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 An Introduction to
Traffic Engineering

KOLITA S. WEERASEKERA
BSc Eng (Moratuwa), MEngSc (UNSW), PhD (UNSW)
ALSO BY THE AUTHOR:

TOWARDS BETTER ROADS, 2008

An Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Copyright © 2009 Kolita S. Weerasekera

E-mail: kolitaw@gmail.com

ISBN No : ISBN 978-955-514-691-3

Bar Code : 9 789555 146913
Cover Design : Panduka Mahagamage
Printed by : Incolour (Pvt) Ltd
Foreword

The book authored by Dr Kolita Weerasekera on “An Introduction to Traffic

Engineering” is an ideal text book for undergraduates in Engineering and Planning. It
covers a wide range of topics in traffic engineering in typical traffic engineering and
management courses in an engineering or planning undergraduate programme. In fact,
this book will also be a help for those who pursue higher studies in traffic engineering
with less exposure in this field.

Dr.Kolita Weerasekera’s wide experience in university academia and industry in

Australia and Sri Lanka together with his experience in open and distance learning
delivery system at the Open University of Sri Lanka has immensely helped him to
write a reader friendly book. This book has been written in a simple language and easy
to understand manner but has covered the depth required by engineering
undergraduates.

I am very confident that this text book will be very useful to any university, where
engineering or planning student pursuing courses in traffic engineering and
management.

Prof. L L Ratnayake
Senior Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Moratuwa
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all those friends, close family members, university colleagues
and my students who encouraged me in writing this book.

I am very much grateful to Professor Lakshman Ratnayake, formerly Head of the

Department of Civil Engineering, Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, University of
Moratuwa and past President of the Institution of Engineers Sri Lanka for his valuable
comments and time in writing its foreword.

My special thanks go to uncle Piyaseela who always encouraged me in writing this

book and helped in numerous ways in publishing it, and also late aunty Leila who
took so much effort to go through the manuscripts and did the necessary changes in
the text.

Finally I am grateful to my loving wife Darshi, son Tirath for their continuous support
during the writing of the book and my dear parents who gave me all the support and
strength throughout my education.

Kolita S. Weerasekera
 CONTENTS

Foreword
Acknowledgements

Chapter 1 TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Traffic volume studies
1.3 Speed studies
1.4 Origin and destination studies
1.5 Traffic flow characteristics studies
1.6 Traffic capacity studies
1.7 Parking studies
1.8 Accident studies

Chapter 2 HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

2.1 Highway capacity

2.2 Level of service

Chapter 3 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Arterial road traffic management
3.3 Local area traffic management

Chapter 4 ROAD SAFETY AND ACCIDENT STUDIES

4.1 Introduction - Traffic safety studies

4.2 Causes for accidents
4.3 Traffic safety study measurement methods
4.4 Data collection
4.5 Accident analysis
Chapter 5 PARKING

5.1 Parking and environment

5.2 Demand for parking
5.3 Supply of parking
5.4 Parking surveys
5.5 On-street parking
5.6 Off-street parking

Chapter 6 PLANNING FOR PEDESTRIANS

6.1 Pedestrian facilities

6.2 Different types of pedestrian crossings at mid-blocks
6.3 Pedestrian crossings at intersections
6.4 Environmentally adopted through roads

Chapter 7 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ROAD TRAFFIC

7.1 Noise pollution

7.2 Air pollution
7.3 Ground water pollution
7.4 Vibration

Chapter 8 STREET LIGHTING

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Basic principles of lighting
8.3 Pavement brightness
8.4 Pavement reflection
8.5 Glare
8.6 Types of lamps
8.7 Lighting Layouts
Chapter 9 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN TRAFFIC AND
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

9.1 Basic functions of computer applications

9.2 Computational applications
9.3 Computer simulation applications
9.4 Real time control applications
9.5 Other applications relevant to traffic and transportation engineering

Chapter 10 TRAFFIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDIES

10.1 Purpose of traffic impact assessment studies

10.2 Background
10.3 TIA as a management tool
10.4 Things to look through a TIA
10.5 Elements of a TIA
10.6 Guideline on traffic impact studies
10.7 Issues to be addressed (a checklist)
10.8 Difficulties associated with producing TIA reports in our country

REFERENCES
Chapter 1

Traffic survey and analysis

Contents

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Traffic volume studies
1.3 Speed studies
1.4 Origin and destination studies
1.5 Traffic flow characteristics studies
1.6 Traffic capacity studies
1.7 Parking studies
1.8 Accident studies

Objectives

This chapter provides an overview of the different traffic surveys that can be
conducted, how the data obtained is analysed, and the usage of this data for
traffic management schemes. At the end of the chapter the reader should have
an idea of the different types of data collecting methods available for different
objectives and the utilisation of this data in highway development schemes.

1.1 Introduction

In any transport planning or traffic engineering project, the process begins with
collection of data. To improve the traffic conditions the solutions obtained must
be based on reliable data.

Field data are needed in order to ascertain actual traffic conditions, to determine
trends for future work and to assess the effectiveness of solutions. To collect
these data there is a need to undertake studies or surveys designed to measure
specific traffic parameters.
The traffic surveys help in deciding the geometric design features and traffic
control for safe and efficient movement of the traffic. The different types of
traffic studies generally conducted are listed below.

 Traffic volume studies

 Speed studies
 Origin destination studies
 Traffic flow characteristics studies
 Traffic capacity studies
 Parking studies
 Accident studies

1.2 Traffic volume studies

A traffic volume study is a count of the vehicles crossing a selected section of

the road per unit time at any suitable selected time duration.

Traffic volume can be used as a quantify measure of traffic flow, that is to

measure, how many vehicles of what type and from which direction have
passed a definite section of the road per hour and per day. In traffic volume
studies the traffic volumes are usually expressed in the following terms. The
definitions of these terms are as follows.

(1) Volume - number of vehicles passing a given point during a specified

period of time.

(2) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) - the total volume during a given time
period (this time period is any time duration greater than one day but less
than one year) divided by the number of days in that time period.

(3) Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) - total yearly volume divided by
the number of days in a year.
(4) 12 Hour Volume - on a road the number of vehicles passing an
observation point over a given 12 hour interval during a day.

(5) Peak Hour Volume - is the maximum traffic count observed in any 60
minute interval during a day. Usually in urban areas there are two peak
hour volumes, one in the morning and the other in the evening.

(6) Average Weekday Traffic Volume (AWT) - this is the average 24 hour
count over the period, Monday to Friday.

(7) Design Hour Volume (DHV) - is the traffic flow rate chosen as the
design traffic load for a facility. Common practice is to choose an ‘nth’
HHV as the design volume, with the 30th HHV often used in a rural
environment and 80th HHV in an urban area (HHV denotes the highest
hourly volume).

Vehicle classified counts

Vehicle classification data are important for all transport engineering

applications. In these counts vehicles can be classified into separate groups such
as; cars, motor cycles, buses, lorries, vans, trucks, jeeps etc. and count each
category separately. Comprehensive classification data are, however, difficult to
collect in urban areas, and manual methods are usually required.

Classified volume studies are useful for the structural and geometric designs of
the carriageway and computing road users’ capacity.

Vehicle equivalence factors

Vehicle counts are sometimes expressed in vehicle equivalence factors,

typically passenger car units (pcu). This is an attempt of expressing total impact
on the traffic flow of any vehicle compared with the impact of a standard
passenger car. In Sri Lanka the following passenger car units are used for
different vehicle types for different terrains:
Table 1.1 – Equivalent passenger car units for two-lane, two-way roads

Vehicle Type pcu factor

Flat Rolling Mountainous
Passenger car 1.0 1.0 1.0
Small bus 1.8 2.4 4.8
Bus 2.4 4.3 8.0
Light truck (4-wheel) 1.5 2.8 5.0
Medium truck (6-wheel) 2.0 4.0 8.0
Heavy truck (> 6-wheel) 3.8 5.6 10.0
Motor cycle 0.4 0.5 0.6
Bicycle 0.7 0.8 0.8
Animal drawn cart 2.5 6.0 14.0
Three-wheeler 0.8 1.2 2.0
Land vehicle 3.8 5.6 10.0
Truck trailer 6.0 12.0 18.0
(Source: Transportation Engineering Division, University of Moratuwa, 2006)

Table 1.2 – Equivalent passenger car units for multi lane roads

Vehicle Type pcu factor

Flat Rolling Mountainous
Passenger car 1.0 1.0 1.0
Small bus 1.6 2.2 4.0
Bus 1.8 3.2 5.0
Light truck (4-wheel) 1.5 2.4 4.2
Medium truck (6-wheel) 1.7 3.2 5.0
Heavy truck (> 6-wheel) 2.8 3.0 5.0
Motor cycle 0.5 0.5 0.5
Bicycle 1.0 1.0 1.0
Animal drawn cart 4.0 10.0 24.0
Three-wheeler 0.8 1.0 1.4
Land vehicle 3.4 4.8 5.4
Truck trailer 4.0 6.0 8.0
(Source: Transportation Engineering Division, University of Moratuwa, 2006)
Traffic composition is required to convert traffic volumes from vehicles into
pcu or vice versa, for design of lane widths or capacity calculations.

Turning movements at intersections

Information on turning movements at intersections is usually obtained from

manual counts over relatively short periods (typically the peak hour or over 12
hours 7:00 am to 7:00 pm). These data are essential for design of intersections,
planning of signal timings, channelisation and application of other controls such
as roundabouts, give way, and stop lines etc.
Following are the main objectives of traffic volume studies.

(a) Traffic volume usually gives the idea of relative importance of roads and
it helps in deciding the priority for widening and improvement of the
existing roads.
(b) Traffic volume study is useful in planning the traffic control and operation
of the existing roads and also for planning and designing of new roads.
(c) These studies are useful for analysing of traffic pattern trends.
(d) Pedestrian volume study is useful for planning cross walks and side walks
for pedestrians.
(e) Volume distribution study is used for regulatory measures.

Traffic counting can be done by either manually (using field sheets and hand
tallies) or by mechanical/electronic devices such as automatic traffic counters.

Manual traffic counts

These counts are conducted using hand counters (hand tallies) or observation
sheets to facilitate traffic data recording. Manual counts are usually undertaken
when:
 Detailed classification data is required (vehicle type, occupancy details etc.)
 To obtain turning movement details
 For short duration surveys
 Information such as pedestrian vehicle interaction etc.

The simplest and cheapest recording mechanism is a sheet of paper on a clip

board. Specially designed forms can be used to facilitate separate recording of
different types of vehicles and/or manoeuvres. If traffic flow is high, hand
tallies can be used for counts.
 Fig 1.1 - Manual traffic count

Automatic traffic counts

Automatic traffic counts are conducted using set of equipment consisting

pneumatic rubber tube stretched across the road carriageway surface that detects
the passage of axles of vehicles, plus a data logger (recorder) which records the
number of vehicle axles against specified time intervals. This information
recorded over a period of time later down loaded to a computer for data analysis
and obtaining reports on traffic details.

Fig 1.2 - Pneumatic rubber tube which connects to data logger

Although pneumatic tubes are the most widely used traditional automatic
counting method in Sri Lanka, many different methods are available for
counting vehicles, such as treadle switch, piezo-electric cable, induction loop,
photoelectric beam, infrared beam, microwave beam and video-imaging.
1.3 Speed studies

Vehicle speed is one of the basic changeable characters when describing the
operation of individual vehicles on a highway system. Information on vehicle
speeds provides awareness on level of service, travel condition, travel time, and
quality of traffic flow. Speed is one of the main highway design parameters for
setting design standards, and also for quantifying the effects of changes on a
highway system due to any improvements or deteriorations.

Vehicle speed studies are carried out with the following objectives.

(a) For planning traffic control measures such as establishing speed zones,
traffic signals, regulatory and warning signs, non-overtaking zones,
danger warning zones etc.

(b) To determine the speed trends.

(c) To study the accident behaviour such as:

1. relation of accident with speed
2. to identify high accident locations
3. to check on the effectiveness of remedial measures adopted
(d) To determine the capacity of the road.

(e) For geometric designs of roads.

When conducting speed studies, one has to know the definitions of following
commonly used terms.

(1) Travel time - is the time taken to reach between two specified locations,
and this is a measure of the condition and maintenance of the road surface
and an indication of the traffic congestion.

(2) Spot speed - is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specific location.

This speed may be affected by physical features of the road such as
carriageway width, curve, sight distance, gradient, surface roughness, road
side development, intersections, traffic condition, driver’s physical and
mental condition, type of vehicle etc. Spot speeds are generally measured
by radar guns, endoscopes or flash boxes or may be measured by laying
two pneumatic tubes at 1 metre apart across the carriageway and with the
help of an automatic traffic counter.
(3) Space speed – is the speed of vehicles on a road at a given instant of time.
There is a basic relationship between spot speed and space speed. This
relationship is that the mean spot speed (i.e. the mean speed of all vehicles
passing a roadside observer) will be slightly higher (in the order of 2 to 3
percent) than the mean space speed (the mean speed of all vehicles on a
highway section at an instant of time). The average spot speed is also
called time mean speed as separate from space speed.

(4) Average speed - is the average spot speed of all vehicles passing through
a particular section or spot.

(5) Running speed - is the speed obtained by dividing the distance covered
by the time during which the vehicle was actually in motion.

(6) Overall or travel speed - is obtained by dividing the distance between

two stations by the total time taken including all delays, stoppages and
travel time etc.

General locations where speed studies are conducted depend upon the purpose
of the study.

 to study the general speed trends, the stations are usually established on open
straight stretches of highways or at mid-block locations on urban streets
away from the influence of stop or give way signs, traffic signals etc.

 when data are to be used in planning controls, the site must be within the
section under study and as far removed from extraneous influence as
possible.

 ‘Before and After’ studies are normally made at the same site, which is so
located as to measure all possible influences.

 Problem location studies usually require approach speed data. Sites are
selected so that the approach speeds are measured before vehicles are
affected by the problem under study.
The period during which speeds are measured depends on the purpose of the
study. It is important that trend studies and ‘before and after’ studies be made
during the same hours under compatible conditions. Adverse weather and
unusual volume conditions should be avoided.

1.4 Origin and destination studies

The origin and destination studies give the idea of the number of vehicular
traffic, their origin and destination in each ‘zone’ of study. These studies are
most essential in improving the existing road system and planning the new
highway facilities to the public.

Zones

Origin destination survey data are analysed in terms of traffic ‘zones’.

Therefore, prior to the commencement of the survey work, the study area is
subdivided into a system of ‘internal zones’. The whole country outside the
study area can be subdivided into a system of larger zones called ‘external
zones’.

Cordon line surveys

The origin and destination of external-internal and through movement can be

determined by cordon surveys. Road traffic movements are commonly surveyed
direct interview of drivers or post card surveys. In the direct interview method,
a sample of road users are stopped at the cordon survey stations by a policeman,
and questioned by interviewers who enter the answers on the prepared survey
form. The second method involves slowing down motorists and giving them
prepared post card questionnaires. The direct interview methods require careful
selection of cordon stations. A badly selected station may cause serious delay to
motorists.

From the cordon line surveys the following information are collected.

 the origin and destination of the journey being made

 trip purpose and type of goods carried
 intermediate stops, if any and purpose of the stop
Other items such as type of vehicle, number of occupants, date, time, location of
the survey station, direction of the vehicle can be entered by the interviewer
before the interview or distribution of the survey form.

1.5 Traffic flow characteristic survey

The study of traffic flow characteristics includes the study of transverse and as
well as longitudinal distribution of vehicles in the traffic stream on various
routes. This study is useful in geometric design features such as traffic capacity,
volume, number of lanes, width of carriageway etc. It is also useful for deciding
regulatory measures such as one way traffic movement and traffic control
methods etc.

Headway survey

Headway is the time interval between the passage of successive vehicles

passing a given point and is generally measured from ‘front to front’ or ‘rear to
rear’ of two successive vehicles.

Gap is the time interval taken between the rear and front of two successive
vehicles to pass a given observation point.

Gap

Headway

Figure 1.3 - Headway and gap

The number of headways in a given period of time is dependent on the rate of

vehicular flow and is therefore a direct measure of traffic volume. Headway is
inversely proportional to traffic flow.
If, h = average headway between vehicles in seconds
q = is the traffic flow in vehicles per second
1
q
h

However, headway alone cannot give the whole picture of the situation on the
field - small headway can mean slow moving traffic but closely spaced, or fast
moving traffic but more distantly spaced.

Vehicle headway surveys can be carried out to estimate traffic delays and study
available gaps for vehicular and pedestrian crossings. In the analysis of many
traffic engineering problems, headway data are valuable in determining the
ability of pedestrians to cross a stream of traffic by selecting a safe, convenient
gap; or the ability of turning vehicles to select safe convenient gaps through an
opposing traffic stream.

Vehicle headway surveys are also useful the logical development of warrants
for pedestrian crossings of traffic signals.

Methodology

Vehicle headways can be measured with a stop watch or by recording in a video

tape. Stop watch can be used when the traffic flow is light and the latter method
when the flow is moderate to heavy flows. Video recording is preferred
especially when the road is multi-laned. Once recorded in a video tape by a
latter viewing in the laboratory in slow motion the vehicle headways can be
recorded with the help of a build in clock.

Headways should be measured at mid-block locations or at any point between

two intersections where the traffic is moving on its normal speed.

Analysis

When analysing the vehicle headway data since a large amount of data has to be
handled, it is necessary to group them properly. The size of each group depends
on the number of data and its dispersion, the size can be 1, 2, 4, 5, or 10. Then
based on the information from the summary sheets vehicle headway frequency
graphs or histograms can be plotted.
 50
45
40

Frequency
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 3 5 7 9 11

Headway (secs)

Figure 1.4 - Vehicle headway frequency histogram

1.6 Traffic capacity studies

Traffic capacity can be defined as the ability of a road to accommodate the

traffic volume. It is expressed as the maximum number of vehicles on a road
that pass a given point per hour.

Capacity is a basic physical characteristic of any transport facility. The

interpretation of capacity is largely dependent on the type of facility
(rural/urban, two-lane/multi-lane), because of the significant differences in the
operating conditions. The actual numerical value of capacity is further
dependent on the prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions.

The capacity of a road is affected by the following factors:

 width of the lane
 lateral clearance
 width of shoulders
 type of vehicles
 alignment of the road
 nature of the intersections

Traffic capacity will be discussed at length in chapter 2 on Highway capacity

and level of service.
1.7 Parking studies

The aim of parking studies is to determine the congestion in industrial,

commercial and residential areas and to look for means to provide sufficient
parking in these areas. Parking studies are also conducted to determine to see
whether the capacity has reached in the present parking facilities and if so, to
take measures to ease the situation.

The parking facility demand is increasing day by day. Thus parking studies are
useful to evaluate the public demand and location of future facilities.

Parking surveys are conducted to assess the extent of the parking problem in the
area under study. The objective of any parking study should be to collect data
which will give an indication of the parking needs of the area. ‘Parking supply’
and ‘parking usage’ surveys are common to all types of parking studies
undertaken, irrespective of the scale of the parking study. Parking studies will
be discussed at length in chapter 5 on Parking.

1.8 Accident studies

Due to the invention of fast moving vehicles, the problem of accidents is

becoming more and more complex in highway engineering. It is more acute in
case of mixed traffic. Traffic accidents may involve, personal injuries, total
casualties and damage to property etc. Hence it is the prime duty of the traffic
engineers to carry out the systematic studies of traffic accidents to find out the
main cause of the accident and suggest preventive or remedial measures. Hence
the various objectives of the accident studies may be listed as follows:

(a) To study the causes of accidents and to propose remedial actions for the
potential accident prone locations.

(b) To locate any accident prone locations or ‘back-spots’ and treat those
locations.

(c) To check the existing designs and forward proposals for these designs to
improve safety.
(d) To make estimates of financial losses and to justify the proposals for
improvement in the accident problem.

The various steps involved in the traffic accident studies are as follows:
1. Collection of accident data
2. Analysis of these data
3. Identify black-spots
4. Preparation of accident reports
5. Suggestions for remedial measures

Accident studies will be further discussed in chapter 4 on Road safety and

accident studies.
Chapter 2

Highway capacity and level of service

Contents

Objectives
2.1 Highway capacity
2.2 Level of service

Objectives

The objective of this chapter is to introduce the highway capacity principle with
the level of service concept. At the end of the chapter the reader should be able
to decide whether a given section of highway has reached capacity or not, at a
desired level of service.

2.1 Highway capacity

Capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles per unit of time that
can be handled by a particular roadway component under the prevailing
conditions. Graphically capacity can be shown in a diagram as in Figure 2.1

If on a particular section of a road, the average vehicle speeds are plotted

against the vehicular volume passing through that section (i.e. number of
vehicles per unit time) a plot similar to Figure 2.1 can be obtained. When the
volumes are less, then the average speeds will be high. But once the volume
increases the average speed will decrease and the volume of that particular
section of road will reach a maximum value of Qmax (see Figure 2.1) which is
called the capacity. At capacity the road starts to become congested and no
further increase of through traffic is possible. Beyond capacity the average
speeds reduce drastically and the road becomes very inefficient.
 Speed
(s)

Qmax = Capacity
Non-congested

Congested

Qmax
Volume (Q)

Figure 2.1 - Basic concept of highway capacity

Earlier, before the level of service concept was introduced, the highway
capacity was defined in three levels.

1 Basic capacity - the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a
point on a lane or roadway during one hour under the most nearly
ideal roadway conditions which can possibly attain.

2 Possible capacity - the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given
point on a lane or roadway during one hour under prevailing
conditions.

3 Practical capacity - a lower volume is chosen without the traffic density

being so great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction
to the driver’s freedom to manoeuvre under prevailing roadway and
traffic conditions. Practical capacity is otherwise known as design
capacity.

In the 1985 edition of the Highway Capacity Manual of the Transport Research
Board USA, the concept of practical capacity was disregarded and the concept
of level of service was introduced. Since then the concept of level of service is
used to describe highway capacities.
2.2 Level of service

Level of service is associated with different operating conditions that occur on a

facility when it accommodates various traffic volumes. The factors which might
be considered in evaluating level of service include the following.

1. Speed and travel time

2. Traffic interruptions or restrictions
3. Freedom to manoeuvre
4. Safety
5. Driving comfort and convenience
6. Vehicle operating costs (economy)

The maximum volume that can be carried at any selected level of service is
referred to as the ‘service volume’ for that level. The concept of level of service
is illustrated in Figure 2.2. Level of service is selected in six classes for
application in identifying the conditions existing under various speed and
volume conditions on any highway or street. Figure 2.2 shows the relationship
of level of service to operating speed and volume capacity ratio.

Operating
speed A
B
C
Level of service D
Level of service E

Level of service F

1.0
Volume / Capacity Ratio

Figure 2.2 - The relationship between level of service and the operating
speed, volume/capacity envelope
As per US Highway Capacity Manual the description of each level of service
are as follows.

Level of Free flow, low volume and denoting high speeds. Drivers
Service A can maintain their desired speeds with little or no delay.
Stable flow, operating speeds beginning to be restricted
Level of somewhat by traffic conditions. Drivers still have
Service B reasonable freedom to select their speed. Suitable for rural
design standards.
Level of Stable flow, but speeds and manoeuvrability are more
Service C closely controlled by higher volumes. Suitable for urban
design standards.
Level of Approaches are unstable flow, tolerable operating speeds
Service D which are, however, considerably affected by operating
conditions. Drivers have little freedom to manoeuvre.
Level of Unstable flow, with yet lower operating speeds and perhaps,
Service E stoppages of momentary duration. Volumes at or near
capacity.
Level of Forced flow, low volumes. Both speed and volumes can
Service F drop to zero. Stoppages may occur for short or long periods.
These conditions usually result from queues of vehicles
backing from a restriction downstream.

The six levels of service therefore indicate the condition of traffic in a given
traffic volume. The volume to capacity (v/c) ratio and the resulting operating
speed can determine what level of service is available on a particular road
stretch. This is also important in traffic control to enable traffic authorities to
institute measures to improve the level of service of a particular road system.

In highway design, the design capacity used is taken from the service volume
appropriate for the level of service desired. The number of lanes therefore can
be determined by taking into consideration the desired design capacity.
 Level of Service A Level of Service B

Level of Service C Level of Service D

Level of Service F
Level of Service E

Figure 2.3 - Levels of Service concept : One direction of a multi-lane highway

(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)

Maximum Service Flow (MSF)i

Maximum Service Flow is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that can
pass over a given section of lane during a specified time period while operating
conditions are maintained corresponding to the selected or specified level of
service. Normally the service flow is given as an hourly flow.

For a two-lane two-way rural road, Maximum Service Flow is given as follows
according to the Highway Capacity Manual.
 v
( MSF )i  2800     f d  f w  f HV
 c i

Where,
2800 is the capacity for the both lanes together. That is 1400 veh/hr in each
direction with a directional split of 50: 50.

 v th
  is the volume / capacity ratio for i level of service.
 c i

fd, fw and fhv are the different adjustment factors introduced by the Highway
Capacity Manual, and the Tables 2.1 to 2.4 given at the end of the chapter 2
can be used to compute the adjustment factors at different conditions for
different levels of services.

Adjustment factors

fw = adjustment factor for the combined effect of narrow lanes and restricted
shoulders.
fd = adjustment factor for directional distribution of traffic

(a) Adjustment factors for level grades

fHV = adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles

1
f HV 
 
1  PT  ET  1  PB  EB  1

where,
PT = percentage of trucks
PB = percentage of buses
ET = average passenger car equivalent for trucks
EB = average passenger car equivalent for buses
(b) Adjustment factors for specific grades

fHV = adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles

1
f HV 
 
1  PHV  E HV  1

where,
EHV  1   0.25  PT / HV    E  1

PT / HV = ratio of trucks / heavy vehicles

E = Passenger car equivalent for the specific grades on two-lane, two-
way rural road
fg = adjustment factor for passenger cars

1
fg 
1  PP  I P 
where,
PP = proportion of passenger cars in up grade
Ip = 0.02(E-E0) = impedance factor for passenger cars

The following two exercise will explain how the Mean Service Flow is
computed for difference levels of services by using the Highway Capacity
Manual for a two-lane, two-way rural road for level terrains and terrains with
specific grades.

Exercise 1

A 12 km long section of a two-lane, two-way undivided rural highway has the

following characteristics.
Terrain condition = flat terrain
Design speed = 100 km/h
Lane width = 3.7 m
Shoulder width = 2.0 m
Directional split = 70 / 30
Percentage of trucks = 10%
Percentage of buses = 5%
Percentage with sight distance less than 450 metres = 20%
(i.e. percent of no passing zones)
It is given that,
 v
( MSF )ii  2800     f d  f w  f HV
 c i

By using the Tables in Highway Capacity Manual

(1) Calculate the MSF for each level of service.

(2) Determine the level of service at which the road will likely to be operating
if the road has a one-way highest hourly volume of 780 veh/hr.
(3) To improve the condition of road, what measures should be taken?

Solution

(1) Calculation of MSF for different levels of service

Step 1
Organise the given data first

Design speed 100 km/h

Lane width 3.7 m
Shoulder width 2.0 m
Terrain Flat
Directional split 70 : 30
% Trucks 10% = 0.1
% Buses 5% = 0.05

Percent with sight distance less than 450 metres = 20%. This is the percentage
of length of the considered road stretch available for overtaking.

Sufficient gap for overtaking

Figure 2.4 - Conditions for overtaking

Step 2
Appropriate volume / capacity ratios can be obtained from Table 2.1

Adjustment factors

fd = use Table 2.3

fw = use Table 2.2

fHV = adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles

1
f HV 
 
1  PT  ET  1  PB  EB  1

PT = percentage of trucks = 0.1

PB = percentage of buses = 0.05

ET = average passenger car equivalent for trucks

EB = average passenger car equivalent for buses

From Table 2.4 obtain values for ET and EB for different levels of services.

Now values of fHV can be computed from above equation.

LOS PT PB ET EB fHV

A 0.1 0.05 2.0 1.8 0.8772

B 0.1 0.05 2.2 2.0 0.8547
C 0.1 0.05 2.2 2.0 0.8547
D 0.1 0.05 2.0 1.6 0.8850
E 0.1 0.05 2.0 1.6 0.8850
F 0.1 0.05 - - -
Step 3
Compute Mean Service Flows for the different levels of services

LOS Capacit (v/c)i fd fw fHV MSF

y (veh/h)

A 2800 0.12 0.89 1.0 0.8772 260

B 2800 0.24 0.89 1.0 0.8547 510
C 2800 0.39 0.89 1.0 0.8547 830
D 2800 0.62 0.89 1.0 0.8850 1370
E 2800 1.00 0.89 1.0 0.8850 2210
F 2800 - - - - -

(2) Determination of level of service which the road is operating

The one-way Highest Hourly flow = 780 veh/hr

(HHV)30 = 780 veh/hr  830 veh/hr

Therefore the road will be operating at level of service = C at (HHV)30

(3) Measures to be taken to improve the road condition

To improve the condition of road following measures can be taken.

1. Increase the lane width
2. Increase the shoulder width
3. Try to reduce the percentage of no overtaking sections by improving the
alignment of road and lateral obstructions

Exercise 2

A 1.5 km length of a two-lane, two-way undivided rural highway with a 5% up

grade has the following characteristics.

Terrain condition = level with 5% up grade

Design speed = 100 km/h
Lane width = 3.3 m
Shoulder width = 1.0 m
Directional split = 60 / 40
Percentage of trucks = 10%
Percentage of buses = 0%
Percentage with sight distance less than 450 metres = 40%
(i.e. percent of no passing zones)
By using the Highway Capacity Manual calculate MSF for different levels of
service.
Solution

Step 1
Organise the given data

Design speed 100 km/h

Lane width 3.3 m
Shoulder width 1.0 m
Length 1.5 km
Grade % 5% up grade
Terrain Level
% No overtaking 40%
Directional split 60 : 40
% Trucks 10% = 0.1
% Buses 0% = 0

Percent with sight distance less than 450 metres = 20%. This is the percentage
of length of the considered road stretch available for overtaking.

Appropriate volume / capacity ratios can be obtained from Table 2.6.

Step 2

Adjustment factors

fd = use Table 2.7

fw = use Table 2.2

fHV = adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles

1
f HV 
 
1  PHV  E HV  1

where,
EHV  1   0.25  PT / HV    E  1

PT / HV = ratio of trucks / heavy vehicles

E = Passenger car equivalent for the specific grades on
two-lane, two-way rural road
 fg = adjustment factor for passenger cars
1
fg 
1  PP  I P 
where,
PP = proportion of passenger cars in up grade
Ip = 0.02(E-E0) = impedance factor for passenger cars

Now values of fHV can be computed

Adjustment on specific grades

FOR HEAVY VEHICLES

f HV  
1 1  PHV   E HV  1 
E HV  1   0.25  PT / HV    E  1

Speed LOS PHV PT/HV E EHV fHV

88 A 0.1 1.0 12.0 14.75 0.421
80 B 0.1 1.0 5.4 6.5 0.645
72 C 0.1 1.0 3.7 4.375 0.748
64 D 0.1 1.0 3.1 3.625 0.792
56/48 E 0.1 1.0 2.7 3.125 0.825

FOR PASSENGER CARS

fg 
 1 1  Pp  I p 
Ip  0.02   E  E0 

Speed LOS PP Ip E E0 fg
88 A 0.9 0.198 12.0 2.1 0.8487
80 B 0.9 0.076 5.4 1.6 0.936
72 C 0.9 0.046 3.7 1.4 0.960
64 D 0.9 0.036 3.1 1.3 0.969
56/48 E 0.9 0.028 2.71.3 1.3 0.975
 Step 3

Compute Mean Service Flows for the different levels of services

Speed LO Capacity (v/c)i fd fw fHV fg MSF
S (veh/h)
88 A 2800 0.14 0.87 0.82 0.421 0.8487 100
80 B 2800 0.45 0.87 0.82 0.645 0.936 540
72 C 2800 0.79 0.87 0.82 0.748 0.960 1130
64 D 2800 0.95 0.87 0.82 0.792 0.969 1460
40-64 E 2800 1.00 0.87 0.91 0.825 0.975 1780

Table 2.1 - Level of Service Criteria for Two-Lane Two-way Rural Roads for General Terrain
Classification
Level of Percent Time Average Volume / Capacity Ratio a for Level Terrain
Service Delayed Speed b % of length with sight distance less than 450m
0 20 40 60 80 100
A < 30 > 93 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.04
B < 45 > 88 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16
C < 60 > 83 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32
D < 75 > 80 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57
E > 75 >72 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
F 100 < 72 - - - - - -
a
Level of Percent Time Average Volume / Capacity Ratio for Rolling Terrain
Service Delayed Speed b % of length with sight distance less than 450m
0 20 40 60 80 100
A < 30 > 91 0.15 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03
B < 45 > 86 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.13
C < 60 > 82 0.42 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
D < 75 > 78 0.62 0.57 0.52 0.48 0.46 0.43
E > 75 > 64 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90
F 100 < 64 - - - - - -
a
Level of Percent Time Average Volume / Capacity Ratio for Mountain Terrain
Service Delayed Speed b % of length with sight distance less than 450m
0 20 40 60 80 100
A < 30 > 90 0.14 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.01
B < 45 > 86 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10
C < 60 > 78 0.39 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.16
D < 75 > 72 0.58 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.37 0.33
E > 75 > 56 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78
F 100 < 56 - - - - - -
a. Ratio of the flow rate to an ideal capacity of 2,800 pc/h
b. Average speed of all vehicles in km/h for roads with a design speed equal to or greater than 100 km/h
For roads with lesser design speed, reduce the speed by 6 km/h reduction in design speed .
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)
 Table 2.2 - Adjustment Factors for the Combined Effect of Narrow Lanes and Restricted
Shoulders
Usable 3.7m Lane 3.3m Lane 3.0m Lane 2.7m Lane
Shoulder LOS LOS b LOS LOS b LOS LOS b LOS LOS b
a
Width (m) A to D E A to D E A to D E A to D E
>2 1.00 1.00 0.93 0.94 0.84 0.87 0.70 0.76
1 0.89 0.96 0.82 0.91 0.75 0.84 0.63 0.73
0 0.70 0.88 0.65 0.82 0.58 0.75 0.49 0.66
a. When the shoulder width is different on each side of the road, use the average shoulder width
b. This factor applies for all speeds less than 70 km/h
c. LOS is level of service
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)

Table 2.3 - Adjustment Factors for Directional Distribution of Traffic on General Terrain
Segments
Directional Distribution 100 / 0 90 / 10 80 / 20 70 / 30 60 / 40 50 / 50
Adjustment Factor fd 0.71 0.75 0.83 0.89 0.94 1.00
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)

Table 2.4 - Average Passenger Car Equivalents for Trucks and Buses on Two-Lane Highways
on General Terrain Segments
Vehicle Type Level of Service Type of Terrain
Level Rolling Mountainous
Trucks A 2.0 4.0 7.0
(ET) B and C 2.2 5.0 10.0
D and E 2.0 5.0 12.0
Buses A 1.8 3.0 5.7
(EB) B and C 2.0 3.4 6.0
D and E 1.6 2.9 6.5
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)
Table 2.5 - Maximum AADTs for the Various Levels of Service and Types of Terrain on Two-
Lane Two-Way Rural Roads

K Level of Service
Factor a A B C D E
Level Terrain
0.10 2,400 4,800 7,900 13,500 22,900
0.11 2,200 4,400 7,200 12,200 20,800
0.12 2,000 4,000 6,600 11,200 19,000
0.13 1,900 3,700 6,100 10,400 17,600
0.14 1,700 3,400 5,700 9,600 16,300
0.15 1,600 3,200 5,300 9,000 15,200
Rolling Terrain
0.10 1,100 2,800 5,200 8,000 14,800
0.11 1,000 2,500 4,700 7,200 13,500
0.12 900 2,300 4,400 6,600 12,300
0.13 900 2,100 4,000 6,100 11,400
0.14 800 2,000 3,700 5,700 10,600
0.15 700 1,800 3,500 5,300 9,900
Mountainous Terrain
0.10 500 1,300 2,400 3,700 8,100
0.11 400 1,200 2,200 3,400 7,300
0.12 400 1,100 2,000 3,100 6,700
0.13 400 1,000 1,800 2,900 6,200
0.14 300 900 1,700 2,700 5,800
0.15 300 900 1,600 2,500 5,400
a. K is the ratio of the design hour volume to the annual average
daily traffic
b. All values rounded to the nearest 100 vehicles per day.
Assumed conditions include 60/40 directional split, 14
percent trucks, and 4 percent buses. Percentage of length with
no overtaking for level, rolling and mountainous terrain of 20,
40 and 60 have been assumed.
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)
Table 2.6 - Volume / capacity ratios for varying percent upgrades. Average upgrade speeds
and percent length with sight distance less than 450m

Percent LOS Average Volume/Capacity Ratios a

Upgrade Upgrade Speed Percent of Length with Sight distance less than
(km/h) 450m
0 20 40 60 80 100
3 A 88 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12
B 80 0.64 0.59 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.47
C 72 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.84
D 64 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
4 A 88 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11
B 80 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.45
C 72 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.83 0.81
D 64 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
5 A 88 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08
B 80 0.57 0.49 0.45 0.41 0.39 0.37
C 72 0.93 0.84 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.70
D 64 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92
E-F 56 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
6 A 88 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.04
B 80 0.48 0.40 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.26
C 72 0.85 0.76 0.68 0.63 0.59 0.55
D 64 0.97 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.81 0.78
E-F 56 1.00 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.90
E-F 48 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98
7 A 88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
B 80 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.15 0.12
C 72 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.46 0.40 0.35
D 64 0.93 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.59
E-F 56 1.00 0.91 0.87 0.82 0.79 0.76
E-F 48 1.00 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.86
a. Ratio of flow rate to ideal capacity of 2,800pc/h, assuming passenger car operation is
unaffected by grades.
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)

Table 2.7 - Adjustment factors for directional distribution of

traffic on specific grades (fd)

Percent of Traffic on Adjustment

Upgrade Factor
100 0.58
90 0.64
80 0.70
70 0.78
60 0.87
50 1.00
40 1.20
30 1.50
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)
 Table 2.8 - Passenger car equivalent for specific grades on
two-lane two-way rural roads

Percent Length of Average Upgrade Speed km/h

Grade Grade
(km) 88 80 72 64 48
0 all 2.1 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.3
A B C D E
3 0.5 3.1 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.5
1.0 4.2 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.8
1.5 6.0 3.3 2.5 2.2 2.1
2.0 8.0 4.3 3.0 2.6 2.3
3.0 17.0 6.3 4.3 3.5 2.8
4.0 36.0 8.8 5.9 4.6 3.3
6.0 a 18.0 10.0 7.2 4.6
4 0.5 3.5 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.7
1.0 5.3 3.1 2.5 2.2 2.0
1.5 8.5 4.2 3.0 2.5 2.3
2.0 13.0 5.9 4.0 3.2 2.8
3.0 35.0 10.0 6.4 4.9 3.6
4.0 a 15.0 10.0 7.1 4.7
6.0 a 43.0 20.0 12.0 6.9
5 0.5 4.0 2.5 2.1 1.9 1.8
1.0 6.9 3.8 2.8 2.4 2.2
1.5 12.0 5.4 3.7 3.1 2.7
2.0 24.0 7.8 5.1 4.1 3.3
3.0 70.0 16.0 9.2 6.9 4.6
4.0 a 27.0 16.0 11.0 6.3
6.0 a a 47.0 22.0 10.0
6 0.5 4.6 2.8 2.3 2.0 1.9
1.0 8.7 4.5 3.3 2.8 2.5
1.5 17.0 7.0 4.5 3.7 3.1
2.0 36.0 12.0 6.7 5.2 4.0
3.0 a 25.0 14.0 9.6 5.9
4.0 a 50.0 27.0 17.0 12.0
6.0 a a 77.0 40.0 16.0
7 0.5 5.3 3.1 2.4 2.2 2.0
1.0 11.0 5.2 3.7 3.1 2.7
1.5 26.0 8.8 5.5 4.4 3.6
2.0 60.0 16.0 8.8 6.6 4.8
3.0 a 40.0 20.0 14.0 7.6
4.0 a a 44.0 27.0 12.0
6.0 a a a a 26.0
a. Speed not attainable on the grade.
(Source : US Highway Capacity Manual)
Chapter 3

Traffic management
Contents

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Arterial road traffic management
3.3 Local area traffic management

Objectives
This chapter provides an overview of the traffic management techniques that are
available in controlling traffic over a length of road or over an area to achieve
specified objectives in arterial roads and roads running through local areas. At
the end of the chapter the reader should have knowledge and understanding of
the different types of traffic management techniques that could be adopted for
different conditions and environments. At the end of the chapter the reader
should also be able to select the appropriate technique to be adopted as a
management tool depending on the nature of the traffic, and expected objectives
and functions at a particular location or area.

3.1 Introduction
Traffic management can be defined as the application of specific traffic control
practices over a length of road or over an area to achieve specified objectives,
which may be set by government (on arterial roads) or by municipalities (on
local streets).

According to the above definition a range of traffic management techniques

may be appropriate to meet particular objectives. Traffic management
objectives and practices differ greatly between arterial roads and local streets.
Hence in this chapter, arterial road traffic management and local road traffic
management are described in two different sections.
3.2 Arterial road traffic management

Arterial roads can be defined as those roads that predominantly carry through
traffic from one region to another region, and which form the principal avenues
of communication for traffic movement.

The prime function of the arterial road system is to provide for major regional
and inter-regional traffic movement in a safe and operationally efficient manner.
The ability and need for particular arterial road to perform this function often
depend on the competing functions which it must also undertake. For main
arterial roads, commercial or industrial access requirements, or local public
transport priorities may need to be given significant weight in developing
suitable traffic management strategies.

In arterial roads traffic management is conducted with the objective to ensure

safety, mobility and good environment. Some of the measures that could be
adopted in arterial road traffic management are to introduce measures:

 to give priority to the arterial road at intersections by means of stop or give

way signs, traffic signals etc.
 to control access to the arterial road by means of turn regulation, one-way
sections, vehicle bans, channelisation, median island or guard rail.
 to eliminate hazardous objects or movements and increase capacity on
arterial roads, by parking control, turn regulations, U-turn regulations, no
lane-change, lane-use control, one-way, channelisation etc.
 to reduce the relative difference of speed in order to achieve compatibility
among vehicles and reduce the severity of accidents by means of limiting
the speed.
 to reduce noise, vibration or other nuisance caused by vehicular traffic by
means of limiting the speeds, introducing vehicle bans or signals.

3.2.1 Different types of traffic management techniques adopted in arterial

roads

The basic techniques that should be given consideration when planning for good
traffic management is:
 to simplify traffic flow in order to achieve similarity among components and
stabilize the traffic flow
 to segregate road uses in space and time in order to reduce conflicts and to
simplify traffic flow
 to increase capacity in order to accommodate more vehicles
 to restrain traffic in order to reduce traffic volume.

The basic elements that can be used to achieve effective traffic management
practice are as follows:

1 Speed Limits

Speed limits are introduced with the following objectives:

1. to simplify traffic flow by reducing difference of speed (improves safety and
mobility)
2. to reduce the severity of accidents by reducing the speed (improves safety)
3. save fuel by avoiding excessive speeding (energy saving)
4. helps to have enough reaction time for drivers and pedestrians (improves
safety)

Disadvantages:
 sometimes low speed limits may cause congestion and drivers may incline to
disregard it.

2. Turn Regulations

Turn regulations are introduced with the objectives of

1. to increase safety by reducing conflict points
2. to increase capacity at intersections

Disadvantages:
 additional travel and increased turning movements at other locations
 delays due to additional turning movements

3. U-turn Regulations

U-turn regulations are introduced with the objectives of

1. to simplify traffic flow and increase capacity by eliminating U-turn
movements in order to ensure safe and efficient flow
Disadvantages:
 additional travel
 increased turning movements at other locations
 delays due to additional turning movements

4. Parking Controls

Parking controls are enforced with the objectives

1. to increase capacity by freeing road space for the use of traffic in movement
2. to provide drivers a good vision field and to simplify traffic flow by
eliminating parked vehicles
3. to increase parking revenue by having a time control on parking
4. to restrain traffic volume by prohibiting long-time parking
5. to transfer people from private cars to public transport in order to reduce
traffic congestion

Disadvantages:
 increased walking distance
 circulating vehicles searching for parking spaces
 effects on environment by increasing through traffic
 traders loosing customers due to lack of on-street parking

5. No Standing

No standing situation is different from no parking situation, and could be

explained as follows:

Standing is halting a vehicle temporally for a brief interval for receiving or

discharging passengers. When a sign indicates no standing, a vehicle is not
allowed to have even a brief stop to pickup or discharge passengers.

Parking is halting other than temporally with the engine stopped. Hence when a
sign indicates no parking, a vehicle may stand for a while to pick up or
discharge passengers but not allowed to stop the vehicle with the engine off.
Therefore no standing is a more serious restriction to a driver than no parking.
No standing is implemented with the objectives
1. to increase capacity by freeing road space for the use of traffic mobility
2. to secure vision field for driving and avoid weaving maneuvers by
eliminating standing vehicles on carriage way.

Disadvantages:
 increased walking distance
 reduced places for loading and unloading

6. Give way

The give way sign indicates to observe the right-of-way rule.

Right-of-way Rule
 when two vehicles enter an intersection from different approaches at
approximately the same time, the driver of the vehicle on the left shall give
way (yield) to the vehicle on right.
 the driver of a vehicle intending to turn to the left shall give way (yield) to
any approaching vehicle from the right.
 the driver of a vehicle approaching a roundabout should give way (yield) to
any vehicle already in the roundabout
 at marked pedestrian crossings the drivers should always give way to the
pedestrians on the crossing.

The give way signs are introduced with the objectives:

1. to segregate major traffic from minor traffic and to give priority to the major
flow by showing the right-of -way.
2. to indicate the drivers who has the priority at an intersection and avoid
confusion.

Disadvantages:
 sometimes a queue in the minor road flow
 may not be effective when traffic on both roads are heavy
7. Channelisation of traffic

Traffic is channelised with the objectives:

1. to smoothen the traffic flow by restricting the drivers choice, reducing the
conflict points and correcting the intersecting angles
2. to guide the traffic to a suitable course
3. to reduce the area of conflicts by controlling intersecting traffic streams by
making they intersect at or near right angles.
4. to ensure low relative speeds between merging traffic by making the streams
merge at small angles.
5. to discourage prohibited or undesirable movements
6. to protect pedestrians from turning or crossing vehicles by providing refuge.

Disadvantages:
 when drivers do not observe, it is difficult to correct them.
 continuous lane marking and regular maintenance may be costly.

8. No lane-change

No lane-change at certain sections of roads is implemented with the following

main objectives:
1. to simplify traffic flow by eliminating weaving movements.
2. to make the road section safer.

Disadvantages:
 delay in certain lanes when distribution of traffic over the whole lane
changes.
 unless strict lane discipline is maintained by the drivers this will be very hard
to implement.

9. No overtaking
No overtaking sections of roads are implemented with the objectives:
1. to segregate opposing flows
2. to prevent accidents due to overtaking maneuvers
3. to create safe and stable flow

Disadvantages:
 delays may cause due to slow moving vehicles.
10. One-way

One-way sections are implemented with the objectives:

1. to increase capacity and travel speed by eliminating opposing vehicles
performing right turns
2. traffic signals could be linked in a simple progressive pattern
3. to reduce conflict points by segregating traffic by its direction
4. may discourage undesirable through traffic in residential areas.

Disadvantages:
 diverting traffic or additional travel distance
 effects on public transport routes and increased walking distance for the
passengers
 effects on traders
 hazards at transition areas between one-way and two-way operation
 confusion for strangers

11. Bus lanes

There are lanes reserved only for buses. The bus lanes may introduced with the
following objectives:
1. to reduce the travel time of buses by reserving lanes for the exclusive use of
buses
2. to restrain vehicle traffic by encouraging the use of buses and discouraging
the use of private cars

Disadvantages:
 to be effective if strict lane discipline should be maintained
 problems at intersections because of turning movements
 reduced space available for other vehicles
12. Vehicle Ban

Certain vehicles can be banned entering particular areas if required. These

vehicle bans can be introduced with the objective:
1. to eliminate particular categories of vehicles or all of them due to:
- security reasons
- ease congestion
- improve traffic flow
- discourage private vehicles

Disadvantages:
 increased flow of diverted traffic and increased travel distance
 effects on particular business
 diversion of public transport

3.2.2 Urban arterial roads

In urban arterial roads the traffic management should be conducted to ensure

safety, mobility and good environment condition which is necessary for smooth
functioning of urban areas. The measures that can be taken to achieve these
expectations are:
(a) Re-allocate traffic over existing road network by means of re-allocation
measures.
(b) Restrain vehicular traffic in order to adjust it to existing road network, by
means of restraint measures.
(c) Integrate available measures in order to reinforce each other and achieve
optimum pattern of traffic flow as a whole bb means of integration
measures.

(a) Re-allocation measures

This is to re-allocate the demand for traffic over existing road network
according to the functions of road, by taking account of the characteristics of
abutting land.
 The functions of the different types of roads.

1) Arterial roads

These roads serve for carrying heavy through traffic, controlled by arterial
control or special routing.

2) Collector roads.

Collector roads serve for collecting local traffic and distributing it to access
streets.

3) Local streets.

Local streets serve for providing direct access to abutting land. Through traffic
is being discouraged on these roads.

 Characteristics of abutting land

 residential area
 school area
 shopping area
 industrial area
 business area (commercial area)

(b) Restraint measures

This is to take measures to discourage the use of private vehicles and encourage
the use of public transport. Although private vehicles are restrained the overall
mobility, environment, energy conservation and safety are improved in the
system. The use of private vehicles are discouraged by means of
 parking control
 providing bus lanes
 vehicle ban
 pedestrian precinct
(c) Integration measures

This is to combine elements so that they do not contradict each other and that
they compensate adverse effects or reinforce mutually. It generally covers the
whole area and tries to co-ordinate actions of concerned agencies and people.

3.2.3 Rural arterial roads

In rural arterial roads the traffic management should be conducted to ensure

safety and good environmental condition in the rural areas.
The measures that can be taken to achieve above expectations are:

a) To divert through traffic from rural residential or shopping areas. This may
be achieved through, local bypasses, turn regulations, one way sections,
vehicle bans, speed limits, parking control, pedestrian precinct, special
routing.
b) To restrict pedestrian crossing points and make them visible to the
approaching vehicles. This may be achieved through pedestrian crossings
and warning signs.
c) To bring vehicles to low speeds where crossing movements are inevitable to
improve safety and reduce the severity of accidents. Speed limit will help to
achieve the objectives.
d) To prevent head-on collisions due to overtaking maneuvers by means of no
overtaking zones.
e) Give advance warning of hazardous conditions such as bends, crests, railway
crossings, slopes, and slippery road stretches by means of warning signs or
warning devices.

3.3 Local Area Traffic Management (LATM)

Although Local Area Traffic Management (LATM) is not much familiar in Sri
Lanka, this is an area where much attention is paid in the developed countries.
In this section LATM concept is attempted to introduce briefly. Before
commencing this section the following definitions will be useful to have a
proper understanding of the concept.
Definitions:
 Local street
Local street may have the following typical functions
1) Provide vehicular access to abutting properties and other properties within
a local area.
2) Provide network for the movement of pedestrians and cyclists.
3) Provide means to enable social interaction within a neighborhood.
4) Improve the ‘living’ environment.

 Local area
A ‘local’ area is defined as an urban area containing local roads and bounded
by arterial and sub-arterial roads or other limiting features such as rivers,
railway lines or limit of urban development.

 Local precincts
Local precincts are areas within a local area where specific local problems
exist related to the speed of traffic and/or pedestrian crossing difficulties.
These areas are suitable for site specific traffic measures or the installation of
shared traffic zones.

Local Streets

Local
Area

Arterial Roads
Local precincts

Figure 3.1 - Definition of a local area

3.3.1 Introduction to LATM

Local Area Traffic Management (LATM) is a means whereby various traffic
management techniques are used in an area to modify traffic conditions without
limiting access for local residents. These improvements have been achieved by
the implementation of local area traffic management schemes which have
incorporated various devices for reducing traffic speeds and improving
pedestrian safety in predominantly residential areas.
3.3.2 Public participation

In LATM projects, before a scheme is launched it is important to have an active

public involvement to assist to draw up the traffic management strategies which
are broadly acceptable to the public. If these schemes are not properly discussed
with the public before launching them they can create division within the
community. For any scheme to be successful, it must be seen by the majority of
residents as necessary. It should also be prepared in close consultation with the
local residents. This type of approach is likely to ensure that the scheme is
sufficiently robust to withstand opposition from disadvantaged sectors of a local
community. A well designed public participation programme can greatly assist
authorities in developing a workable traffic schemes which are acceptable to the
maximum possible proportion of the public.

To design local traffic measures which are acceptable to the public the traffic
planner must be thoroughly aware and accept the needs of various sectors
within the community, and of how any changes would affect their interests and
aspirations. An important objective of a public participation programme is the
early determination of affected community sectors, and the needs of these
sectors. These needs can then be incorporated or fitted in to the framework of
the traffic objectives.

The following are some of the community groups that can be consulted before
developing a LATM scheme; residents action groups, directly affected
individuals, bus operators (public and private), service authorities such as
police, ambulance, fire, taxi operators, local politicians, community groups and
other ethnic organizations, the adjacent local councils etc.

Enlisting the active participation of such groups may assist in community

acceptance of traffic scheme. It should be remembered that simply informing
the public does not constitute public participation. Participation should include
consultation as well as the publication of information.
Objectives of public participation

The aim of such a programme is to accommodate as many of the transport and

social needs of the various community sectors as possible; while still achieving
basic traffic control objectives. This in turn requires the setting of realistic
traffic control objectives.

A public participation programme should be aimed at the following tasks:

 identify the perceived traffic problem
 determine the needs of residents and other affected groups (i.e. setting goals
and objectives)
 obtain the active support of advantaged groups, neutral and influential
parties
 to resolve conflicts with affected groups
 promote the scheme to the public

By the identification of the issues through public participation it is possible to

design schemes which alleviate the problems of the majority. Striking a balance
between the needs of these groups can be one of the more challenging tasks
facing the traffic planner. The solutions to perceived problems from residents
should be directed to residents to ascertain their comments. If support for the
proposed traffic scheme is not forthcoming, then the rejection of the scheme
should be seriously considered.

3.3.3 Measures taken in LATM schemes

Various traffic control measures are used in implementing a LATM scheme.

These traffic regulatory measures should be implemented in a local area with
the concept of majority of the residents living in the area.

LATM schemes can involve a range of devices including both regulatory

control and geometric control measures. The use of regulatory control measures
is a well developed area of traffic engineering whereas geometric control
measures are still not in advanced stages.
(1) Regulatory controls
Regulatory controls involve the use of signs to indicate a restricted movement.
There are number of regulatory controls which can be used as alternatives to the
geometric devices and they include the following:

1. Give way signs

2. Stop signs
3. Turn bans
4. One-way streets
5. Heavy traffic bans
6. Speed limits

(2) Geometric controls

Geometric controls involve designing road carriage-way in such a way to
manage the traffic in the desired manner. Following are some of the geometric
controls applied in LATM schemes.
1. Road closure - this is where a street is fully closed off at an intersection or
mid-block location, but vehicles still have access to all properties in the
street. Through traffic is prevented with measure.
2. Restriction channelisation - through median islands the traffic can be
channelised to reduce the speed and improve safety of both pedestrians and
drivers.
3. T-Intersection treatment - T-intersections can be improved with roundabouts
or intersection treatments with centre-medians.
4. Carriageway narrowing - the capacity of wide residential streets are reduced
by restricting the pavement width at selected locations. Such narrow sections
can be used for pedestrian crossings.
5. Speed Humps - the function of a speed hump is to vertically displace a
vehicle and give the occupants some kind of uncomfortability if the expected
speed limit is exceeded. Speed humps when correctly designed and placed
can be very effective in reducing vehicular speeds.
6. Roundabouts - they by allocating priority uniformly to each approach,
reduces delays on those approaches which may previously controlled. In
addition, through the reduction of vehicle speeds and the nature of vehicle
conflict points within the intersection, the number and severity of accidents
are reduced.
7. Pedestrian mid-block islands - a mid-block island acts as a capacity
constraint. If a series of islands is installed, this by reducing the capacity and
speed improve the safety of pedestrians.
8. Slow points - although slow points are not to be seen in this country, this is
an effective way of reducing the speeds in local roads and improving the
road safety in the area. A slow point reduces vehicle speeds on a straight
length of residential road by creating a short ‘S’ bend which must be
negotiated at a slow speed. The speed at which a slow point will be
negotiated can be varied according to the design adopted.

In a successful LATM scheme it is often necessary to incorporate a range of

measures of regulatory controls as well as geometric controls. There are
instances where techniques other than those which are mentioned above may be
appropriate. Hence LATM is still an evolving process, and not yet practiced in
Sri Lanka.
Chapter 4

Road safety and accident studies

Contents

4.1 Introduction - Traffic safety studies

4.2 Causes for accidents
4.3 Traffic safety study measurement methods
4.4 Data collection
4.5 Accident analysis

Objectives

The objective of this section is to give the reader an understanding of the

importance of road safety, and examine the methods available for traffic safety
studies. This chapter also offers a description of accident data collection,
analysis of accident data, and the presentation of results.

4.1 Introduction - Traffic safety studies

Traffic safety is one of the major considerations in all the traffic management
schemes. The occurrence of accidents constitutes a loss to the society. These
losses could be in terms of (1) direct losses, and (2) indirect losses.

(1) Direct losses are the loss of life, injuries, damage to vehicles and other
property etc.
(2) Indirect losses are the loss of productivity, repair costs, insurance costs,
rehabilitation costs and losses resulting from induced congestion etc.

All these losses eventually affect the economy. Therefore there is a need to
reduce the number of accidents occurring annually. Traffic safety studies are
detail studies made to determine the factors contributing to the occurrence of
accidents and finding ways to prevent these accidents. Proper identification of
contributory factors is needed to find solutions to prevent the occurrence or
mitigate the effect of accidents.
4.2 Causes for accidents
Before looking into accident analysis and preventive measures of accidents, first
let us generally look at the causes for accidents on roads. There are five main
factors contributing to crashes and injuries on our roads. These need to be
addressed carefully in improving the road safety.

 speeding
 negligence of road rules
 drunk driving
 fatigue
 poor condition of vehicle and roads
There are many other less significant factors, of course, but these five are of
greatest significance.

4.2.1 Speeding

Majority of local road accidents and fatal crashes involve speed as a major
factor. Speeding means not only travelling faster than the designated limit, but
also travelling faster than that is suitable for the road conditions at the time.
This can result in crashes. Adverse conditions such as rain, drizzle, night
driving, pedestrians on road, bad road stretches or heavy traffic are just some
that require drivers to decrease their speed.

4.2.2 Negligence of road rules

In Sri Lanka it is an obvious fact that almost all road rules are breached by local
drivers. This happens by drivers both knowingly and unknowingly. Continuous
driver education programmes through media and driving schools may be a
solution to some extent. It should be encouraged programmes such as defensive
driving, advance driving, and safe driving programmes for fleet operators and
public. Continuous driver education programmes are necessary to improve the
road rules and road manners. Safe driving is very much a matter of awareness
(of hazards) and behaviour (for safe driving practices). High priority should be
given on defensive driving courses with emphasis on vehicle control skills and
knowledge of road rules. It is also sensible to take policy measures to restrict
the imports of incompatible vehicles such as three wheelers which help largely
to breach the road rules.
4.2.3 Drunk driving
There is a common misconception among some drivers that a small dosage of
alcohol improves their driving ability. It is a well proven fact that alcohol
affects ones driving skills. Even where people look and act as if they are not
affected by alcohol, the fact is that they cannot drive as usual. Alcohol is a
depressant, it slows your brain functions. It reduces your ability to respond to
situations, make decisions and take actions. Police should be responsible for
carrying out more frequent road-side tests and implement the law.

4.2.4 Driver fatigue

Another major contributor to fatal accidents is driver fatigue. Drivers should
avoid fatigue by planning their schedules realistically, by resting before start of
a long journey, by stopping for appropriate rest breaks. Avoid driving during
normal sleeping hours. Most accidents caused by fatigue occur between 11pm
and 7am, the body’s normal sleeping time. Another high risk time is early to
mid-afternoon. This does not mean that driver fatigue only happens in those
periods, but it is when one is most likely to suffer the effects.

To avoid fatigue related accidents watch for the signs of tiredness, restlessness,
body aches, lazy steering and sore eyes. At the first sign of these symptoms,
pull over at the nearest safe place and rest until you feel completely alert.

4.2.5 Condition of vehicle and condition of roads

Condition of vehicles and the condition of the road itself are two other
important factors where road safety is concerned. For minimum accident risk
the condition of brakes, lamps and reflectors, tyres, wind-screen wipers, rear
vision mirrors should be in good condition. It should be the responsibility of the
driver and vehicle owner to get them attended to if they are defective and to
have them in good condition all the time. Since no compulsory vehicle fitness
tests or road worthiness tests are conducted in this country due to economic
restrictions this is an area which is badly overlooked in the country. By looking
at the increasing number of accidents it will be advisable for the traffic police to
look in to their books to investigate what percentage of accidents are
responsible due to the poor condition of vehicles and come-out with their
proposals. It is also the responsibility of the highway authorities to look in to the black
spots where a lot of accidents are taking place and take action to eliminate them.
4.2.6 Other factors

There are many other contributing factors to road accidents which must be
closely watched. Heavy vehicles are a problem on city roads. Proper driver
training is fast becoming a must for fleet operators. Every effort should be taken
to transfer container movement from road to railway as much as possible to
minimise heavy vehicles on national highways. Another problem is the
indiscipline bus drivers. They are a main threat to the safety on our roads. Strict
rules such as prohibition of a bus to overtake another bus unless due to a valid
reason, maintain a minimum headway between buses etc. may be introduced.

4.3 Traffic safety study measurement methods

Traffic safety studies are conducted based on three broad measures.

(1) Measures based on reported accidents
(2) Measures based on traffic conflicts
(3) Measures based on public assessment of traffic safety

4.3.1 Measures based on reported accidents

Traffic safety studies can be conducted based on the reported accidents. In most
countries the type of accidents are grouped into the following categories:

 Fatal accidents - These are accidents where at least one person is

killed in the accident.
 Minor injury accidents - At least one person is seriously injured (i.e.
admitted to hospital) but no one is killed.
 Major injury accidents - At least one person is injured but no one is
killed or admitted to hospital.
 Property damage type accidents - No one injured but vehicle or road
property damaged.

(In some countries both major and minor injury accidents are categorised under
one group)
The traffic accidents can be sub-divided according to the following important
factors.

 Accident type - depending on single or multiple accidents, transport

modes involved in the accident, manoeuvres before the accident etc.
 Persons involved - according to age, sex and other social and physical
indications.
 Location - according to road category, surface condition, whether
inside or outside built-up areas, at intersections or mid-blocks, curves
or straight sections etc.
 Time - by season, day of the weak, hour of the day.
 Circumstances - day light or in dark, dry or rainy.
 Traffic characteristics - hourly volume, speed distribution etc.

Information of this nature makes it possible to establish different ‘indicators’ of

traffic safety. The absolute number of accidents is the most direct indicator of
safety, and is the basic interest, for example, in ‘before and after studies’
(‘before and after studies’ will be discussed later in this chapter). A grouping of
accidents with respect to seriousness gives additional information.

Level of safety

The number of accidents related to population is a good way of describing the

level of safety. This measure can be used to compare the accident situations in
different countries or in different cities within countries.

Accident rate

Accident rate is denoted as the number of accidents related to traffic. For road
sections, the accident rate is usually expressed in terms of accidents per million
vehicle-kilometres and for intersections in terms of accidents per million
vehicles passing through the intersection. The accident rate is a commonly used
measure of the safety level for various road sections and junctions because of
the strong relationship between the number of accidents and the traffic flow. For
comparisons between different transport modes, the most suitable indicators are:
(1) For passenger transport - the number of accidents (whether fatal, injury or
property damage) per million passenger-kilometres.
(2) For goods transport - the number of accidents (whether fatal, injury or
property damage) per million tonne-kilometres.

4.3.2 Measures based on traffic conflicts

Traffic conflicts can be classified and counted and can be used to measure
traffic safety similar to reported accidents. Although several methods are
available to suggest which type of conflicts should be reduced or avoided, it is
hard to predict exactly the occurrence of these conflicts. Therefore the traffic
conflict studies are hard to carry out and difficult to say whether conflict studies
have a higher potential than reported accident studies when measuring traffic
safety.

4.3.3 Measures based on the public assessment of traffic safety

In principle, it is possible to rank public assessments of traffic safety with a

view to setting priorities for governmental actions. However, since analyses
based on a certain amount of subjective assessment, like conflict analyses, still
need much development in order to become useful tools in the quantification of
traffic safety. Public assessments based almost exclusively on subjective
grounds are not discussed in detail at this level.

4.4 Data collection

4.4.1 Data sources

There are several sources where road accident data can be obtained each having
particular objectives which influence the extent and nature of the information
collection. The most common sources are:

 Police Department accident reports

 Coronial inquest reports (where available)
 Hospitals (regarding severity of injuries)
 Road Authority reports on fatal and other road crashes
 Insurance company records (if obtainable)
In general, modest use is made of data from sources such as hospitals, coronial
inquests and insurance company records.

Most road authorities collect certain information on fatal and some other road
crashes particularly where litigation may arise from the circumstances relating
to the crash or where a claim may be made with respect to damage to the road
authorities’ assets. Data from this source is also of limited use in general road
crash analysis.

4.4.2 Police department road crash reports

In Sri Lanka, the police department is the sole authority for the initial
investigation of any road crash. Their reports are the most common source of
road crash data. This comprises data collected at the site of all ‘reported’ road
crashes, and is collected in a database in the police department. Regarding
‘property damage type’ accidents, since they are mostly not getting recorded in
the police; this information has to be obtained from various insurance
companies which are involved.

Kumarage et al. (2003) has shown that road accidents are steadily increasing
over the years on Sri Lankan roads and also has indicated that; in addition to the
rapidly increasing vehicle fleet, following contributory factors have been mainly
responsible for this high accident rate.
 the rapid increase in the amount of travel undertaken by the population
 shift from relatively safe form of transport such as public transport to
extremely unsafe modes such as the motor cycle
 combine effect of ineffective enforcement and blatant violation of road
rules
 poor road design
 lack of safety interventions and poor maintenance programmes
 high percentage of dangerous vehicles such as; recklessly driven private
buses and heavy vehicles, three-wheelers and motor cycles etc.
4.4.3 Reporting and recording criteria

The criteria for reporting the data should be maintained in the following format.

NAME OF TOWN :
STREET NAME :
TIME :
* Date of Accident : (day/month/year)
* Time of Day of Accident : (hour: minute)
* Accident Report No:

LOCATION :
* Name & Type of Identifying Object :
* Distance from the Identifying Object :
* Direction from the Identifying Object :

WEATHER :
* Weather Type : (sunny, rainy, cloudy)
* Road Surface Condition : (wet, dry, ice)

VEHICLES INVOLVED :
* Type of Vehicles / Roadside Objects Involved :
* Sex and Age of Driver :
* Direction of Travel :
* Street of Travel :
* Stated Speed of Vehicle :

SEVERITY OF ACCIDENT :
* Severity of Accident : (Fatal, Major Injury, Minor Injury, Property
Damage)
* Number of Persons Killed :
* Number of Persons Seriously Injured :
* Number of Persons with Minor Injuries :
* Number of Tow away Accidents :

DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCIDENT :

4.5 Accident analysis

Once the accident data is collected, the analysis can be carried-out as a long-
term traffic management scheme or short-term traffic management scheme
depending on the level of investigation. To conduct a comprehensive accident
analysis it is suggested to collect complete accident information at-least over a
period of 5 years, or more.

4.5.1 Long-term traffic management schemes

This is a detailed study to determine the factors contributing to the occurrences
of accidents. In general there are two methods available in the analysis of
accidents in long-term traffic management schemes.

The clinical method

This method involves studying an accident to determine how and why it

happened and to draw conclusions from the particular event as to how such
accidents may be avoided. This method is used when the type of accident is
extremely rare and costly (e.g. air-craft crashes, major marine disasters).

Statistical method

In this method information is sought concerning circumstances or factors which

are supposed to contribute to accidents. The circumstances might relate to some
characteristics of the vehicle, to the condition of the road, or to the driver in
terms of age, sex, personality, alcohol condition or many other factors. An
attempt is made to secure precisely the same kind of information for each traffic
unit involved in an accident. Then, these data are analysed statistically to
determine which of the factors are present in accidents under certain
circumstances. The statistical method requires large amounts of standardised
data which is examined for relationships with the use of mathematical models.
The difference in clinical method is that it seeks, only special relevant data in a
smaller number of cases and searches for relationships by interpretation of data.
4.5.2 Short-term traffic management schemes

There are two methods of accident analysis in short-term traffic management

schemes.

Before and after studies

Before and after studies are becoming more and more common for traffic safety
evaluations. This method can be applied in the same way for both reported
accident and traffic conflict studies. The number of accidents before launching
of the traffic management scheme is compared with the number of accidents
over the same period of time after the scheme is launched. This gives a fair
indication of the performance of the scheme from the safety angle. Before and
after studies often give rise to methodological errors which have to be taken
care of. Special attention should be paid to the problem of control factors to
correct for the influence of traffic growth, changes in weather conditions from
the before period to the after period, and systematic alterations in the accident
number due to modifications of certain factors. Considerable attention should
also be given to the statistical techniques which are necessary when calculating
the significance of observed changes.
Total number of accidents

30

25

20

15

10

0
1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

Before treatment After treatment

Year
Figure 4.1 - Road accident statistics before and after the road surface
treatment on High Street
Detection of hazardous road locations

Some traffic management schemes have, as a main objective, the elimination of

hazardous road locations (blackspots). One important problem is the detection
of these locations. This is to find out which road sections or junctions are
especially dangerous by considering the method of control, traffic volumes,
road type or junction type, surface texture, weather condition etc. Properly
collected empirical data on accident frequencies and rates for different types of
junctions or road sections are necessary to identify which areas, streets and
junctions have higher accident rates than expected. Data of this kind are also
essential to evaluate which remedial measures to apply as well as to estimate
their effects on traffic safety.

Collision diagrams

The fundamental tool used in site-specific crash diagnosis is the collision

diagram, which is a schematic representation of all crashes occurring at a given
location over a specified period, typically 1-5 years (Figure 4.2). Each collision
at the site is represented by a set of arrows, one for each vehicle or pedestrian
involved, which indicates the type of crash and directions of travel as indicated
in Figure 4.2. Arrows may be labelled with codes for date, time, day/night,
weather, vehicle type, etc. Data for each crash which may be shown on the
collision diagram may include crash type, severity of crashes, data and time of
crashes, condition of road, light condition, geometry of the site, locational
information, followed by a tabular summary of crash details (Ogden, 1994).

The collision diagram is a very valuable tool since it indicates diagrammatically

the nature of accidents that have taken place at a particular location. The
collision diagrams need not to be drawn to a scale, but it should clearly indicate
all the details stated in the previous paragraph.
 Fig 4.2 – A typical collision diagram at a three-way junction

Blackspots

The blackspots are the hazardous road locations (road sections or junctions)
which are especially dangerous because of location, excessive speeds, traffic
volumes, road type or junction type, surface texture, weather condition etc.
However in practice road locations which are associated with high crash
potential and are susceptible to remedial treatment may also is considered as
hazardous locations worthy of corrective treatment.

Police accident records are much useful in identifying the blackspots. The
blackspot treatment programmes should be carried out gradually by giving
priority for the worst locations to reduce the number of blackspots to improve
the safety at those hazardous locations.

Hazardous road locations are usually identified using one or, a combination of
the criteria below:
(1) Number of crashes greater than a set cut-off value
(2) Crash rate greater than a set cut-off value (where rate is defined as number
of crashes per exposure or risk unit, e.g. crashes/108 vehicle kilometers)
There is not much agreement on which type of criterion above is more suitable
for identifying hazardous locations. The first criterion focuses attention on
locations where most crashes occur, and hence, the methodology has the
greatest potential to reduce the number of crashes. The second criterion
identifies sites where there is something truly unusual, which has caused the
crashes (i.e. crash numbers are not attainable simply at high traffic volumes).

Lang Rd BEFORE Serious injury

Lang Rd AFTER Minor injury
Tow-away
Heffron Rd BEFORE

Heffron Rd AFTER

Wardel Rd BEFORE

Wardel Rd AFTER
Site

Banks Av. BEFORE

Banks Av. AFTER

Permanent Av. BEFORE

Permanent Av. AFTER

Buffalo Rd BEFORE

Buffalo Rd AFTTER

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Number of accidents in 3 years

Figure 4.3 - Before and after accident results of a blackspot treatment

programme

When identifying black spots regarding fatalities the most common performance
indicators used for benchmarking around the world are (Ogden, 1994):

 fatalities per 100,000 persons,

 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles (registered), and
 fatalities per 100 million vehicle kilometres of travel

Each of these has its uses but none by itself will provide a comprehensive
picture of road deaths. For example India has a low road death rate based on
population but a very high one based on vehicles, whereas Australia India has a
high road death rate based on population but a very low one based on vehicles.
South Africa has population and vehicle rates just above most developed
countries but an unusually high proportion of those deaths are pedestrians.
A comprehensive and concise set of definitions of hazardous road locations are
given below:

 Locations of highest risk, which may be identified individually from accident

history in terms of clusters of accidents occurring at:
* blackspots - specific locations usually related to particular features of road
geometry such as junctions, bends, or hills
* blacksites - specific lengths of road with high accident frequencies
* black areas - areas within which clusters of accidents occur; used
primarily in urban areas where methods of reporting of accident locations
may not be precise enough to identify, individual roads in a closely spaced
network.

 Locations of intermediate risk, where accidents maybe too few to identify

individual sites from accident records alone, but combination of data from
groups of similar sites or observational studies additional to accident data
may indicate potentially hazardous features. These may be designated
greyspots, sites, or areas in similar terms to those above

 Locations where common situations or characteristics feature predominantly

in accidents, that is, there may be a high frequency of accidents of a
particular type not necessarily associated with clusters of accidents.

The two latter definitions above are especially important in identifying and
treating hazardous roadside features that may not have an experience of
accidents but have the potential for high accident frequency or severity.
Roadway features may include any obstacle, device, or condition that can be
measured or inventoried. These features include pavement friction,
intersections, railroad grade crossings, geometric (lane width, shoulder width,
grades, curvature, etc.) roadside obstacles (bridge parapets, guardrail, poles,
drainage structures, etc.) and traffic control devices, and may be on or off the
roadway.
To know the meanings of the following commonly used terms are useful in
reading accident study reports.

Crash type - the classification used to describe a crash in terms of the vehicle
movements involved, e.g. run-off road, right-turn opposing, or the type of road
user involved, e.g. vehicle/pedestrian, vehicle/bicycle.

Crash rate - the number of crashes per unit of exposure.

Exposure - the measure of opportunity for a crash to occur, e.g. amount of

travel in vehicle/km, length of road, number of vehicles, or vehicle/vehicle,
vehicle/pedestrian, etc. conflict.

Crash severity - a measure of the consequences of a crash in terms of the most

severe casualty class sustained by one of the persons involved, e.g. fatal, serious
injury requiring medical treatment, injury not requiring medical treatment, no
injury (i.e. property damage only).

Severity weighing - the use of factors to give additional weight to the more
severe and more costly crashes.

Casualty class - a measure of the consequences of a crash in terms of the

number of persons killed, injured and not injured.
Chapter 5

Parking
Contents

5.1 Parking and environment

5.2 Demand for parking
5.3 Supply of parking
5.4 Parking surveys
5.5 On-street parking
5.6 Off-street parking

Objectives
The objective of chapter 5 is to give the reader a general idea about the
importance of vehicle parking issue, then observe at the methods available to
find out the demand for parking and how this demand can be met with. In
section 5.4 different types of parking surveys are discussed at length. In sections
5.5 and 5.6 different methods of on-street parking and off-street parking
techniques available in traffic management is explained. At the end of the
chapter the reader should have a proper idea about the importance of parking as
a traffic management tool, in what way a parking survey is designed to study a
specific parking need and how the surveys are conducted, and based on the
results finally how a parking layout is arranged irrespective of on-street parking
or off-street parking.

5.1 Parking and environment

A large proportion of trips in day to day activities involve a driver and
passenger using a private motor vehicle to reach a desired destination. Parking
has an important role to play in serving this activity, and therefore to enhance
the transport system. Without appropriate parking areas, drivers cannot stop and
park their vehicles before participating in activities. At the most initial level,
parking is needed to accommodate vehicles when they are not in use. At the
other extreme, provision of parking can be used to encourage or discourage
urban development.
The historic development of parking was such that, parking was initially
provided on the roadway where it contained spare capacity and was used to
accommodate stopped vehicles. This type of parking is referred to as on-street
parking. In instances where a separate parking area is created solely for storing
vehicles outside the carriageway of a street is referred to as off-street parking.
Private off-street parking may range in size from a house owners garage to large
industrial, commercial or residential parking structures with multi-level parking
floors.

When parking is considered as an environmental issue, parked vehicles can be

interfering and can detract from environmental amenity. Large expanses of
parked vehicles or black bitumen off-street areas are unattractive. Concern for
the visual environment and the comfort and convenience of users needs to be
considered when designing a parking system. Parking can be provided either
on-street or off-street in urban areas. Off-street parking provides considerable
opportunities for blending the parking in with the general environment.
Underground parking, where land values justify the cost, allows the
construction of buildings or parks over the parking lot. Above ground parking
can be blended in by using similar construction materials and architectural
features as surrounding buildings. When parking areas are allocated in rural
areas it has to be emphasised that the beauty of these areas should not be
adversely affected by inappropriate provision of parking. Care should be taken
to shield parking from sensitive views and to avoid confused and unsightly
parking arrangements in local towns, particularly where the streetscape is of
some historical importance or posses a scenic value.

5.2 Demand for parking

The demand for parking is generally related to the landuse or landuse served.
Parking demand for various land use and development types are generally set
down in different countries by various planning authorities to suit the local
conditions (AUSTROADS, 1991).
Since Sri Lankan norms for vehicle trips per square kilometre per day on
regional basis have not yet worked out, below indicates his information based
on Australian figures, abstracted from Nicholas Clark Report (1987). The values
given are to suit the local conditions in Victoria State in Australia. These values
may differ from country to country depending on the national standards.

Table 5.1 - Vehicle trips per day of regions - Victoria State, Australia

Land Use Vehicle trips per sq.: km

per day

Central business district 40,000

Local business district 20,000
Inner commercial 20,000
Inner residential 15,000
Middle residential 10,000
Outer residential 5,000
Ex-urban 2,000

(Source : Nicholas Clark and Associates, 1987)

5.3 Supply of parking

Along with the demand for parking the supply for parking becomes necessary.
Whether free or by charging a fee the purpose of parking is to provide a service,
enhance local economic values, increase production, reduce street congestion,
or attain combinations of these goals. The proper location of new general
purpose parking facilities is essential if they are to provide the required services.
The amount of existing parking should be taken into account when determining
the need for new parking.

Factors that determine appropriate locations for parking.

 expected users
 extent of parking shortage
 the level of facility
 cost
 existing parking and street system
The location and type of major generators of vehicles must be considered if a
new facility is to be of maximum service. The location of potential new
generators also should be given attention.

Parking facilities are provided for many different people who may be
participating in a diversity of activities. Some of these activities may be short
term in nature, others may require a longer stay. Some parkers may have
particular difficulties that make it difficult for them to walk a considerable
distance. Therefore the characteristics of the user need have to be taken into
account when determining the location of parking. Provision of parking too far
away from the actual area of shortage may result in limited usage. The parking
should be provided within a ‘convenient walking distance’ from the area of
activity. But the definition of convenient walking distance may vary with
number of factors such as:

 trip purpose
 activity being undertaken
 the duration of stay
 size of urban centre (or shopping area)
 luggage to be carried

Greater distances may be accepted if the actual walking distance is reduced by

the use of moving footways or travellators.

5.3.1 Cost of facility

Economic conditions play a major part in the location of off-street parking. It

also affects the type of parking facility needed. The main cost of supply of
parking is the development of cost. Once parking is supplied if fees are charged
the amount to be charged may be determined by the market demand. The other
factors which influence the cost of facility, includes the construction cost and
land purchase cost.
5.3.2 Location of parking areas

The location of parking areas relative to the major road system is an important
consideration. Parking areas need to be close to, and have good accessibility to
the main roads, in order to minimise traffic intrusion to local street areas. In
general, parking areas should be surrounding the developments and have good
access to the road system.

5.4 Parking surveys

Data on parking characteristics forms the basis of the design process. A brief
overview of the data types and the procedures of collecting them are presented
in this section.

5.4.1 Data types

Once the objectives of the parking study are defined, the data collection has to
be commenced. Below gives some possible information required for a parking
analysis.

 the pattern of traffic flow, its fluctuations and areas of congestion

 capacity, location and characteristics of existing facilities
 use of existing facilities, parking characteristics of motorists, violations,
enforcement and peak concentrations
 location and extent of demand for space and its relationship to supply and
price, the influence of large generators of demand, areas of present and
future need or deficiency, site availability
 adequacy of signs and markings.

Make use of available data and try to find out the supply of parking provided by
existing parking facilities and the possibilities for new development in the area
of concern. Such an inventory should detail the type of parking and its location
in terms of the following:

 number of parking spaces

 type of parking
 method of operation of off-street facilities
 parking restrictions
 parking fees
 occupancy and turnover rate.
The following sections discuss some procedures for collecting this data.

Use of Existing Data

Information on existing facilities can often be obtained from local councils or

road authorities. This information provides a useful base upon which to work.
Care must be taken, however, to ensure the accuracy of the information since
records may not be up to date. This check is usually carried out by comparing
the recorded information with observations of existing facilities to see if they
agree.

Parking Inventory Survey

If existing inventory maps are not available or appropriate, it will be necessary

to undertake field surveys. In compiling the record of the street facilities the
data can be first entered, in the field, onto prepared sketch plans. These sketch
plans may be based on existing local maps or each street can be sketched onto
graph paper to an appropriate scale, with respect to length. The use of a suitable
key enables the exact location of parking and parking restrictions to be marked
on the map. The location of off-street parking could also be marked on the map
but the layout of these facilities is usually detailed separately. Normally the road
network is coded in relation to road lengths with each block given a number
key. This coding provides a basis for recording and analyzing the data. An
example of a typical inventory map is shown in Figure 5.1.
 (1 (5
) )
(3)
(2) N (6)
20 - 1 hour metres
O
N
Private
Shop Cafe O
P parking
A
P
R
A
K
Departmental R
I Market
Store K
N
I
G
( 13 ) N
( 20
G )
Taxi Stand 15 - 1 hour
( 12 )
( 14 metres
)
( 22 )
( 18 )
( 26 )

Figure 5.1 - Typical parking inventory map

Kerbside parking spaces should be inspected and particulars recorded. Typical

information may include space size and parking arrangement, times, meter
location (if parking metres are to be fixed) or number of parking spaces.
Irregularly used informal parking spaces (e.g. grass) may be marked if required.
Off-street parking can include those spaces regularly used. Principal occupants
and users of commercial buildings can also be recorded. The capacity and
maximum use of a parking lot should be recorded.

5.4.2 Survey of parking demand

With parking demand data it is important to distinguish between revealed

demand at the present time and potential demand for parking. Revealed demand
is the observed use of the facility. Potential demand is a measure of the total
desired use of the facility. Potential demand will only be revealed when supply
exceeds demand by a definite margin. Most parking demand data collected in
the field are revealed demand data, whereas future planning data should reflect
the potential demand:
The type of parking demand data needed might include:

 spatial distribution of parking demand

 spatial distribution of parking demand generators
 total number of people parking in study area over the study period
 parking duration
 trip purpose and destination
 trip origin
 utilization of existing parking.

The survey procedures discussed in this section are divided into interview
surveys and observational surveys.

1 Interview surveys

If the parking demand is to cover a large geographic area, and it is expected that
changes in parking supply would be likely to cause substantial change in the
total number of parkers or their spatial distribution, data collected from an
interview technique may be required. Four techniques commonly used :

(a) Parking person interview

(b) Reply paid questionnaire
(c) Home interview surveys
(d) Site specific interview surveys.

( a ) Parking person interview

This approach involves assigning an interviewer to a predetermined number of

parking spaces. The interviewer records each parking incident (parking arrival
or departure) and attempts to interview people parking in this area. Questions
asked in the interview may relate to:

 trip purpose (shopping, work, business, loading etc.)

 final destination of trip
 origin of trip
 places visited
 duration of parking
 alternative parking locations that were considered
 frequency of parking in the study area.
Other details that can be collected by observation at the time are:

 vehicle registration number (for identification purposes)

 vehicle classification (car, taxi, truck, etc.)
 nature of parking (kerbside, off-street, garage, etc.)
 time of arrival or departure.

The information obtained can be recorded onto an appropriate survey form and
then transferred to a computer for further analysis.

The personal interview can be used to obtain data on people’s attitude to various
parking polices (e.g. changes in parking fees, parking restrictions, etc.). Care
should be taken however, to keep the length of the interview to tolerable limits,
less than a few minutes.

Interviews of on-street parkers can be carried out on parker arrival or departure.

The departure interview has a number of advantages. Firstly, places visited can
be reported more accurately since the parker has already visited them. Secondly,
accurate duration of stay information can be obtained. Thirdly, the parker is less
likely to be in a hurry and therefore more likely to complete the interview. The
major disadvantage is that the interviewer may have less time to catch parkers
before they leave. The personal interview technique can often be expensive
since the interviewers are limited in the number of parking spaces they can
handle. The number depends on the length of the interview, arrival and
departure rate of parking vehicles, and the physical dimension of the area. The
size of the area that can be covered by an interviewer can be determined by a
preliminary pilot survey.

In the case of off-street facilities interviews can be carried out when the vehicle
is entering or exiting the facility. Such facilities may have a large proportion of
long term parkers and may be subject to high peaks. Greater numbers of
interviewers may be required over the peak periods. Interviewing people as they
leave has the advantage of avoiding the need for vehicles to queue onto the
adjoining roads. If interviews are carried out upon entry provision, queuing of
vehicles should be avoided.
( b ) Reply paid questionnaire

When completely detailed information is not required, reply paid questionnaires

may be used. These questionnaires can be inserted under the windscreen wipers
of parked vehicles. Personnel costs for this method are smaller than for a
personal interview since one person can cover a larger number of parked
vehicles. Information on the parking location and arrival time of the vehicle can
be obtained by marking or pre-coding the questionnaire. If pre-coding is used
the person distributing must note the time of distribution and location. This can
be recorded in a logbook or onto a portable microcomputer. The microcomputer
has the advantage of quicker access and information transfer time. A
disadvantage of this type of survey is the low response rate achieved in practice.

( c ) Home interview survey

The above surveys [(a) parking person interview and, (b) reply paid
questionnaire survey] measure parking usage, but not demand for parking.
Many people wishing to visit the area may be turned away by the lack of
parking facilities. Indications of potential demand could, however, be obtained
by a home interview survey. The large cost associated with such an approach
usually results in questions on parking being grouped with other questions on a
large transport questionnaire. This approach has been shown to be a useful
substitute for those mentioned previously.

( d ) Site specific interview surveys

The home interview survey addresses the entire population of the urban area
and is the only approach that can be used to determine potential demand in
multi-use parking lots. However, some parking lots are only used by people
traveling to specific locations (e.g. universities, office, parks, etc.). In such a
case the total population of possible users can be defined. The population of all
possible users can then be used as a basis for determining the latent demand for
the particular site. This approach will not provide an indication of the demand
of visitors for parking.
2 Observational surveys
Many parking studies are not concerned with information on the parkers overall
trip. In this case a simplified type of survey can be warranted. These can be
either cordon counts or patrol type surveys. However, the first source to be
considered is existing data.

( a ) Existing parking information

A technique which may be used successfully in surveying off-street parking
facilities is the use of canceled parking dockets, where these are retained by the
parking operator. These dockets usually show the exact time of entry and exit
and hence, parking duration. The advantages of this data source are that no field
survey is necessary, a complete sample is obtained (if everyone using the
parking lot use a ticket), and data can be collected over an extended period of
time and over a number of different parking locations. It also has the advantage
that provided the attendant has kept the dockets; data on parking habits over a
long period of time can be obtained. Another advantage is that information can
be directly linked to a computer facilitating the data retrieval. The disadvantage
of the method is that it only gives information on parking times and will not
provide a complete sample if some user (e.g. parkers who hold a permanent
parking place) do not use the returnable tickets for entry and exit.

( b ) Cordon counts
The study area is surrounded by a closed cordon and counting stations are
established on all cross roads entering and exiting the cordon. At each station, a
separate count is made of vehicles entering and leaving the area hourly, or in
shorter periods. The algebraic summation of entering and leaving traffic gives
the accumulation of vehicles in the area. This accumulation represents the sum
of vehicles parked and on the move in the study area. After removal of the
moving vehicles a measure of the required parking use is obtained.

Counting can be carried out either manually or by automatic counters. Manual

methods may be less expensive, and may be required in special surveys or in
order to check and make corrections to the automatic counters, but provided that
information is accurate. More detailed information can be obtained by recording
the number plates of the vehicles entering and exiting the cordon. A typical
survey form should include information on the location, number plate, direction
of travel, time and type of vehicle. At the end of the study the number plates at
entry and exit are matched and the duration of stay calculated.
The following information can be obtained from number plate cordon counts:

 total number of parkers;

 arrival and departure rates;
 composition of population by vehicle type;
 parking accumulation; and
 duration of parking.

5.4.3 Parking usage surveys

Parking usage surveys are conducted to determine existing parking practices,

usage of available spaces, parking durations, and illegal parking etc. These
surveys are also helpful to study the adequacy of existing enforcement
measures. Parking usage survey is a popular type of parking observation study.
This approach involves an observer walking, or being driven, along a
predetermined route at fixed time intervals. The location of parked vehicles
and/or their number plates are noted. Illegal parking also is recorded. Each trip
around the section enables the accumulation for the parking facility to be
estimated. Further, the number of times a vehicle is observed in the same
parking place multiplied by the observation interval, gives an indication of the
parking duration.

The total information that can be obtained using the number plate survey is:

 total number of parkers

 arrival rate
 departure rate
 parking accumulation
 parking duration
 spatial distribution of parkers within the lot.

The study area must be divided into tours sufficiently small for the surveyor to
cover its length and return to the start in the time allotted for a tour. If it is
possible to divide the area so that different sections complete a circuit, the time
spent in returning to the start can be eliminated, and the surveyor used more
efficiently. A conservative estimate of the time taken to walk between two
adjoining 900 degree parking spaces and record the first three digits of a number
plate is 5 seconds.
Patrolling by car enables longer sections to be considered in a given time
interval but both a driver and a surveyor are required. When making simple
counts one surveyor is required and the vehicle can be driven at the speed of the
surrounding traffic. The surveyor can use a mounted tally counter or hand held
computer to record the vehicle and parking types of interest. If the number
plates are to be recorded it may be necessary to have two people, one calling out
the registration numbers for the other to record. It may be possible a reduce
personnel required for the survey by use of a tape recorder. When recording
vehicle number, vehicle speeds of about 15 km/h would be appropriate for
normal close right angle parking.

The observer should only record what existed when passing the parking place. It
is important that the recording of the number plates is done as unnoticeably as
possible. Drivers of the cars being observed may change their normal habits if
they are aware they are being observed.

The most obvious disadvantage of the patrol method, however, is that many
short term parkers may be missed. The number missed depends on the interval
of observation and the distribution of parking duration. This effect can be
minimized by selecting shorter time intervals.

5.5 On-street parking

On-street parking is when vehicles are allowed to park along the roadway itself
on the spare carriageways. There are two different locations for on-street
parking.
(1) Kerbside parking
(2) Centre of the road parking

Parking also can be arranged at various angles to the kerb line.

5.5.1 Kerbside parking

Kerbside parking is the most common type of on-street parking. This section
will discuss the size of parking stalls, the angle to be used and the interaction
with intersections.
The size of parking spaces are depending on the vehicle overall dimensions.
Depending on the overall dimensions generally 3 standards are used for parking
spaces.

The parking can be allowed; parallel to the kerb, 30o degrees, 45o degrees, 60o
degrees or 90o degrees to the kerb. Bay widths and lengths for parallel and angle
parking based on the above considerations are shown in Figure 5.2. These may
be increased or decreased to meet particular conditions (Figure 5.2). Also
indicates the minimum distance to be allowed from the intersection. By
increasing the level of service it will result in easier entrance to and exit from
the parking spaces.

 Choice of angle of parking

The most common form of kerbside parking on roadways is parallel parking. It

has least impact on through vehicles and requires less lane width than other
parking angles. Other parking configurations can be used to suit particular
situations.

Angle parking (i.e. parking at angles other than that for parallel parking) can
accommodate up to twice as many vehicles along a kerb than parallel parking,
for a particular length of road way. The difference is a function of the angle
used; low angles (less than 300 degrees) give little advantage. The maximum
advantage is given when 900 degree parking is used. Further, angle parking may
be more convenient to the parker since the parking maneuver can be easier than
with parallel parking. The decision of whether to use angle parking may be
based on consideration of:

 width of road
 traffic volume
 type of traffic
 speed characteristics
 vehicle dimensions
 turnover expected
 nature of the neighborhood or abutting land uses
 road functional classification
Angle parking also has its disadvantages; it requires more road space for
parking and unparking manoeuvres than parallel parking configurations. It is
also not easily adaptable to commercial vehicle parking as the increased length
of these vehicles encroaches into traffic lanes. Reversing out of ‘front-in’ angle
parking spaces involves some of the vehicle protruding into the adjacent traffic
lanes before the driver can see oncoming vehicles. This adversely affects traffic
safety and also interferes with the free movement of through traffic.

 Parking restrictions at intersections

Parking should be designed so as not to interfere with sight distance or impede

the flow of turning traffic at intersections.

Typical distances are:

 Parallel parking - 6 metres on both approach and exit side

 Angle parking - 12 metres on the approach side, 9 metres on the exit side

In addition to restrictions at intersections. Parking is usually prohibited for

specified distances in the vicinity of:

 pedestrian crossings
 bus stops
 railway level crossings
 fire hydrants and on some road bridges unless specific provision has been
made
 high security establishments
 ( 1 ) Parallel parking

Building line
6m 6m
Kerb
2.3 m
(minimum)
6m

( 2 ) Angle parking

Building line

12 m B 9m
Kerb 
A
D
C

Angle of
parking Level of service A B C D
 (metre) (metre) (metre) (metre)
Level of service 1 3.2 6.4 5.55 5.0
o
30 Level of service 2 2.5 5.0 4.3 4.85
Level of service 3 2.1 4.2 3.65 4.5
Level of service 1 3.2 4.5 3.2 5.75
o
45 Level of service 2 2.6 3.7 2.6 5.65
Level of service 3 2.4 3.4 2.4 5.5
Level of service 1 3.2 3.7 1.85 6.0
o
60 Level of service 2 2.6 3.0 1.5 5.95
Level of service 3 2.4 2.75 1.4 5.9
Level of service 1 3.2 3.2 - 5.4
90o Level of service 2 2.6 2.6 - 5.4
Level of service 3 2.4 2.4 - 5.4
(Source: AS 1742.11)
Figure 5.2 - Kerbside parking bay sizes
5.5.2 Centre of the road parking

On roads where conditions are appropriate, parking may be provided in the

centre of the road. The combination of kerbside parking and centre of the road
parking provides a large number of parking places per unit length, provided that
carriageway is sufficiently wide. Figure 5.3 illustrates a typical layout for centre
of the road parking which is usually combined with parallel kerbside parking. It
is rarely possible to combine angle kerb parking with centre of the road parking
because of the large amount of road space required. Centre of the road parking
is usually arranged as 90 degree parking in a single row with drive in and drive
out usage. In some situations it may involve parallel parking adjacent to a
median kerb. This is commonly adopted under flyover structures.

(Source: AUSTROADS, 1991)

Figure 5.3 - Typical centre of the road parking layout for low flow
situations

The provision of centre of the road parking as in Figure 5.3 separates opposing
traffic and provides a continuous refuge for pedestrians, but this type of parking
generates additional pedestrian movements across the road. That is, pedestrians
leaving and returning to their vehicle have to cross the main traffic stream to
reach the footpath. Generally centre of the road parking should only be
considered in streets with little through traffic and where all traffic moves
slowly.
When introducing any type of centre of the road parking it is essential to
preserve ample visibility at intersections. Hazardous conditions are brought
about by permitting access to centre of the road parking within a median too
close to intersections or pedestrian crossings.

5.6 Off-street parking

Off-street parking is when a parking area is created solely for storing vehicles
outside the carriageways. Off-street parking systems often form an interface
between the road network and other landuses. The parking facility would be
best located between the main access route and the landuse served. Location of
the parking system should consider the major routes on which traffic
approaches the area as well as the streets immediately adjacent to the proposed
site. Major routes are often located close to the business centre and off-street
parking should be placed on the business district side of the routes to minimize
the need for pedestrians to cross the major route and to discourage parking on
the road.

As discussed in earlier, the size of parking spaces are related to the vehicle base
dimensions, the type of landuse and user characteristics. Clearances are added
to the base dimensions to determine the size of a parking space as discussed
previously for on-street parking. The determination of the size of off-street
parking spaces is similarly based on table in Figure 5.2 to reflect the level of
service catered for the users.

5.6.1 Parking lot layout and circulation

Parking lots should be rectangular with cars parked on both sides of the aisle.
This is the most efficient geometric layout unless the lot size and aisle widths
make it difficult. Ninety degree parking with two way aisles provides great
flexibility in choice of route by the parker, and fewer aisles. The layout of a
parking facility is usually made on the basis of space and aisle combinations
called modules. A complete module is one access aisle servicing a row of
parking on each side of the aisle (see Figure 5.4). In some cases partial modules
are used where the aisle only serves a single one-sided row of parking. This
arrangement is inefficient and should be avoided if possible. In general, any
multiple of modules can be used, depending on the location of entrances and
exits and the size and shape of the available land (see Figures 5.5 and 5.6).
(Source: AUSTROADS, 1991)

Figure 5.4 - Parking module layouts

Figure 5.5 - Circulation past every parking place

(Source: AUSTROADS, 1991)

Figure 5.6 - Separation of aisles from circulation roads

5.6.2 Multi-storey car parks

Basically there are four types of layout arrangements that are adopted for multi-
storey car parks:

(1) Split level layout arrangement

This layout arrangement is widely adopted. As indicated in Figure 5.7 (A) the
two bins are so arranged that adjacent parking levels are separated by half storey
height. The levels are connected with short interconnecting ramps running
between levels.

(2) Warped slab layout

As shown in Figure 5.7 (B) in this layout arrangement, parking levels

constructed with uninterrupted horizontal external edge. Steady transition of
gradients provides internal connectivity between parking levels. Compared with
split level layout, this arrangement needs ramps at either end of parking
structure.

(3) Parking ramp layout

In this arrangement parking level is constructed in the form of a long ramp; and
posses’ significant effect on elevation appearance to keep to acceptable
gradients, a long structure is required. If necessary, exit can be separated by
adopting external helical ramp.
(4) Flat slab layout

As shown in Figure 5.7 (D) an external ramp is used to connect different

parking levels.

(A) Split level layout arrangement (B) Warped slab layout

(C) Parking ramp layout (D) Flat slab layout

Figure 5.7 - Multi-level car park layouts

5.6.3 Entrances and exits

The following factors should be considered in setting the location of entrances

and exits:

 locate entry/exits clear of intersections and other locations of complex

traffic movement.
 locate entry/exits where conflicts with pedestrians and bicyclists are
minimized
 locate entrances to minimize possible bank up of traffic into the street
 locate exits where adequate sight distance to street traffic is available.
Chapter 6

Planning for pedestrians

Contents

6.1 Pedestrian facilities

6.2 Different types of pedestrian crossings at mid-blocks
6.3 Pedestrian crossings at intersections
6.4 Environmentally adopted through roads

Objectives
The objective of this chapter is to study the available facilities for pedestrians,
and how they should be provided to achieve safe pedestrian movement along
roads. It is also discussed the measures that have to be adopted for pedestrians
to cross the roads at mid-block sections and at road intersections safely. Finally
the concept of environmentally adopted through roads and the road sharing
principles are discussed.

6.1 Pedestrian facilities

When planning for pedestrians the main objective should be to encourage

orderly and safe movement of pedestrians and vehicles without interference
from each other. Pedestrians should be guided away from traffic danger spots in
main roads by providing proper facilities for them, and allow them to carry-out
their walking without interference from the moving traffic as much as possible.
The pedestrians should be provided with sufficiently wide space with raised
kerbs on the side of the carriageway for them to continue their walking safely.
These sufficiently wide walking spaces should be available on all major traffic
routes whether divided or undivided, for the safety of the pedestrians. However,
it may not be possible to allocate this walking space in some existing roads due
to restrictions in road reservations.
Footpaths

A basic requirement of the street system is to provide easily negotiable routes

for all pedestrians. This is most commonly provided by footpaths along roads
and streets. Footpaths should conform to minimum dimensional requirements,
and obstructions to pedestrian movement should be minimized.

Figure 6.1 - Safe movement of pedestrians

6.1.1 Planning urban pedestrian networks

Pedestrians are particularly vulnerable road users and should have direct, easy
and safe access at all times to the transport system. To achieve maximum safety,
the pedestrian network itself should be separate from, but integrated with, the
main road and public transport system (Figure 6.2). This will necessitate regular
crossings in order to sustain the safety and continuity of the network for
walking.

To achieve the optimum conditions for safety, paths must be of adequate width
and well serviced with good lighting, phones, etc. Their alignment must be such
that people can see far enough ahead to be able to anticipate potential danger
and take evasive action.

The basic geometry of the path network should reflect the pattern of land uses
and building densities, so that normally as one approaches the centre of any
large town or central business district (of large cities), an intensification of the
route density and pedestrian facilities should be expected.
Figure 6.2 – Examples for pedestrian and bicycle movements when integrated with
the main road and public transport system

When planning for pedestrians, there are number of facilities which can be used
to assist the pedestrians to cross roads at intersections and mid-block (i.e. road
section between intersections) locations. It is important that the facility used be
suited to the needs of that location and there is a greater demand by pedestrians
to cross at or near the location that is being considered.

The most important criteria that governs the provision of a pedestrian crossing
are, the number of pedestrians crossing the road and the traffic volume at that
location. The other minor considerations are; road hierarchy and nature of the
road cross-section, operating speed of the vehicles at the location, the type of
pedestrians which will be using the crossing (e.g. young children, office
workers, elderly people etc.), available site distance for both pedestrians and
vehicular traffic and the general environment (e.g. urban, rural or town centres).
The width of the crossing is determined by the number of pedestrians using the
crossing, and the minimum recommended width is 2.5 metres. It is also
recommended that 0.5 m width be added for every 125 pedestrians per hour
above 600 averaged over the four peak hours.
e.g.
If the average pedestrian flow over 4 peak hours is 1100, then the width of the
crossing is; 2.5m + (1100 – 600)x0.5/125m = 4.5m

The pedestrian crossing techniques adopted at (i) mid-block locations, and (ii)
road intersections are described in the following sections in this chapter.

6.2 Different types of pedestrian crossings at mid-blocks

Where pedestrians are to cross roads at mid-block locations the following types
of pedestrian crossing techniques can be adopted.

Zebra crossing

These crossings are ideal for arterial roads and other less important roads where
the interruption they cause to vehicles can be tolerated. They can generally be
used where vehicular speeds are reasonably low (say less than 60 km/h). These
are suited to use in town areas where high pedestrian volumes are given
preferential treatment over vehicular traffic.

Pelican crossing

A pelican crossing is a pedestrian crossing at which traffic signals are used to

control vehicular traffic to establish pedestrian priority on the crossing. These
will indicate the period during which priority continues to be given to the
pedestrians on the carriage-way. At these crossings the vehicles are stopped by
a red signal to allow pedestrians to commence crossing and later a flashing
amber signal warns vehicles to give way to pedestrians but proceed unimpeded.
The advantage of this device over zebra crossings is that this causes less delay
to traffic than the latter.

Pedestrian operated signals

Although these are not much used in Sri Lanka, they help large numbers of
pedestrians to cross arterial roads, and roads going through city areas. When the
roadway has an adequate median and the route is part of a signal linking system,
pedestrians can be served without adversely affecting the route linking.
At these signals, if a pedestrian wants to cross the road, he/she has to press the
button provided and wait for the green signal for him/her to start crossing the
road. Pedestrians should never attempt to cross the road when red (or stop)
signal is on. The signal for the pedestrians to cross the road offers only when
someone has press the button and express his/her willingness to cross the road.
Hence this does not cause any unnecessary delays on the vehicles if there are no
pedestrians to cross the road.

Pedestrian overpass / underpass

These are appropriate treatments where high volumes of pedestrians are

required to cross heavily trafficked arterial roads. Although pedestrians
overpasses are seen in this country, not many underpasses are seen mainly due
to the high costs and operational problems involved. The experience has shown
that unless the delays experienced in crossing at-grade are extremely high, these
grade separated crossings may not be worthwhile. Pedestrians often prefer to
cross the road at-grade rather than using the overpass, unless their at-grade
movement is strictly prevented. Some problems usually associated with these
structures are; dropping objects into the traffic moving under; security
especially at night in underpasses; vandalism; aesthetics especially for
overpasses etc.

Pedestrian refuge islands

Where other pedestrian crossing facilities are not used, to help them cross the
road pedestrian refuge islands can provide a substantial benefit to the
pedestrians. They have the following advantages.

 this will allow the pedestrian to cross the road in two stages.
 the number of decisions which need to be made by drivers and pedestrians
are reduced.
 provides a refuge and a physical protection for the pedestrian on a wide
crossing. This is important at places where elderly people and children are
involved in road crossings.
It is very important that these refuge islands are properly designed to be of
sufficient size to cater for the needs of pedestrians. These require appropriate
signing and street lighting.

School crossing

It is common to see in many European countries the flagged school crossings.

These can be used on arterial and secondary roads with low traffic volumes.
When vehicle volumes and/or children crossing numbers are high, this may not
be a suitable method of crossing.

Locations and design of pedestrian crossings

The pedestrian crossings should be properly located and designed for the
maximum safety of the pedestrians. The principles for placing of pedestrian
crossings are as follows:

 fitting natural flow of pedestrians as possible.

 crossing the carriageway at right angles.
 crossing at intersections try to set near to centre of intersection as possible, to
make the area of intersection narrow.
 locate the crossings at visible places where drivers can see the pedestrian
easily.
 limit the length of cross walk to 15 metres - if exceeding, set a pedestrian
island on halfway.
 try to keep the width of the crossing at least 2 metres.

6.3 Pedestrian crossings at intersections

(a) Crossings at signalized intersections

Where pedestrians are to cross roads at signalized intersections (i.e. within the
general area bounded by the stop lines) parallel pedestrian crosswalk lines are to
be marked rather than zebra type markings.

Pedestrian cross walking markings should be omitted only when there are very
few pedestrians using the intersection. Always try to have these pedestrian
crosswalk markings to be at 90o degrees to the traffic stream to be crossed for
safety reasons (for better driver/pedestrian visibility).
 Figure 6.3 - Signalized intersection

(b) Pedestrian crossings at unsignalized intersections

Where pedestrians are to cross roads at unsignalized intersections, zebra

crossings can be used after the stop or give way line.

Zebra crossing
Stop or give way line

Figure 6.4 - Unsignalized intersection

(c) Pedestrian crossings at roundabouts.

Where pedestrians are to cross the road at a roundabout, zebra crossing can be
used before the give way line.

Figure 6.5 - Roundabout

6.4 Environmentally adopted through roads

The concept of ‘Environmentally adopted through roads’ was initiated in rural

towns in Denmark as an alternative to construct more expensive bypass roads to
avoid through traffic passing through rural towns (Hass-Klau, 1990). In
environmentally adopted through roads the main idea is to give greater priority
to pedestrians, cyclists and the town environment over the through traffic. This
can be achieved through a variety of speed reduction devices and other
treatments, such as pre-warning signs, centre-median arrangements, regulatory
speed signs, road staggering using lateral and central islands, parking bays, kerb
extensions and roundabouts. In addition, there may be special pedestrian
facilities such as kerb extensions and very wide pedestrian crossings across the
road pavement and the bicycle paths. The speeds on these road stretches should
be limited to around 40 km/h. In environmentally adopted through roads in
school environments, should have highly visible pedestrian crossings preferable
with centre refuges. These crossings sometimes are placed on raised platforms
such as wide humps.
Although in these road stretches there will be an increase in travel time for
through traffic drivers, the pedestrians and cyclists are able to cross the main
road more comfortably and more frequently in a safer way.

A better quality road environment can be achieved by:

 widening and improving footpaths

 using quality pavement materials
 providing continuous weather protection
 designing of footpaths for a range of users
 creating attractive places for social interaction and events
 carefully selecting and locating the street furniture
 using appropriate street trees and landscaping

Advantages in environmentally adopted through roads.

 more safe for pedestrians and cyclists
 easier and safer road crossing opportunities for pedestrians and cyclists
 low rate of accidents
 improved environmental conditions
 improved amenity

Disadvantages:
 slight improvements in travel times for through traffic
 speed reductions in through traffic

Shared zones

Shared zones already exist in an informal manner in various locations of

pedestrian / motor vehicle mix; such as public parking areas, on university
campuses, around large shopping malls, and in areas where children use the
street space for play. The basic difference in a shared zone is that pedestrians
have equal rights with motor vehicles in the specified zone. Motor vehicles use
the shared space but at greatly reduced speeds which do not present a safety
hazard to pedestrians.
 It should be careful not to confuse the principal of shared zones with the local
area traffic management (LATM) discussed in section 3.3 of chapter3. Shared
zones are applicable only to very lightly trafficked residential and shopping
streets. They can be incorporated into new area subdivision design or into an
area-wide LATM scheme which will reduce volumes and speeds in general area
setting the scene for more restricted vehicular speeds. Finally it should be
stressed that although shared zones can reinforce an LATM plan but they cannot
by themselves hope to achieve an LATM objective.

Shared zones can be adopted in the following areas.

 high density residential areas

 around playgrounds and parks
 shopping streets and malls
 tourist activity areas
 near schools, temples, churches and civic centres
 parking areas, universities etc.

The success of a shared zone depends on the visual change achieved by

redesigning a local street so that drivers clearly see that they are entering a
special area. The general layout of the area should clearly express the fact that
traffic must share the street space with pedestrians.

(Photo: Hass-Klau, 1990)

Figure 6.6 - A shared zone : pedestrians and public transport sharing the
road (buses are traveling at low speed)
Chapter 7

Environmental effects of road traffic

Contents

7.1 Noise pollution

7.2 Air pollution
7.3 Ground water pollution
7.4 Vibration

Objectives

The objective of this chapter is to study the impacts road traffic have on the
environment, see how they can be quantified, and learn about the measures that
can be adopted to minimise these adverse impacts.

Road traffic will have a direct impact on the environment due to following
effects:
(a) Noise pollution
(b) Air pollution
(c) Ground water pollution
(d) Vibration

7.1 Noise pollution

Highway noise is unwanted sound generated due to road traffic movement that
can have a negative impact on the environment and surrounding neighbourhood.
Noise has the potential for disturbing human activities such as interference of
sleeping, distraction of concentration and cause uncomfortability to humans. It
can also affect a person’s physical health as well as cause nervous stress and
annoy people. It can increase fatigue and contribute towards lower productivity
and also increase the risk of heart disease. Medically it has been proven that
noise is harmful to humans and many other living organisms as well.
Motor vehicles cause two sorts of noise pollution.

(1) There is a noise pollution from heavy traffic flow, where each vehicle
contributes to the general roar. Because of their larger size and rugged
suspension arrangements trucks and lorries create more noise than cars.
Trucks and lorries contribute about half the noise from traffic, even though
their numbers are less than other vehicles on the road.

(2) There is also noise pollution from individual excessively noisy vehicles
which contribute more than their fair share to general traffic noise. In this
country the noise generated from vehicle horns due to bad driving habits is
creating a hazardous condition.

Sources of road side noise

Excessive noise can come from:

 deterioration of exhaust system from corrosion
 fitting a unsuitable muffler
 engine modifications such as raising the maximum governed speed
 bad road surfaces such as corrugations and pot-holes
 steep gradients
 road surface texture
 locations around intersections
 removing sound absorbent materials
 bad driving habits (avoid using the exhaust brake, noisy
accelerations/decelerations in built up areas, excessive use of horn)
 body noise on hitting bumps in the road (empty tipper trucks can make lots
of noise)

Some commonly used road noise terminology

This section will present some relevant fundamentals of acoustics and noise
terminology for any road noise discussion.
 Decibel (dB)
All sounds are created by a sound source; a voice speaking or a vehicle on the
road. It takes energy to produce this sound. Energy is transmitted through the air
in sound waves - oscillations of pressure just above and just below atmospheric
pressure. Sound pressures impinge on the ear creating the sound we hear. As
our ears are sensitive to a wide range of sound pressures, we compress the entire
range into more meaningful range by introducing the concept of ‘sound pressure
level’.

Sound pressure level (SPL) is a measure of the sound pressure of a noise source
relative to a standard reference value - the quietest sound that a young person
with good hearing is able to detect:

SPL  10 log10 (p2m / p2r )

where,
pm = pressure measured; and
pr = reference measure.

Sound pressure levels are measured in decibels (dB). As shown in above

equation, decibels are logarithm quantities; the logarithm of the ratio of two
pressures, where the denominator is the reference pressure.

Useful rules of thumb are:

(a) if two sound sources each produce the same SPL and are operated together
add 3dB.
(b) if one source is much louder than the other (by 9dB or more) the louder
source masks the quieter one.
(c) changes in SPL of less than about 3dB are readily detectable by people
outside of a laboratory environment.
(d) most of us perceive a 6 to 10 dB increase in SPL as a doubling of loudness.

A - Weighted Decibel
An important characteristic of sound is its frequency, expressed in units called
Hertz (Hz). When analysing the total noise of any source, the noise is divided
into frequency components (or bands) to determine how much is low-frequency
noise, how much is middle-frequency noise, and how much is high frequency
noise.
Human ears are better equipped to hear mid and high frequencies but are quite
sensitive to lower frequencies - increasingly so for frequencies lower than 1000
Hz. Thus, instrument manufacturers have designed filters which match this
sensitivity of our ears. This helps us judge the relative loudness of various
sounds made up of many different frequencies. The A-filter does this best for
most environmental noise sources. Sound pressure levels (SPL) measures
through this filter are referred to as A - weighted sound levels, measured in
dBA.

Time above a threshold level, TA

One concept grasped more intuitively by the community, and more readily
accepted by them as a measure of impact, is the accumulated amount of time
one or more noise events (measured as A- weighted sound levels) are above a
specified threshold. Despite this intuitive appeal, studies have shown that total
sound energy of a road project provides a much better means of comparing
noise sources and judging community response. Figure 7.1 indicates that, during
time t1 and t2, A – weighted sound level is greater than the specified threshold
TA (i.e. 70 dB)

A - Level

dB
80

TA
70

60

50
t1 t2 Time

Figure 7.1 - Time above a threshold level, TA

Noise barriers
When designing road projects noise barriers can be constructed to prevent the
noise emit from vehicular traffic reaching the householder’s ears. Barriers can
be simply formed while grading the street thus providing screening from noise
and sight. These noise barriers can be properly landscaped to hide the traffic and
to provide an effective noise barrier to the nearby houses and buildings.

Figure 7.2 - Roads with noise barriers

Barriers can be simply formed while grading the street thus providing screening
from noise and sight. Landscaping of these mounds does not significantly affect
the overall reduction of noise levels. It does however; improve the street’s
appearance which in turn helps to reduce any feelings of annoyance about its
total effect on the environment.

7.2 Air pollution

Air is a mixture of gases which surrounds the earth in a comparatively thin

layer. Most of the air (95%) is in the first 20 km above the earth’s sea level. The
lower part of this layer, the troposphere, is about 8 km thick at the earth’s poles,
and about twice this at the equator. Man’s activities take place, for the most
part, on the earth’s surface within the first 2 km of atmosphere.

The major constituents of air, nitrogen (78%), oxygen (20.94%) and argon
(0.93%), do not react with one other under normal circumstances. Similarly, the
trace components helium, neon, krypton, xenon, hydrogen and nitrous oxide
have little or no interaction with other molecules. But reactive gases such as
sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
and non-methane hydrocarbons cause pollution problems.
Air pollution is the results from the emission of various gases and particles from
transportation and other human activities into the atmosphere. It is
fundamentally different from the noise in the sense that once emitted into the
atmosphere, pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen remain there for extended periods and can be carried by air currents to
other locations.

During the recent years there has been a widespread attempt to reduce air
pollution from all sources. During these years there has been a marked increase
in the volume of road traffic and as a result a tremendous increase in pollution
from this road traffic. This increase of air pollution is more in busy areas with
more human activity. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the carbon
monoxide in the atmosphere is produced from vehicle exhausts.

The major sources of atmospheric pollution caused by motor vehicles can be

classified as:
(1) exhaust gases
(2) evaporative losses from the fuel tanks and carburettors
(3) crank case losses
(4) dust produced by the wearing away of tyres, brake linings and
clutch plates.

Considering the exhaust gases, the following compounds are normally present
in the discharge from vehicle exhausts:

(a) carbon dioxide

(b) water vapour
(c) unburnt petrol
(d) organic compounds produced from petrol
(e) carbon monoxide
(f) oxides of nitrogen
(g) lead compounds
(h) carbon particles in the form of smoke
On occasions these components of the exhaust may react with each other to
produce unpleasant secondary products such as ‘smog’. Smog is produced
sometimes when bright sunlight and the topography of the region, is formed by
the reaction of the oxides of nitrogen and some of the hydrocarbons.

Both petrol and diesel engines give rise to similar products in their exhausts but
the relative proportions differ. Diesel engine exhaust gases contain significantly
lower proportions of pollutants than do those produced by petrol engines. But
an incorrectly operated or maintained diesel engine is liable to emit smoke and
produce an offensive smell but even then, apart from carbon particles, the
degree of pollution is less than that produced by petrol engines.

In addition to the gaseous products a number of polynuclear aromatic

compounds are also emitted with the exhaust gas in the form of very fine
particles, which can persist in the air for lengthy periods.

Prevention of exhaust pollution

Pollution from individual engines is likely to be reduced by the modification of

existing engines or the development of new engine types. One source of
pollution however, lead, can be eliminated by omitting it from petrol and
maintaining the same octane rating by more expensive means. Alternatively
engines with lower compression ratios can be used.

More general measures that can be used to reduce exhaust pollution include; the
use of smaller engines and vehicles in congested urban areas; the use of
electrically driven vehicles; the improvement of vehicle flow or ease traffic
congestion; restrictions on the use of private vehicles in the central areas of
cities.

 Smoke pollution

Excessive smoke from vehicles is not only illegal, unpleasant and at times
dangerous, but if left unchecked can mean expensive engine repairs and times
off the road.
Blue smoke normally means engine wear or damage. Black and grey smoke
results from incomplete combustion and may be caused by a number of factors
which can normally be fixed during routine maintenance of vehicles.

7.3 Ground water pollution

Ground water pollution results from certain types of emissions from

transportation system; e.g. oil, carbon etc. Hence proper street drainage is
required to remove run-off from streets that would flood the street, nearby
property, stagnate in pools and eventually pollute the ground water situation
causing endanger to the public health. Therefore road carriageways should be
designed and maintained with suitable cross falls, superelevations at curves,
gradients and proper drainage facilities for the street run-off not to spill over to
the adjoining properties.

Proper drainage of rain water from road surface is important with respect to
preventing the deterioration of road surfaces itself. One of the major causes of
deterioration of roads is water. It has been proved that increase in moisture
content in soil tends to reduce the bearing capacity of soil. Thus the stability of
roads may reduce by the increase in moisture content of the soil. Hence the
proper street drainage is very essential for the existence of the road as well as
preserving the ground water condition in the area.

7.4 Vibration

Vibration occurs in the vicinity of major surface transportation arterials where

heavy vehicles are operated in close proximity to structures containing human
activities that are extremely sensitive to vibration (e.g. rail, subway lines).
Constant exposure to vibration over long periods may cause stress, fatigue,
headaches, and even hearing deficiencies. Vibration also causes damages to
residential dwellings which are not designed to stand vibration.
Chapter 8

Street lighting
Contents

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Basic principles of lighting
8.3 Pavement brightness
8.4 Pavement reflection
8.5 Glare
8.6 Types of Lamps
8.7 Lighting Layouts

Objectives

The objective of this chapter is to study the principles involved in street lighting
and the practical applicability of street lighting in order to improve the safety of
both drivers and pedestrians at dark. At the end of the chapter the reader should
be able to understand the principles involved in street lighting and be able to
propose a lighting layout for intersections and mid-blocks in a street layout.

8.1 Introduction
Some of the main objectives of street lighting are the promotion of safety at
night by providing quick, accurate, and easy seeing for drivers and pedestrians,
improvement of traffic flow at night by providing light condition which aids the
driver in orienting himself, observing road markings, judging opportunities for
overtaking, etc. In addition street lighting also helps to reducing street crimes
after dark, and enhancement of commercial properties by attracting evening
shoppers.

8.2 Basic principles of lighting

Since traffic engineering involves in assisting the lighting of the road system it
is necessary to have a basic knowledge of the principles involved.
Some of the common terms met with street lighting are explained below.

Definition of terms

Luminous intensity (I) -

Luminous intensity is the density of luminous flux emitted from a light
source in a given condition.

Candela (cd) -
This is the unit of luminous intensity.

Candle power –
Luminous intensity expressed in candelas.

Luminous flux (F) -

Luminous flux is the time rate of flow of light radiates from a source.

Lumen (lm) -
This is the unit of luminous flux.

Illumination -
Illumination is the luminous flux incident per unit area upon a point on a
surface, and is measured in lumens per square metre (lm/m2)

Lux -
Number of lumens per square metre is expressed as a lux.

The above terms can be further explained with Figure 8.1 which shows a source
of light with a luminous intensity I, radiates luminous flux F (in lumens). Then
the illumination E that can be measured in lumens per square metre (lux) is
received by the surface.
 Figure 8.1 - Principles of lighting

It can be shown that the level of illumination on a plane, normal to the incident
light, will be inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source
to the plane. Also the amount of light received is proportional to the cosine of
the angle,  to the normal. This can be seen from Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2 - Level of illumination on a plane

Combining this, illumination, E can be obtained as :

E = I cos  / d2
The most important application of this formula is the determination of the
proper mounting height of lamp head for better illumination of the road surface,
correct appreciation of traffic signs and other devices at night and for correction
of glare (see Figure 8.3). Mounting height is the vertical distance between the
centre of the lantern and the carriageway.
 pavement

Figure 8.3 - Mounting height of lamp head

Overhang and outreach

Overhang is the horizontal distance between
centre of a lantern and the adjacent edge of
carriageway. Normally overhang distance is
kept under 1.8 metres for better results.

Outreach is the horizontal distance between

centre of the lantern and the centre of its
mounting column. The amount of outreach
depends on the amount of overhang and the
distance of mounting column from the edge
of the carriageway.
Figure 8.4 – Mounting of street lamps

Principal means of discernment

1. Silhouette
When the obstacle to be seen has a lower brightness than its background, it is
most easily recognised because of the silhouette it casts. Under most street
lighting conditions, seeing by silhouette is the predominant method of
recognition.
 2. Reverse silhouette
When the obstacle to be seen has brightness higher than its background, but
of such low level that surface detail is lost and it is recognised mainly or
largely because of its general shape and size, it is said to be seen by reverse
silhouette.

3. Surface detail
When the brightness of the object is such that much of the surface detail is
visible, it becomes most easily recognised because of this detail and it is said
to be seen by surface detail.

8.3 Pavement brightness

When a road is referred to as being 'evenly lit', this means that, when viewed
from a car, the road surface appears to be 'evenly bright'.

If a lamp is hung some 10 metres above a road surface, a patch of light is

reflected from the road. The shape of this patch depends on the road surface. On
surfaces of very fine texture which take a noticeable polish, such as asphalt, the
patch is long, extending even to the feet of the observer. On the more usual
rough roads, the patch extends across the road rather than down it. Hardly any
bright area will be seen on the far side of the post supporting the lamp (see
Figure 8.5A). The patches are not as well defined as shown in the sketch, but
can nevertheless be observed quite distinctly.

(Course Notes on Transportation and Traffic Technology, 1983)

Figure 8.5 - Luminous patches
If a succession of lanterns along the length of the road is so arranged that the
bright patches merge to cover the road area, objects on the road will be seen as
dark silhouettes against the bright surface. This is the principle upon which
most street lighting is based, since it proves more economic to produce
silhouettes than it would be to make objects light and the road surface dark.

Because of the importance of discernment by silhouette, it is clear that

apparently uniform pavement brightness of adequate level is desired. This is
dependent on:

1. Reflection characteristics of the pavement, and

2. The spacing, mounting height, design of the complete lighting device.

8.4 Pavement reflection

The amount of light reflected to the observer from the pavement is dependant
on angle of incidence, position of observer relating to the incident rays, and
reflection factor and characteristics of pavement surface.

Figure 8.6 - Pavement reflection

In practice, the angle of incidence varies from 0 to 75o from the vertical.
Reflection factor and the characteristics of reflection are dependent on the
pavement surface and its conditions. Reflection factor is defined as the ratio of
light reflected to the light incident.
Generally speaking, the reflection factor of pavements are very low, usually
ranging from about 20% for clean concrete to 3 to 10% for asphalt, and may be
diffuse or spread over a wide area. As shown in Figure 8.5, the forward motion
of the vehicle results in a continuous change of the angles of incidence and
reflection.

8.5 Glare

Glare is defined as intense disagreeable brightness. The level of brightness for a

given traffic condition is modified by the amount of glare. Glare not only causes
discomfort but also reduces visibility.

The glare from luminaries may be controlled by:

 mounting height
 shielding the light source
 reducing the brightness contrast of the light source with that of the general
level of illumination

The shielding of the light source is dependent on design and manufacture of

luminaries.

The brightness contrast is related to lamp size and the design of reflectors and
refractors, for a given level of illumination. Mounting height remains then, as
the principal corrective of glare in a given application.

8.6 Types of lamps

Generally the main source of power for lighting of street lamps is electricity,
although gas was used in some countries sometime back now it is not much
used. There are many types of electric lamps available for street lighting
installations.
Main types of street lamps that are commonly used:

(1) Tungsten filament – Tungsten filament bulb type is the most common and
simplest lighting type. This is suitable for lighting of residential streets and
pedestrian walk-ways. Although the light producing efficiency is low,
sometimes this type is preferred because of its low installation cost.

(2) Tubular fluorescent – Tubular fluorescent lamps consist of a long narrow

tube with its interior coated with a fluorescent powder layer. When an
electric current is passed through the tube, an electric discharge takes
place at low pressure within the tube causing an excitation of the
fluorescent powder. As a result of this process, a bright white light is
emitted from the tube. This type of lamps are used for busy towns where
lot of pedestrian activities are taking place around the street such as;
around shopping areas, and areas where lot of night time out door
activities occur.

(3) Sodium vapour discharge – These lamps operate with an electrical discharge
in a Sodium vapour surrounding. There are two possible variations (a) low
pressure discharge lamp, and (b) high pressure discharge lamp.

The low pressure discharge lamp gives a characteristic mono-chromatic

yellow light. The disadvantage of this type is that colours cannot be
distinguished in this lighting environment. This type is used for night
security at factories, warehouses, stores etc.

The high pressure discharge lamp gives a white colour, and helps to
distinguish other colours, which is suitable for pedestrian activity areas.
Because of its high efficiency, long life and pleasing light makes sodium
vapour high pressure type lamps ideal for street lighting. This type of lamps
is commonly seen in street lighting layouts all over the world.

(4) High pressure mercury fluorescent – These lamps operate by an electric

discharge emitted between two electrodes inside Mercury surrounding
causing the Mercury to evaporate. The discharge is of a brilliant greenish
white. These types of lamps are very efficient, and also very costly.
8.7 Lighting layouts
Figure 8.7 shows some typical street lighting layouts of (a) T-junctions, (b)
cross roads, (c) mini-roundabouts, (d) roundabouts, (e) mid-block straight
sections, and (f) pedestrian crossings. The recommended layout at a T-junction
is shown in Figure 8.7(a). Lantern A serves to show up the break in the kerb-
line to drivers on the main road and approaching from the right. Lantern B is
directly ahead of a driver in the side road as he approaches the junction and
serves to indicate that it is a T-junction as well as revealing pedestrians crossing
the mouth of the side road. Figures 8.7(b), 8.7(c) and 8.7(d) shows how the
street lighting to be carried out at an intersections and roundabouts. Figure
8.7(e) shows different street lighting layouts for mid-block sections, where S is
the space between adjoining street lights and WK is the carriageway width.
Overhang is indicated as (A).

After installing a well designed street lighting layout, it is equally important to

properly maintain the lighting installation to ensure user safety. Cleaning of
lamps and replacement of faulty lamps should be conducted at regular basis.

Figure 8.7 - Typical lighting layouts

Figure 8.7 - Typical lighting layouts (Contd.)
Figure 8.7 - Typical lighting layouts (Contd.)
Chapter 9

Computer applications in traffic and

transportation engineering
Contents

9.1 Basic functions of computer applications

9.2 Computational applications
9.3 Computer simulation applications
9.4 Real time control applications
9.5 Other applications relevant to traffic and transportation engineering

Objectives
There are many ways in which digital computers have helped in solving
transportation problems. The objective of this section is to give the reader a
glimpse of a few such applications. The brief description given in this section is
not an extensive coverage of each subject, but only selected as illustrations of
some of the more feasible and interesting applications that are used in traffic
and transportation industry.

9.1 Basic functions of computer applications

Every successful computer application must satisfy one or more of the
following functions:

1. It should provide economy  Economy is gained when less man power is

required to solve the problem, when the same program can be used over and
over again, or when speed and accuracy of computation have an economic
value.

2. It should provide insight  Insight is gained when the computer can be used
to simulate situations in order to analyse the impact of various alternatives.

3. It should provide feasibility  Feasibility is gained when the problem could

not be solved without using the computer because the results must be
available in a very short time after the input data are available or when
millions of pieces of data must be manipulated with precision and reliability.
9.2 Computational applications

Computer applications that are computational in nature are differentiated from

data processing applications in the context of computations and the amount of
data involved. Computational applications are those uses which usually have
small amounts of data but require much calculation. They are primarily used in
design and structural analyses. Below are some specific traffic engineering
applications that are classed as computational programs:

1. Designing guide signs

The task of determining the legend positioning on highway guide signs is a

difficult and tedious job because each guide sign is unique and there are
numerous detailed rules and spacing criteria to be followed. Computers have
been used to aid the traffic engineers in designing highway guide signs.

Computer programs have been developed which not only determined the layout
of all sign legend in accordance with commonly used spacing rules and criteria,
but also causes a computer driven plotter to draft the signs. The plots are made
to any scale specified and the legend can be shown in its true shape and proper
position.

One of the major benefits of these plots is the opportunity it affords the traffic
engineer to visually check the balance and the positioning of the sign copy
before the sign is constructed. These sign plots can be used in preparing the
plans for signing contracts. Their use helps the sign fabricators by showing
them exactly what the fabricated sign finally should look like.

2. Traffic signals
Trial and error, and graphical methods for determining progressive timing of
traffic signals can become involved under the following conditions.

(a). Signals are not uniformly spaced.

(b). Phase splits are not the same at all signals.
(c). Traffic speed patterns vary from one section of the system to another
section.
(d). Traffic speeds differ by direction of travel.
(e). Travel distances between stop lines differ by direction of travel.
(f). Progression is unbalanced or proportional to directional traffic
volumes.
Computer programs have been designed to handle all these variable elements in
optimising the widths of the progressive bands or other figures of merit. Output
from these programs consists of printed table and an intermediate file
containing all the parameters necessary for a supplemental computer program to
prepare a time space diagram of the optimum solution.

Following are examples of few well used traffic control systems which are used in
some countries where a large amount of traffic is handled through the computers.

( 1 ) SCOOT - of UK
SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Optimising Technique) is an adaptive traffic control
system for reducing delay to traffic in an urban traffic-signal controlled
network. Until the development of SCOOT, traffic control was achieved by
fixed time systems which used historical information to calculate fixed time
plans at certain times of the day (e.g. morning peak plan, holiday plan etc.).
SCOOT was developed by the UK Transport and Road Research Laboratory. In
SCOOT, with computer programs the capacity at the roads and intersections has
been maximised. In this system the computers fully handle the traffic movements at
the intersections so that the role the humans have to play is very minute.

( 2 ) TRANSYT programme
TRANSYT (Traffic Network Study Tool) is an off-line programme for
calculating optimum co-coordinated signal timings in a network of traffic
signals. This is the most widely used computer application programme in traffic
network signals in the world.

This model can analyse the traffic behaviour in a highway network where most
intersections are controlled by traffic signals. The model works based on a
‘performance index value’ for the network links for a given fixed-time plan and
an average set of flows on each link. The performance index measures the
overall cost of traffic congestion which is a combination of total delays and
number of stops by vehicles. By using the TRANSYT model, for varying traffic
flows on different lanes, an optimisation process is conducted to adjust the
signal timings. Through a successive iteration process optimising is carried out
to obtain the most efficient signal timings.
( 3 ) SCATS - of Australia

SCATS (Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System) is a computer based

area traffic signal control system. It is a complete system of hardware, software
and control philosophy. It operates in real-time, adjusting traffic signal timings
throughout the system in response to variations in traffic demand and system
capacity. The purpose of SCATS, as with any area traffic control system, is to
control traffic on an area basis rather than an individual uncoordinated
intersection basis.

In SCATS through computers the coordinated traffic signals provide a ‘green-

wave’ progression whereby a motorist travelling along a road receives
successive green signals. The computers help to minimise the overall stops and
delay. When traffic demand at an intersection is heavy by allowing maximising
the throughput at the intersection by giving priority for heavier movements.
Without computers this type of accurate traffic handling is unthinkable.

3. Capacity computation
The task of using the charts and tables available for making highway capacity
calculations has been considered cumbersome and involved by the users. One
proposed solution to this problem has been the development of a series of
computer programs to calculate the capacity at the critical locations such as:
(a). intersections
(b). exclusive turning lanes
(c). freeways and highways
(d). ramps
(e). weaving sections

Computer programs are developed to enable to print summaries of all input data
modification statements, if any, and the results.

Data processing applications serve primarily to reduce large amounts of raw

data to more convenient form. They are used in summarising field observations
in preparing summary statistics, and in making graphs and plots of data. Below
are several specific applications that are classed as data processing programs:

Output from speed check programs usually includes identifying conditions at

the study site and the following statistics.
 (a). 85th (or 90th) percentile speed (maximum speed limit indication)
(b). 15th (or 10th) percentile speed (minimum speed limit indication)
(c). average speed
(d). median speed
(e). standard deviation of speeds
(f). maximum speed
(g). percentages travelling faster than specified speeds
(h). sample size

4. Intersection directional volume counts

Manual observation using a clip-board is the most efficient method yet devised
to obtain a turning movement count at an intersection. Efficient computer
methods, however, are being used in processing the count once it has been
observed and recorded.

In order to eliminate the chances for errors in reading, transcribing, or

keypunching the observed volumes, a method of recording the count in the field
that can be read directly by data processing equipment would be desirable. One
of several possible approaches is the use of CAMDAS computer program
developed by the Australian Road Research Board. CAMDAS is a new video
vehicle detector, providing information about vehicle movements from VCR
pictures and transferring this information in to the computer. Once the vehicle
movement is recorded in a VCR tape, the information in this tape can be
analysed with CAMDAS video analysis program, and the data abstracted can be
straight away send in to a computer for subsequent analyses.

5. Interpretation of results

In preparing tabulations and tables for this and other applications, some thought
should be given to sizing the resulting print-outs. Eventually the print-outs will
be filled. If the tabulations have been formatted to fit on an 81/2  11 inch (or
A4 size) sheet, they will not only fit in standard size files or loose-leaf binders,
but they can also be reproduced on almost any copy machine and can be
included full size in report.
For quick, visual interpretation of intersection, directional volume counts, an
intersection flow chart is helpful. The computer has been used not only to
tabulate the count, but also to prepare flow charts. Other programs compare the
summarise volumes with the warrants for traffic signals and prepare traffic
signal warrant graphs and traffic volume histograms.

6. Accident summaries

Because of the great number of accident reports to be processed, states and large
cities have sought the aid of the computer in performing some of their accident
recording and processing functions. Information pertaining to each accident is
coded and recorded in a database where this database can be sorted and
interrogated to produce the desired accident summaries.

Two engineering uses of this accident data generally fall into the following six
categories.

(a). Statistical accident summaries. A state-wide, country-wide, or city-

wide statistical breakdown of the number of accidents occurring by
time of day, day of week, month of year, severity, kind of collision,
kind of vehicles, weather condition, surface condition, light
condition, casual factors, vehicular movements, driver sex and other
factors.

(b). Route summaries. A brief single-line summary of each route

showing route length, average daily traffic, type and number of
accidents, and accident rate. The listing may be arranged by
consecutive route numbers or descending accident rates.

(c). Sequential listing of individual accidents. A brief single-line

capsule summary of each accident. These listings are most helpful if
the accident condition codes are interpreted. With such a decoded
format high accident locations and accident patterns are more
readily identified.
 (d). Listing of high accident locations. A brief single-line summary of
each intersection or roadway section having a cluster of ‘n’ or more
accidents during a given time period. The listing may be arranged
by sequential locations by descending accident frequency or by
descending accident rate.

(e). Preparation of accident collision diagrams. Several attempts have

been made to let the computer prepare accident collision diagrams
for high-accident locations. This plot indicates the following
accident characteristics:

1. direction of travel
2. vehicle manoeuvres
3. kind of accident
4. light condition
5. road surface condition
6. weather condition
7. time of accident (date and time of day)
8. accident severity

(f). Special reports. Special tabulations to summarise all accidents

involving only railroad crossings, construction zones, bicycles,
pedestrians, or other special situations as desired.

(g). Computers are also widely used in highway design and

improvement of highway safety aspects of these new designs. A
computer package such as MOSS is widely used in the world for
safe highway designs.

9.3 Computer simulation applications

Simulation applications attempt to model physical systems that are too complex
for direct analytical evaluation. These applications permit a wide range of
conditions to be analysed at less cost and in less time than would be possible
under actual conditions.
Following are specific simulation applications:

1. Traffic assignment

One of the important tasks in transportation planning is to determine future

traffic loads on the street and highway network. The method used in
accomplishing this task is a computer simulation of future traffic flow. This
simulation process involves the following basic steps:

(a). Establish computer files representing the street network.

(b). Establish computer files indicating future trips between origins and
destinations.
(c). Simulate the driver’s decision processes in selecting routes between
origins and destinations. Factors that might be considered in
selecting routes include travel times, travel distances, travel speeds
and volume-capacity relationships.
(d). Assign the trips to the selected routes and count the number of trips
passing over each link of the network
(e). Prepare maps and tabulations for use in evaluating the network.

2. Intersection flow simulation

Numerous attempts have been made to predict traffic stops, delays, queue
build-ups, signal operation with bus presumption traffic conflicts, and
accident potential at intersections by simulating the flow of vehicles in the
computer. By using these simulation models, the traffic engineer is able to
evaluate the effect of various traffic stream conditions, geometric
configurations and traffic control techniques without the time expense and
dangers involved in undertaking similar field studies.

3. Model validation

An important step in using the computer for traffic simulation is model

validation. The results of studies at field sites having characteristics similar
to the intersection being simulated should compare favourably with the
results of studies using the simulation model. A range of conditions should
be compared in order to establish the validity of the model under the range of
conditions to be simulated.
9.4 Real time control applications

In real time control applications the computer is an integral part of the system.
Input data are fed to the computer from the system; the computer evaluates the
data and returns output signals to control the system. Following are traffic
engineering examples of real-time control applications:

1. Merging control system. It is sometimes difficult for motorists entering a

freeway to merge safely with freeway traffic. Various merging control
systems have been designed to aid the driver in smoothly and safely joining
the traffic stream. These systems detect the position and velocity of vehicles
on both the entrance ramp and the freeway, determine when an acceptable
gap for a ramp vehicle to merge into the freeway traffic stream will occur,
and guide the ramp vehicle into the acceptable gap by the use of ramp side
driver displays.

2. Traffic surveillance and control. The efficient operation of an urban freeway

and expressway system depends in part on the early detection of undesirable
traffic conditions so that corrective measures can be initiated without
unnecessary delay. Traffic volumes, speeds, or occupancies are continuously
monitored and compared. When traffic speeds of densities reach specified
values, or when the occupancy at a downstream detector falls of as the
occupancy at an upstream detector builds up, signals are generated by the
computer calling for corrective action. These signals may activate variable
message diversion signs, ramp metering devices, or lights on a map board of
the freeway system pinpointing the location of the trouble. These
surveillance and control systems can also provide a wealth of information on
traffic volumes, speeds and occupancies throughout the roadway network.

3. Traffic signal control. A number of cities are now using digital computers for
traffic signal control. The movement of vehicles throughout the street
network under computer control is sensed by using hundreds of detectors,
evaluated by computer, and controlled by the computer driven traffic signals.
These systems are not only traffic responsive, but they also provide great
flexibility in control strategies without requiring hardware changes in the
field. They can have an unlimited number of timing plans and can be
expanded to include other locations for a minimum incremental cost.
9.5 Other applications relevant to traffic and transportation
engineering

The following specific applications are not unique to this profession alone, for
they have wide spread application in many fields. Below are ways in which the
traffic engineering profession is benefiting by these specific applications:

1. Data storage and retrieval systems

Situations occur in which it is desirable to store large amounts of information,

or data thereby making it available for people to retrieve the information
when they need it. Libraries are some example of such an information
storage and retrieval system. The basic elements of the system include.

(a). acquisition and selection of information to be stored.

(b). assignment of a storage location.
(c). establishment of indexes for providing later access to the materials
stored.
(d). retrieval of specific information when needed.

Computer-based data banks can be established to accomplish this same

objective; they have the same four basic elements. The advantages of using
the computer for this kind of application include:

(a). the computer can organise, store, and examine vast amounts of
information at high speeds.
(b). it can retrieve information and print it out very quickly.
(c). information in storage is always available; it is not ‘checked out’, but
is duplicated for each user.
(d). the computer can disseminate information to remote locations.
(e). it can undertake tasks too large to consider doing manually.
 The most widely known data bank application in the fields of traffic or
transportation engineering is the Highway Research Information Service
(HRIS) developed by the Transportation Research Board of USA. The main
objectives of this specific application are:

(a). to select and store input information from current and past highway
research that will be of value to users of highway information.
(b). to disseminate current information to users.
(c). to retrieve relevant information on request.

2. Document writer

The administrator in traffic or transportation engineering may encounter

situations in which typewritten documents must be reprinted from time to
time with only minor changes. Each revision generally requires retyping on
new paper, much or all of the material, incorporating the modifications. The
addition of a short paragraph, for example, may require retyping all pages
from that point until the end of that unit.

Since the computer output is usually printed by a high speed printer, the
administrator could take advantage of the computer’s speed and accuracy
characteristics. By typing the initial draft on a key board or a typewriter a
data file can be prepared containing the information to be printed. Changes
could easily be made by inserting, deleting, or replacing records in the file.
The file could then be read by the computer and printed on the high speed
printer. Subsequent revisions and reprints would only involve making the
necessary changes in the file and proceeding it as before.

At least three specific applications of this nature are presently in-use within
the traffic engineering profession:

1. Speed zone descriptions. A description of all current speed zones is

needed by those involved in the establishment, posting, maintenance and
enforcement of speed regulations.
2. Specifications for contracts. Installing traffic signals, highway lighting, or
other items by contract requires the preparation of special provisions. In
most cases the bulk of the special provisions may be unchanged from
contract to contract.
 3. Manuscripts. There are two ways in which a computer application of this
nature has facilitated preparing reports and other manuscripts:
(a). reprinting the same report material with only minor changes as in the
above applications
(b). speeding up the editorial review, and other preparation processes by
reducing the time required to retype the interim and final drafts.
Almost all manuscripts undergo a number of editorial changes and
review between the first typewritten draft and the final copy.

3. Inventories
The purpose of an inventory is to account for the possessions of an
organisation. The condition and worth of the items inventoried are usually
included in this accounting. One appropriate inventory application deals with
traffic signs.

Traffic sign inventories are necessary in order to:

(a). satisfy legal requirements to maintain records of traffic control

devices
(b). provide a basis for proper maintenance of traffic signs
(c). provide a basis for periodic inspection, especially of regulatory and
warning signs
(d). provide a basis for traffic sign upgrading and replacement programs

Information about each sign is stored in a database. Information included on

the card usually includes sign location, kind of sign, sign legend, mounting
method, and installation data. Information on mounting height, sign size,
sign materials, physical reflective conditions of sign, and other sign
characteristics may also be included on the database.

The inventory cards could be processed by computers. The following listings

can be readily obtained when the data is stored in the computer:

(a). sequence of signs along specified streets.

(b). signs of a specified kind.
(c). signs mounted on a particular kind of pole.
(d). age of sign.
(e). various combinations of various categories, for example listing of all
school crossing signs over five years of age.
There are many ways in which digital computers have helped in solving
transportation problems world wide. By reading through this chapter the reader
is directed to have a glimpse of few such applications. The description given in
this chapter is not an extensive coverage of each subject that were discussed,
and the world wide computer applications in traffic and transportation industry
is much more.
Chapter 10

Traffic Impact Assessment (TIA) Studies

Contents

10.1 Purpose of traffic impact assessment studies

10.2 Background
10.3 TIA as a management tool
10.4 Things to look through a TIA
10.5 Elements of a TIA
10.6 Guideline on traffic impact studies
10.7 Issues to be addressed (a checklist)
10.8 Difficulties associated with producing TIA reports in our country

Objectives

The objective of this chapter is to make the reader aware of what Traffic Impact
Assessment (TIA) studies are, and explain the requirements and main
components of these studies, and finally teach the reader how to conduct such a
study. In the initial sections a detail overall of; background, purpose of these
studies, components to address and guidelines are explained. Section 10.7
provides a comprehensive checklist of issues to be addressed in a TIA and
explained how they should be addressed. By the end of chapter 10 the reader
should be able to conduct a traffic impact assessment study successfully.

10.1 Purpose of traffic impact assessment studies

When a potential builder submits a ‘development application’ to the relevant

local authority (e.g. municipal council or urban council) for approval, the local
authority should have accurate advance knowledge about the after effects of the
development for the application to be considered for granting approval. Hence a
fact finding traffic study has to be conducted to gain knowledge about the
surrounding traffic environment of the locality.
When ‘development applications’ are processed, and approvals are granted for
new developments, paying advance thought to the generation of future traffic
due to these developments is an important issue. Guidelines outlining all aspects
of traffic generation considerations relating to developments are a useful tool to
carryout the prediction of traffic due to the development. These guidelines
should provide information regarding traffic issues for those submitting
'development applications', and for those involved in the assessment of these
applications. The overall objective is that both parties (i.e. developer and
approval granting authority) have access to common information relevant to the
development approval process. The information provided gives background into
the likely impacts of traffic from various types of developments, thereby to take
appropriate measures to accommodate the proposed development if approval is
to be given.

All developments, irrespective of small or large, generate traffic. The amount of

traffic generated depends on the type of development, its functions, location and
size, and the number of persons using it. The traffic generated due to the
development affects surrounding developments and the adjacent transport
network. This effect should be consistent with the current classification and
functions of the adjoining network. The impact of the development should not
cause the adjacent roads to be forced into performing a function of higher road
classification.

10.2 Background

With the coming up of new developments the generation of vehicular traffic due to the
said developments is an issue that has been overlooked in this country over the past few
decades. When studying the procedures adopted by local councils in the past for
granting approval for various development activities, it was seen that no advance
thought has been given to traffic generation due to the development and its expected
functional activities. This has resulted inappropriate developments at wrong places,
congested roads, reduction in amenity in the neighbourhoods, excessive accidents both
vehicular and pedestrian, and finally a burden on the traffic police. Although UDA
recent publication Guide to Colombo Development Plan suggests the implementation
of Traffic impact assessment (TIA) as a new regulatory instrument, no guidance is
given how a TIA is conducted and to what extent it should be adopted.
A primary objective of the TIA is to provide relevant supporting information for
a development application, so that the highway authority can be satisfied as to
the acceptability of the traffic impact of the proposed development. The
findings of the TIA study are usually presented in a report; this can be a
convenient form in which to provide the traffic/highway information required
supporting a development application.

10.3 TIA as a management tool

TIA is a useful tool to study the impacts on the surrounding road network due to
the new development. With the help of a TIA it is expected to conduct a
thorough investigation of how the new development is going to affect the road
network and the neighbourhood and also to see what precautionary measures
should be taken to prevent any adverse effects. Therefore, conducting a TIA is
an important requirement and a mandatory function of the local authorities
before approving large-scale new developments in the city areas. If an accurate
TIA is not conducted and preparation for the additional traffic
generated/attracted in future due to the proposed development is not considered
before granting approval for large-scale new developments in congested areas,
the future traffic flow in that area is going to be adversely affected. It should be
noted that all developments do not always cause an increase in generated traffic.
However, more significant sites require a thorough evaluation and application of
appropriate management measures. Hence sufficient care should be taken when
deciding the necessity of a TIA depending on the scale and nature of the
development. There are no statutory rules as to when a development is
adequately large so that it requires a TIA. However some literature suggests
some threshold based on scale of development and traffic flows is used in
European countries.

It’s seen that some authorities tend to see TIA as the impact of traffic on the
environment, and propose it to be a part of the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA). However most developments will not require a formal EIA,
but there may be a great need for the assessment of environmental effects
caused by traffic.
The traffic generated and attracted by a development depends on the location,
the type of land use and the size of the development. One possible result of an
increase in vehicular traffic can be an increase in the number of accidents.
Therefore, access to the development and the road system must be designed to
minimise conflicts between vehicles and pedestrians. Safety should be a primary
consideration in planning for developments. If a development is located in an
area with a high accident level, then provision must be made to reduce the
potential for accidents. Also, where a development generates a lot of pedestrian
movement, appropriate remedial measures must be taken to maintain safety
standards.

Changes in the traffic environment in an area (due to new developments) can

have the following impacts on the surroundings.

 impact on traffic efficiency – due to large scale developments a considerable

amount of traffic ‘going into’ and ‘coming out of’ the development can
cause detrimental effects on the through traffic if adequate traffic
management measures are not taken. This may directly affect the efficiency
of the road.

 impact due to lack of parking – if the proposed development is unable to

provide the parking requirement of the development (as commonly seen in
local townships), roadside parking is automatically going to take place,
which finally reduce the road capacity.

 impact on amenity – the neighbourhood privacy and amenity can be affected

if inappropriate development takes place in the area.

 impact on safety – if appropriate safety measures are not taken the newly
increased traffic can be a safety threat on all road users.

 impact on road pavement life – the increased traffic (especially if the

increase is in terms of heavy vehicles) may adversely affect the pavement
life.
10.4 Things to look through a TIA

With the help of a TIA, improvements should be worked out in the areas such as
future traffic management strategies, improvements to intersections by way of
traffic signals, roundabouts or other measures, site access and smooth
circulation of traffic, improvement to pedestrian facilities and their safety,
recommendations on public transport facilities, reconsideration of shifting or
providing new bus stops etc., and finally funding of proposed improvement
(Weerasekera, 2000).

When a ‘developer’ or in other words the ‘promoter’ submits an application for

a certain development project (small scale or large scale) to the local authority
for approval, the local authority should decide whether or not to request a TIA
report from the developer. This decision should be made depending on the
impact the development is going to cause on the neighbourhood road network.
At this stage the local authority should have a clear policy regarding the
necessity of a TIA. This decision should be based on the proposed activity, number of
users including visitors, floor area, cost of the project, function of the development,
extent of the development and land use of the particular area etc. Local threshold values
should be developed based on national policies and standards.

If the local authority requests a TIA report on a particular development project,

the TIA report submitted by the ‘developer’ should clearly address the issues
given in section 10.7. The TIA is a complete assessment of how the ‘in-coming’
and ‘out-going’ vehicles due to the proposed development might affect the road
network in the vicinity of the development and on public transport facility. The
TIA should be an impartial description of the impact and should outline both
positive and negative aspects of the proposed development.

10.5 Elements of a TIA

Traffic impact assessment is the tool which is used to ensure that all relevant
considerations are part of the decision making process. The relationship of the
proposed activity to land use and transport planning issues, future traffic
management issues and the consideration of feasible options is addressed in the
traffic impact assessment process.
Following are the issues to be addressed in a TIA.

1. Purpose and need of the development – The need of the development

should be justified under this section.
2. Description of the actions (including do-nothing and other alternatives) –
This section should give a clear description of the proposed development,
identifying the potential traffic impact. It should also include a discussion
on other alternatives and ‘do-nothing’ option.
3. Description of existing traffic environment – Give a proper picture of the
existing traffic environment around the proposed development.
4. Description of expected traffic increase due to the proposed development –
The expected traffic generation due to the proposed development should be
quantified under this section.
5. Information on the evaluation method of item 4. The calculations carried
out during the evaluation of item 4 should be submitted under this section.
6. Information on ‘fitting’ to the present policies – How the generated traffic
can be incorporated to the present situation and any proposed traffic
management policies.
7. Information on important uncertainties – All the important uncertainties
should be genuinely stated under this section.

10.6 Guideline on traffic impact studies

Any guideline on Traffic Impact Studies should have the following components:

1. Policies and issues

This section should discus the policies and issues concerning all kinds of
traffic generating developments. It also sets out some general principles for
design relating to developments.

2. Traffic impact studies

This section should look at traffic impact studies and the key issues of their
use. It should outline methods of conducting traffic impact studies and
compiling traffic impact statements. It also should include a checklist style
table of information required to conduct such studies, and indicate the
source of relevant information.
3. Land use traffic generation
The traffic generation rates for a number of land uses based on previous
experiences should be tabulated. A summary table of generation rates should
be included, and can be used in conjunction with the additional information
supplied with each land use.

4. Existing traffic in the area

This section should be a comprehensive study of the existing traffic and
pedestrian movement in the area. A summary of the traffic studies
conducted with their findings should be given in this section.

5. Interpretation of traffic impacts

Once the generation rate for a particular land use has been established, either
using data from section 3 above or by a survey results, this section can be
used to determine the impact of the proposed development on the
surrounding road network. The type of impact then determines the
requirements, which make the development acceptable.

6. Parking requirements for specific land uses

Based on surveys conducted previously on a variety of land uses, parking
requirements and driveway types should be recommended in this section.
Definitions for each land use may be included, combined with a summary
table of relevant land uses.

7. Access and parking area design

This section should deal with geometric design aspects of access to
developments, as well as internal roads and parking areas within
developments.

8. Residential subdivisions – traffic and safety

The design of residential subdivisions should be discussed in this section.
The general principles of traffic and safety matters of design should be
presented.
9. Cost impacts of traffic generated by developments
This section should investigate possibilities of recovery of cost due to
development. Also outline the various means of assessing costs associated
with the impact of a development on the surrounding road network.

10. Reference material

This section should contain reference material used in the study (a
bibliography and a glossary), which enhances the main body of information
in the guide.

10.7 Issues to be addressed (a checklist)

A traffic impact study should follow a standard format, which covers the key
issues to be addressed in determining the impact on traffic of a proposed
development. Use of this format and the checklist will ensure those involved in
the preparation and/or assessment of development applications that the most
significant matters are considered without missing any.

Key issues in preparing traffic impact studies

1. Introduction
2. General data collection / Existing conditions
3. Proposed development
4. Recommended works

10.7.1 Introduction

The introduction should include the following.

(a) Brief description of the development
(b) Application and study process
(c) Introduction
(d) Background
(e) Scope of report
(f) The key issues and objectives of a traffic impact study
10.7.2 General Data Collection / Existing Conditions

The necessary data should be collected and presented regarding the following.
(a) Site location
(b) The existing traffic conditions
(c) Traffic flows
(d) Traffic safety
(e) Parking supply and demand
(f) Modal split
(g) Public transport
(h) Pedestrian network
(i) Proposed developments in the vicinity

(a) Site location

The exact location of the proposed development should be clearly indicated

here. Current land use characteristics (zoning) of the proposed site and land use
in the vicinity should be highlighted. Site access should be studied in detail.

(b) The existing traffic conditions

The following listed traffic data should be collected presented in this section.
 the existing traffic conditions
 road hierarchy; including the identification of the classified road network
(major and minor roads) which may be affected by the development
proposal
 inventory of road widths, road conditions, traffic management and parking
control
 current and proposed roadworks, traffic management works and bikeways
 pedestrian movement pattern

( c ) Traffic flows

The traffic flows which occur in the 'no development' scenario must be
established for the existing situation and estimated for the proposed
development year of opening and, if appropriate, for a 'future design year'. This
applies to the time periods of greatest traffic impact of the development.
Key parameters to be considered:
 selection of key streets - possibly divided into the major and the minor road
network; selection of key assessment periods, chosen to cover the times at
which the development would be expected to have its major impacts
 AADT on key streets
 traffic trends in no development scenario
 daily traffic flow hourly distribution, particularly in or near residential
areas
 estimate of the speed of traffic on the road to which vehicular access is
proposed
 current traffic generation of site
 daily and peak period heavy vehicle flows and percentages
 the adaptation of appropriate computer models or techniques for
assessing levels of traffic congestion and queuing conditions

(d) Traffic safety

The accident history of road network in the area to be presented. Any specific
accident prone locations and black-spots should be indicated.

Pedestrians
The provision of pedestrian safety, both in and on the approaches to the
development site, may require explicit description. General matters relating to
pedestrian needs and provision of facilities should be taken for consideration.

Cyclists
The effect of cyclists due to the proposed development should be studied. Any
detrimental effects should be taken care of.

(e) Parking supply and demand

The following aspects should be studied
 on-street parking provision
 off-street parking provision
 current parking demand, including utilisation by time of day and
turnover rates
 short term pick up and set down areas
The following types of parking surveys are available to collect information on above.

Parking surveys
Parking surveys are carried out to assess the extent of the parking problem in the
area being studied. The objective of any parking study should be to collect data,
which will give an indication of the parking needs of the area. ‘Parking supply’
and ‘Parking usage’ surveys are common to all types of parking studies
undertaken, irrespective of the scale of the parking study (Course Notes, Highway
Engineering, 2002).

(1) Parking supply survey

Parking supply surveys are aimed at collecting detailed information regarding the
available on-street and off-street parking facilities, how they are controlled, and
the features, which influence the provision of parking space. A typical parking
supply survey would require an inventory of all on-street parking facilities,
surface car parks and multi-storey car parks located within the study area.
Whether the survey is intended for the central area of a large town or a shopping
area of a small town or a hospital complex, the study area should include the
fringe area where persons visiting the study area and park their vehicles.

A parking supply survey can be considered to be made up of three main parts,

namely,

1. on-street road space inventory.

2. a road regulation inventory
3. an off-street space inventory

Data is collected under these three main parts by simple inspection of the survey
area and the important data that is normally collected under each of these survey
phases is given in Table 10.1.

It is useful to mark the data obtained from a parking supply survey on a suitable
scale (say 1:2500) using figures to indicate the number of parking spaces
available at different locations. The information obtained from a parking supply
survey is very useful in the formulation of a parking plan. For questions such as;
number of on-street and off-street parking spaces available in a particular area, the
answers are readily available from parking supply survey data if the survey is
conducted properly.
 Table 10.1 - Components of a parking supply survey

Road space inventory Road regulation Off - street space inventory

inventory
1. Access to premises 1. Controlled parking. 1. Type
2. Road reservations (a) by regulation (a) At ground level only
3. Bus stops (b) by meters (b) Multi -storey or upper
4. Taxi/Three-wheeler level only.
stands 2. Parking prohibited (c) Underground only
5. Loading/Unloading areas (d) At all levels
bays (a) always
6. Pedestrian Crossings (b) during peak 2. Ownership and use
7. One –way streets hours (a) Publicly owned, for
8. Private roads public use.
9. Vacant land suitable 3. Controlled loading (b) Publicly owned, for both
for temporary or and unloading public & private use.
permanent parking (c) Privately owned for
spaces 4. Uncontrolled public use.
10. Already available parking (d) Privately owned, for
parking areas private use.
11. Carriageway widths 5.Clearway zones (e) Privately owned, for both
12. Pedestrian walkway private & public use.
widths
13. Road-side activities 3. Commercial vehicles only.
14. Other local factors
4. Hiring vehicles only.

5. Parking fees.
(a) fee charging (sub divided
according to rates)
(b) fee charging (a common
rate)
(c) free of charge.

6. Time limit or unlimited

parking.

7. Size of parking area and no of

spaces provided

8. No. of entrances and exits.

9. Internal circulating
arrangements.
(2) Parking usage survey
The development of a parking plan for a central area depends to a great extent on
the number of spaces that is available in the central area (parking supply) and the
desire to park based mainly on the destinations of the motorists (demand).
However, unlike in the case of normal supply and demand, there is a third
variable, which is the parking usage.

Parking usage is dependent on the desire to park close to the destination, the
availability of parking space, and the desire to park within a certain cost, which
varies for each individual motorist. Certain motorists are prepared to pay more
than the others do in order to park close to the destination. If the parking supply is
greater than the parking demand, the true parking demand can be assessed by
making observations of the vehicles parked at regular intervals. If the parking
supply is less than the demand, then a certain number of vehicles are suppressed
from parking within the central area. In this situation, the true parking demand can be
properly estimated only from a comprehensive land-use transportation survey.

(3) Parking concentration survey

The aim of a parking concentration survey is determine the actual number of
vehicles parked different locations (on-street and off-street) at an area can be
covered by an observer travelling on for at a pre-determined time interval. The
selection of suitable time-interval depends on the accuracy of the survey, the
amount of money and manpower, avai1able for the survey. Normally, the time-
interval select is 1/2 hour or 1-hour for on-street and off-street parking
concentration surveys. If the time-interval select is 1-hour, then the observers
wa1k around the area designated to them at 1-hour intervals and note do the
number of vehicles parked in that area. The concentration survey for off-street
faci1ities is also be carried out as for on-street parking, that is counting the
number of vehicles parked in an off-street facility at regular intervals.

The selection of the time and season for concentration survey is mainly dependant on
characteristics of the town and on the extent variation in parking usage likely to be
experienced throughout the week. It is seen in Sri Lanka that months of April and
December experience abnormal parking demand, hence it desirable to avoid these two
months. Days precede or following holidays are not considered suitable carry out these
surveys. The duration of the sun could generally be from 7.00 a.m. to 7.00 p.m.
(4) Parking duration survey

As the name of the survey implies, the purpose of survey is to determine the
lengths of time vehicles are parked within the survey area. It is the normal
practice to combine the duration survey with the concentration survey. The
information for ‘duration survey’ could be obtained by slightly modifying the
‘concentration survey’. Instead of observer noting the number of vehicles parked
during the survey time interval, he/she will be required to note registration
numbers of all the vehicles parked. If it is difficult to note the full registration
number of the vehicles parked, it is suggested to note the first three or four digits.
Suppose the time interval is 1/2 hour then it is assumed that all vehicles parked in
excess of 1/2 hour and less than 1 hour will be entered twice and the vehicles
parked for more than l hour and less than 1 1/2 hours are entered thrice, and so
on.

(f) Modal split

Modal split is when trips are made by different methods or modes of travel and
the selection of the choice of travel mode is defined as modal split. Hence
modal split and any possible changes of modal split should be given thought of
in advance.

(g) Public transport

This section should consider the aspects of public transport provision relevant to
the development. This may most commonly apply to buses and rail in the local
context.

Key parameters to be considered:

 rail station locations.
 bus routes and bus stop locations
 pedestrian access to bus stops, constraints and conflicts.
 rail and bus service frequencies, both peak and off-peak times.
 commuter parking provision.
(h) Pedestrian network

This section should study the following.

 identify major pedestrian routes.

 pedestrian flows and potential conflicts with vehicles, particularly where
such conflicts cause capacity constraint on either vehicular or pedestrian
movement.
 pedestrian infrastructure, such as pedestrian crossings, walkways, refuge
islands, over passes and under passes etc.

(i) Proposed developments in the vicinity

Any other proposed developments should also be considered in the study.

10.7.3 Proposed development

The following should be studied with the new development

(a) The development

(b) Access
(c) Circulation
(d) Parking
(e) Impact of proposed development
(f) Traffic distribution and assignments
(g) Impact on traffic safety
(h) Impact of generated traffic
(i) Public transport

(a) The development

Factors to be considered
 study of site plans and proposed layout plans
 study the nature of development
 details such as gross areas of different components of the development
 study the number of persons involved with the development (number of
employees, users, residents etc.)
 hours and days of operations
 staging and timing of development
 study the types of vehicles that will be attracted to the development
(b) Access
The proposed site access arrangements are usually best explained with the
assisstance of a plans and diagrams. The nature of proposed function controls
should be clearly identified.
Key parameters to be considered:
 driveway location, including review of alternative locations.
 sight distance of driveways and comparisions with stopping and
desirable minimum sight distances.
 service vehicle access.
 analysis of projected queuing at entrances.
 current access to site comparison with proposed access.
 provision for access to, and by, public transport.

( c ) Circulation
Factors to be considered
 proposed pattern of traffic circulation
 internal road widths
 provision of bus movements
 service area layout

(d) Parking
Factors to be considered
 proposed supply of parking
 alignment with the local parking regulations
 parking layouts
 projected peak demand, based where appropriate on similar research
reports and reports on similar developments

(e) Impact of proposed development

 traffic generation during design periods
 traffic distribution and assignments
 impact on traffic safety
 impact of generated traffic
 public transport
 recommended works
(f) Traffic distribution and assignments

 hourly distribution of trips

 assignments of these trips to the road system based where possible on
development feasibility studies or on origin/ destination surveys
undertaken at similar developments in the areas

(g) Impact on traffic safety

 assessment of road safety impact

(h) Impact of generated traffic

 daily traffic flows and composition on key streets and their expected
effect on the environment particularly in residential areas.
 peak period volumes at key intersections and effect of generated traffic
on congestion levels
 impact of construction traffic during construction stages
 other proposed developments in the vicinity their timing and likely
impact, if known
 assessment of pedestrian movements
 assessment of traffic noise

(j) Public transport

 options for extensions and changes to bus routes and bus stops,
following discussions with the transport authorities

 provision for pedestrian access to bus stops

10.7.4 Recommended Works

Information on following aspects should be dealt with under this section.

 proposed improvements to site access and traffic circulation
 proposed improvements to roads, signals, roundabouts and other traffic
management measures
 proposed improvements to pedestrian facilities
 effect due to recommend works on the operation of adjacent developments
 effect due to recommended works on public transport services and any
proposed suggestions (including bus routes, bus stops, access etc.)
 funding of proposed improvement projects
10.8 Difficulties associated with producing TIA reports in Sri
Lanka

Some of the problems that can confront at this stage when requesting the
developers to produce TIA reports are as follows:

 Lack of local norms indicating the traffic generation factors for deferent
types of developments. The local authorities should try to develop norms
for traffic factors for different types of developments such as, residential,
hotels, commercial, office, hospitals, schools and other educational
institutions, entertainment, service stations, drive-in take away food outlets,
etc. on daily traffic basis and peak hour traffic basis (morning and
evening).
 Difficulty of obtaining information on existing traffic conditions in the
area. Difficulties regarding obtaining existing data such as traffic data, road
inventory data, accident statistics etc.
 Shortage of local expertise to carry out comprehensive TIA studies.
 Influences from political elements and financial forces.

In conclusion it should be mentioned that a TIA could be used as a guide to

examine ways in which a road system may best accommodate the increased
demands for movement and parking of traffic while safeguarding the interests of
the community at large. These include the provision of parking facilities, the
improvement of existing roads and traffic management facilities, the
consideration of future changes in land use, provision of public transport,
increasing the traffic efficiency, minimising the impacts on amenity, safety and
road pavement life etc. Decision making for large-scale developments is not
possible until technical, economic and environmental assessments are available
(Environmental Impact Assessment - RTA, 1998). Traffic impact assessment
should be an integral part of the project appraisal. TIA becomes a significant
part in the process of decision-making especially when large-scale
developments are considered in the city limits.
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