to compare the phases of two alternating quantities.
Two alternating quantities are said to be in phase when they reach their maximum and zero
values at the same time, although their maximum values may differ in magnitude.
A leading alternating quantity is one that reaches its maximum or zero value earlier
compared to another quantity. A lagging alternating quantity is one that reaches its
maximum or zero value later than another quantity.
Sign Convention: A plus (+) sign with the phase difference denotes a 'lead'. A minus (–)
sign with the phase difference denotes a 'lag'.

Sinusoidal waveforms shown in above figure can be mathematically represented as

follows:

vA = Vm sin (ωt)
vB = Vm sin (ωt+ϕ)
In this case, quantity B leads A by a phase angle ϕ. Phase difference can be measured in
degrees (°) or radians (rad). The conversion between the two is:
• π radians = 180 degrees

Different Forms of Alternating Voltage

The standard form of an alternating voltage can be represented as follows:
v = Vm sin θ
Since θ = ωt
v = Vm sin (ωt)
Given that ω = 2πf

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 v = Vm sin (2πft)
Since f=1/T
v = Vm sin (2πt/T)
Therefore, the standard form of an alternating voltage can be written in multiple equivalent
forms:
v = Vm sin θ
v = Vm sin (ωt)
v = Vm sin (2πft)
v = Vm sin (2πt/T)

Average Value
The average value of a periodic waveform is the average of its instantaneous values
over one complete period (T) of the waveform. When calculating the average value,
we consider the area above the time axis as positive and the area below as negative.
It is essential to consider the algebraic signs of these areas when computing the total
(net) area. The time interval over which the net area is computed is the period 𝑇 of
the waveform.
Thus, the average value is given by:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑛𝑒𝑡)𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
The average value of a function (voltage or current) can be mathematically expressed
as:
1 𝑇
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
The average value of voltage can be mathematically expressed as:
1 𝑇
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
The average value of current can be mathematically expressed as:
1 𝑇
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

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For a symmetrical alternating waveform, whether sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal, the
average value over a complete cycle is always zero. This is because the positive half
of the waveform is exactly equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the negative
half, resulting in a net area of zero over one complete cycle.
Therefore, for symmetrical waveforms, the average value can be determined by
considering only one-half cycle. The average value is obtained by integrating or
summing the instantaneous values over one-half cycle and then adjusting for the
period accordingly.
Average value for sinusoidal wave form is
2𝑉𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋 𝜋

Root Mean Square (R.M.S.) or Effective Value

The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady current (d.c.)
which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same
amount of heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the
same resistance for the same time.
For example, when we say that the r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating current
is 5A, it means that the alternating current will do work (or produce heat) at the same
rate as 5A direct current under similar conditions.
The rms value of a function (voltage or current) can be mathematically expressed as:

1 𝑇 2
𝐹𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
The rms value of voltage can be mathematically expressed as:

1 𝑇 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
The rms value of current can be mathematically expressed as:

1 𝑇2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

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RMS value for sinusoidal wave form is
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2 √2

Type 1: Step-by-Step Solution for Parameter Calculation from a Sinusoidal

Equation
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + ϕ) OR i(t) = Im sin(ωt + ϕ)

Step 1: Identify the given equation and parameters and from the equation, extract:
• Vm or Im (maximum value)
• ω (angular frequency)
Step 2: Calculate frequency and time period using following formulae
ω = 2πf
f = ω / 2π (Hz)
T=1/f (seconds)
Step 3: Calculate RMS Value
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟
√2 √2
Step 4: Calculate average Value
• For a symmetrical sinusoidal waveform over a full cycle: The average value
is zero.
• Calculate average value over a half cycle:
2𝑉𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟
𝜋 𝜋

Type 2: Determining AC Parameters from Time-Specific Values and Frequency

These problems typically provide information about the time it takes for a sinusoidal current or
voltage to reach a specific value from a reference point (usually zero or maximum) along with the

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frequency. The goal is often to find the maximum value, write the instantaneous equation, or
determine the instantaneous value at another time.
Step 1: Identify the Given Parameters
Extract the following from the problem statement:
• Frequency (f) or Time Period (T=1/f).
• Peak current (Im) or RMS current (Irms):
• Phase information: (Does the voltage/current start at zero? If yes, phase ϕ=0, If it starts at
a peak, phase ϕ=π/2.
Step 2: Write the Instantaneous Voltage/Current Equation
Step 3: Substitute the Given Time and Instantaneous Value into the Equation
Step 4: Solve for the Unknown Parameter
Step 5: Calculate Instantaneous Values at Other Times (if required)
Step 6: Find Time to Reach a Specific Value (if required)

Type 3: Calculating Average and RMS Values of Modified Sinusoidal Waveforms

1. Determine the Period of the Waveform

• Analyze the repeating pattern: Identify the smallest repeating unit of the waveform. The
period of the modified sinusoidal waveforms are typically π or 2π radians.
2. Define the Waveform Mathematically Over One Period
• Analyze the given waveform: Carefully examine the shape of the waveform and identify
the different segments or sections within one period (0 to T or 0 to 2π).
• Determine the mathematical expression for each segment: For each distinct segment of the
waveform within one period, write down the equation (v(t)) or (i(t)) as a function of time
(t) (or angle θ). This might involve:
o A sinusoidal function: v(t) = Vm sin(θ)
o A constant value.
o Zero.
• Identify the time intervals (or angle intervals) for each segment: Determine the start and
end times (or angles) for which each mathematical expression is valid within the
determined period.
3. Calculate the Average Value (Vavg or Iavg)
• The average value of a periodic waveform over one period (T) is given by:

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 1 𝑇
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
or in terms of angle θ over 2 π :

1 2π
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑣(θ) 𝑑θ
2π 0
• Break the integral into segments: Split the integral according to the intervals
where the waveform has different mathematical expressions:
𝑡2 𝑡3
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = [∫ 𝑣1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑣2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ⋯ ]
T 𝑡1 𝑡2

or
θ2 θ3
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = [∫ 𝑣 (θ) 𝑑θ + ∫ 𝑣2 (θ) 𝑑θ + ⋯ ]
2π θ1 1 θ2
• Evaluate each integral.
• Sum the results and divide by the period (T or 2π)
4. Calculate the Root Mean Square (RMS) (Vrms or Irms)
• The rms value of a periodic waveform over one period (T) is given by:

1 𝑇 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
or in terms of angle θ over 2 π:

1 2π 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑣 ( θ ) 𝑑θ
𝑇 0

• Break the integral into segments: Split the integral according to the intervals
where the waveform has different mathematical expressions:
𝑡2 𝑡3
1 2 (𝑡)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ [∫ 𝑣1 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑣22 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + …]
𝑇 𝑡1 𝑡2
or

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 θ2 θ3
1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ [∫ 𝑣1 θ 𝑑θ + ∫ 𝑣22 (θ) 𝑑θ + …]
2( )
2π θ1 θ2

• Square the function for each segment.

• Evaluate each integral.
• Sum the results and divide by the period (T or 2π)
Note: Use standard integrals

∫ sin θ 𝑑θ = − cos θ
θ sin 2θ
∫ sin2 θ 𝑑θ = −
2 4
For constant segment
θ2
∫ 𝐶 2 𝑑θ = 𝐶 2 (θ2 − θ1 )
θ1

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Step-by-Step Guide for Solving Numerical Problems Based on Addition and Subtraction of
AC Currents and Voltages Using Polar Form
Currents and voltages are represented in the following form:
i = Im sin(ωt ± ϕ)
v = Vm sin(ωt ± ϕ)
Numerical problems are asked to find the expressions for the sum or difference of given currents
or voltages. To solve such numerical problems, the currents and voltages shall be represented in
polar form, i.e.
V̅ = V ∠ ±ϕ
Ī = I ∠ ±ϕ
In the polar form, V and I represent RMS values.
Once the currents and voltages are represented in polar form, they can be added or subtracted to
solve the given expression.

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Sometimes, instead of expressing current (or voltage) in standard form i.e.
i = Im sin(ωt ± ϕ)
it can be represented in one of the following form:
i = Im cos(ωt ± ϕ)
i = – Im sin(ωt ± ϕ)
i = – Im cos(ωt ± ϕ)
In such case, the non-standard form needs to be converted to standard format by using following
trigonometric formulae:
cos(θ) = sin(θ + 90°)
–sin(θ) = sin(θ + 180°)
–cos(θ) = sin(θ + 270°)

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Useful Formulae

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 Series R-L Circuit
VR = R * I
VL = XL* I XL = ω L = 2 π f L
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
𝑉
𝑍= = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 𝑍∠𝜙
𝐼
𝑉 𝑋
𝑍= = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 𝜙 = tan−1 ( 𝐿)
𝐼 𝑅

Phasor diagram Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Triangle

𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑃
Power factor = cos ϕ = = =
𝑉 𝑍 𝑆

Series R-C Circuit

VR = R * I
1 1
VC = XC* I 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶
𝑉
𝑍= = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 𝑍∠ − 𝜙
𝐼
𝑉 𝑋
𝑍= = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 𝜙 = tan−1 ( 𝐶)
𝐼 𝑅

Phasor diagram Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Triangle

𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑃
Power factor = cos ϕ = = =
𝑉 𝑍 𝑆
Common for ALL AC Series Circuits
P = Average Power = Active Power = V I cos ϕ = I2 R (unit Watts)
Q = Reactive Power = V I sin ϕ = I2 XL (unit VAR i.e. Volt-Ampere-Reactive)
2
S = Apperant Power = V I = I Z (unit VA i.e. Volt-Ampere)
𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2

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 Series R-L-C Circuit
VR = R * I
VL = XL* I XL = ω L = 2 π f L
1 1
VC = XC* I 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶
𝑉
𝑍= = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) = 𝑍∠𝜙
𝐼
𝑉
. 𝑍= = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿2 −𝑋𝐶2 )
𝐼
𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
𝜙 = tan−1 ( )
𝑅
Case (i) XL > XC
The reactance X will be inductive in nature and the circuit will behave like an R-L circuit.

Phasor diagram Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Triangle

𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑃
Power factor = cos ϕ = = =
𝑉 𝑍 𝑆

Case (ii) XC > XL

The reactance X will be capacitive in nature and the circuit will behave like R-C circuit.

Phasor diagram Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Triangle

𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑃
Power factor = cos ϕ = = =
𝑉 𝑍 𝑆
Common for ALL AC Series Circuits
P = Average Power = Active Power = V I cos ϕ = I2 R (unit Watts)
Q = Reactive Power = V I sin ϕ = I2 XL (unit VAR i.e. Volt-Ampere-Reactive)
2
S = Apperant Power = V I = I Z (unit VA i.e. Volt-Ampere)
𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2

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Power Factor
Leading Power Factor: Power Factor is leading in nature if current in the circuit leads the
voltage (Capacitive circuit).
Lagging Power Factor: Power Factor is lagging in nature if current in the circuit lags the
voltage (Inductive circuit).
Pure Inductor and Coil:
A pure inductor refers to an ideal component which has no internal resistance. A practical
inductor (coil) has both inductance and internal resistance.

r = internal resistance of coil

L = inductance of coil

𝑋 𝑟
.𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ϕ𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = tan−1 ( 𝐿) 𝑝𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = cos ϕ𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
𝑟 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

.𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝐼 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝐼2 𝑟 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐼 cos ϕ𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

DC across Pure Inductor and Coil: When a dc voltage is applied across a pure inductor,
it behaves as a short circuit. When a dc voltage is applied across a coil, it behaves as a pure
resistor with a value equal to the coil’s internal resistance.
Pure Capacitor
A pure capacitor refers to a theoretical component with only capacitance but no internal
resistance. A real-world capacitor has both capacitance and internal resistance (ESR –
Equivalent Series Resistance).
When a dc voltage is applied across a (pure or practical) capacitor, it acts as an open circuit
(once it is fully charged).

Type 1: Impedance Directly Given — Calculate R, X, ϕ, and Power Factor (pf)

(a) If impedance is given in rectangular form 𝒁 = 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑿

• Convert to polar form: 𝒁 = 𝐙 ∠ 𝛟°
X
where 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 ϕ = tan−1 (R)

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 • Identify directly: Resistance R, Reactance X, Phase angle ϕ
• Calculate power factor: pf = cos(ϕ) [Note: pf is lagging if ϕ > 0 (inductive) and leading
if ϕ < 0 (capacitive)]
(b) If impedance is given in polar form 𝒁 = 𝐙 ∠ ± 𝛟°
• Convert to rectangular form: 𝒁 = 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑿
where R = Z cos(ϕ), X = Z sin(ϕ)
• Identify directly: Resistance R, Reactance X, Phase angle ϕ
• Calculate power factor: pf = cos(ϕ) [Note: pf is lagging if ϕ > 0 (inductive) and leading
if ϕ < 0 (capacitive)]
Type 2: Calculating Impedance from Given Data and Then Determining Other Unknown
Quantities (R, X, ϕ, and Power Factor)

Identify or derive following

Sr.
parameters from the data given in Formula for Impedance Z̅
No.
the numerical problem
Z̅ = R + j(XL − XC)
1 R, L, C, frequency XL = ωL = 2πfL
XC = 1 / (ωC) = 1 / (2πfC)

2 R, X Z̅ = R ± jX

3 Z, ϕ° Z̅ = Z ∠ ±ϕ°

4 V̅, Ī Z̅ = V̅ / Ī

Z=V/I
5 V, I, ϕ
Z̅ = Z ∠ ±ϕ
Z=V/I
6 P, V, I P = V × I × cosϕ
ϕ = cos⁻¹(P / V × I)

7 Z̅₁, Z̅₂ Z̅ = Z̅₁ + Z̅₂

Type 3: Impedance-Based Parameter Calculation Overview

• If the impedance (Z̅) is directly given (Type 1 problem) or derived/calculated from the
given data (Type 2 problem), then the following parameters can be determined:
Resistance (R), Reactance (X), Phase Angle (ϕ), and Power Factor (pf).

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 • If Z̅ is given or calculated and additional information such as voltage (V̅) or current (Ī)
is also provided, then the following additional parameters can be calculated:
Voltage (V), Current (I), Voltage Phasor (V̅), Current Phasor (Ī), Active Power (P),
Reactive Power (Q), and Apparent Power (S) — in addition to R, X, ϕ, and pf.
• Furthermore, if Z̅, V̅ or Ī, and frequency are given, then you can also determine
Inductance (L) and Capacitance (C), along with all the previously mentioned
parameters.

Parallel AC Circuits
In parallel circuits, resistor, inductor and capacitor or any combination of these elements
are connected across same supply. Hence the voltage is same across each branch of the
parallel ac circuit. The total current supplied to the circuit is equal to the phasor sum of the
branch currents.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

1 1 1
= +
𝑍 𝑍1 𝑍2

𝑌 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2

Admittance, Conductance and Susceptance

Admittance (Y̅): Admittance is a measure of how easily an AC circuit allows current to flow
through it. It is the reciprocal of impedance (Z̅).
Y̅ = 1 / Z̅
Unit: mho (℧) or siemens (S)
The admittance (Y̅) can be represented as:
Y̅ = G + jB
where,
• G is conductance measured in mho (℧) or siemens (S)
• B is susceptance measured in mho (℧) or siemens (S)

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Conductance (G): Conductance is the real part of the admittance and measures the ability of the
circuit or component to conduct AC current and to dissipate component.
G=1/R
Unit: mho (℧) or siemens (S)
Susceptance (B): Susceptance is the imaginary part of the admittance and measures the ability of
a circuit or component to conduct AC current due to the reactive elements.
B=1/X
Unit: mho (℧) or siemens (S)

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Comparison between Three-phase Star and Delta Connection

Star or Wye (Y) Connection Delta (∆) or Mesh connection

Three-phase, three-wire and three-phase, Only three-phase, three-wire system is
four-wire systems are possible. possible.

Vph = VRN = VYN = VBN Vph = VRY = VYB = VBR

VL = VRY = VYB = VBR VL = VRY = VYB = VBR
VL = √3 Vph VL = Vph
For a balanced load, all phase voltages
VRN, VYN and VBN are equal in magnitude For a balanced load, all phase voltages (= line
and differ in phase from one another by voltages) are equal in magnitude but
displaced 120° from one another.
120°.

Line voltages lead respective phase

voltages by 30°

IL
Iph = IR = IY = IB Iph = IRY = IYB = IBR
IL = I R = I Y = I B IL = I R = I Y = I B

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 IL = Iph IL = √3 Iph
For a balanced load, all phase currents (IRY,
For a balanced load, all phase currents IYB and IBR) are equal in magnitude but differ
and line currents are equal in magnitude in phase from one another by 120°.
but displaced 120° from one another. Line currents are 30° lags behind the
respective phase currents.
𝟏
𝒁𝒀 = 𝒁∆ 𝒁∆ = 𝟑 𝒁𝒀
𝟑
𝟏
𝑷𝒀 = 𝑷∆ 𝑷∆ = 𝟑 𝑷𝒀
𝟑
The phasor sum of all phase currents is
The phasor sum of all phase voltages is zero.
zero.
∑𝑉𝑝ℎ = 0
∑𝐼𝑝ℎ = 0
P = 3 Vph Iph cos ϕ = √3 VL IL cos ϕ
Q = 3 Vph Iph sin ϕ = √3 VL IL sin ϕ
S = 3 Vph Iph = √3 VL IL

Step-by-Step Guide for solving numerical problems based on ‘Voltage and current
relationships in star and delta connections:
Note:
1) The term ‘Three-phase supply’ specified in the numerical problem refers to the line voltage
(VL).
2) The ‘impedance’ specified in the numerical refers to the phase impedance (Zph).
Type-1 Problem:
The phase impedance Zph is directly specified in the numerical problem or the data required to
calculate Zph is provided in the problem.

• Step 1: Calculate the phase impedance Zph in polar form: 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑍𝑝ℎ ∠ ϕ°
Data Provided Calculate: 𝒁𝒑𝒉 = 𝒁𝒑𝒉 ∠ 𝛟°
(a) 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑍𝑝ℎ ∠ ϕ° Use directly
(b) 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 Convert rectangular to polar
(c) R, L and f (i) XL = 2πfL,
(ii) 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ⇒ 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑍𝑝ℎ ∠ ϕ°
(d) Series combination of R, L, C (i) XL = 2πfL, XC = 1 / 2πfC
(ii) 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) ⇒ 𝑍𝑝ℎ =
𝑍𝑝ℎ ∠ ϕ°
(e) Parallel combination of (R, L) and C (i) XL = 2πfL, XC = 1 / 2πfC
(𝑅+𝑗𝑋 )(−𝑗𝑋 )
(ii) 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑅+𝑗𝑋𝐿 −𝑗𝑋 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑍𝑝ℎ ∠ ϕ°
𝐿 𝑐

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 (f) VL, IL, ϕ (i) Calculate VPh and IPh
(ii) Calculate Zph = Vph / Iph
(iii) 𝑍𝑝ℎ = 𝑍𝑝ℎ ∠ ϕ°

• Step 2: Depending upon the load configuration (Stra or Delta connection), use appropriate
formula from above table to calculate following parameters.
Vph, Iph, IL, Zph, ϕ, power factor, active power P, reactive power Q and apparent power S,
circuit parameters (i.e. R, L and/or C)

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