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Edexcel IGCSE Biology Your notes

Reproduction
Contents
Sexual & Asexual Reproduction: Differences
Gametes & Fertilisation
Adaptations for Pollination
The Process of Fertilisation in Plants
Practical: Conditions for Germination
Germinating Seeds
Asexual Plant Reproduction
Human Reproductive Systems
Roles of Oestrogen & Progesterone in the Menstrual Cycle
Roles of FSH & LH in the menstrual cycle
Role of the Placenta
Amniotic Fluid
Development of Secondary Sexual Characteristics

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Sexual & Asexual Reproduction: Differences

Your notes
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is:
The process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote (fertilised egg cell) and
the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
Two parent organisms are required for sexual reproduction
The gametes are produced through meiosis
After fertilisation, the offspring develops through mitotic cell divisions
Offspring produced by sexual reproduction are genetically different to the parent organisms
They share half of the DNA from each parent
Sexual reproduction is a relatively slow reproduction process
Variation introduced into populations as a result of sexual reproduction, provides a survival advantage
to the population

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Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is: Your notes
The process resulting in genetically identical offspring being produced from one parent
Asexual reproduction does not involve gametes or fertilisation
Only one parent is required so there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of genetic information
As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each other (they are clones)
The process occurs much more quickly and efficiently than sexual reproduction which can provide a
survival advantage to populations
However, lack of genetic variation means that populations are more vulnerable to disease or
environmental change
Many plants reproduce via asexual reproduction
Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction called binary
fission

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Your notes

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Your notes

Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction called binary
fission

Comparing Sexual & Asexual Reproduction

The key differences between sexual and asexual reproduction are compared in this table below:
Feature Asexual Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction
Number of parent One Two
organisms
Type of cell division Mitosis Meiosis (to produce gametes)
required to
produce offspring Mitosis after fertlisation

Level of genetic Genetically Genetically unique (and genetically different from

similarity between identical to each both parents)
offspring other (and to the
parent)
Sources of genetic Only one source: Three sources:
variation in mutation
offspring The contribution of 50% of their DNA from
each of the two parents
The production of gametes by meiosis
(resulting in new combinations of alleles on
the chromosomes)
The random assortment of chromosomes into
gametes during meiosis
Number of Usually relatively Usually relatively limited numbers
offspring large numbers
produced
Time taken to Usually relatively Usually relatively slow
produce offspring fast

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Gametes & Fertilisation

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The Gametes
Gametes are sex cells produced by meiosis
The sperm and ovum in animals
The pollen nucleus and ovum in plants
They contain half the number of chromosomes (23 in human gametes) compared to normal body cells
Gametes have adaptations to improve the chances of successful fertilisation and embryo
development, for example:
sperm cells have a tail to propel them towards the egg and mitochondria to provide energy for
this movement
egg cells have energy stores within the cytoplasm to support early embryo development
Human gametes diagram

Comparing sperm and egg cells

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Fertilisation
Fertilisation can be described as: Your notes
the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote
The zygote then divides by mitosis to develop into an embryo
Cells start to become specialised to perform specific functions, forming all the body tissues of the
offspring
Fertilisation in humans
During sexual intercourse, semen is ejaculated into the female's vagina near the cervix, and sperm
travel through the cervix into the uterus.
Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct if a sperm meets an egg, typically 1-2 days after ovulation
A human zygote contains the full 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes)
half of which came from the father and half from the mother

The process of fertilisation in humans

Fertilisation in plants
In plants, fertilisation occurs when a pollen tube grows down from a pollen grain to deliver the male
nucleus into the ovary
Here the male and female gametes fuse to form the embryo

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More detailed notes on this process can be found here

Your notes

The process of fertilisation in plants.

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Adaptations for Pollination

Your notes
Insect-Pollinated Flowers
Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants
The role of flowers is to enable plant gametes to come together in fertilisation
The male gametes of plants are found in pollen grains
The female gametes of plants are in ovules
The process by which pollen is transferred from the male part of a flower to the female part of a flower
is known as pollination; this can be carried out in various ways, e.g. by insects or by wind

Insect-pollinated flower structure

Insect pollinated flowers are adapted to attract insects and aid insect pollination

Structure Description
Sepal Protects unopened flower

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Petals Brightly coloured in insect-pollinated flowers to attract insects Your notes

Anther Produces and releases pollen

Filaments Provides support to the anther

Sticky top of the female part of the flower which collects pollen
Stigma
grains

Style A tube that connects the stigma and ovary

Ovary Contains the ovules

Ovule Structures inside the ovary that contain the female gametes

Structural adaptations of insect-pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated flowers are adapted to allow insects to collect pollen from one flower and easily
transfer it to another flower
When an insect enters a flower in search of nectar it brushes against the anthers, which deposit
sticky pollen onto the insect's body
When the insect visits another flower it brushes against the stigma and deposits some of the
pollen from the first flower; this is pollination

Feature Adaptations of an insect pollinated flower

Petals Large and brightly coloured to attract insects

Scent and Scent and nectar are produced to encourage insects to visit the flower
nectar and push past stamen to get to nectar

Anthers Held on stiff filaments within the flower so that they brush against insects

Sticky stigmas within the flowers catch pollen grains when insects brush
Stigma
past

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Wind-Pollinated Flowers
Wind pollinated flower structure Your notes
Wind-pollinated flowers do not need to attract insects, so their structure differs from that of insect-
pollinated flowers

Wind pollinated flowers have anthers that hang outside the flower on long filaments, and feathery
stigmas that can catch pollen easily
Structural adaptations of wind-pollinated flowers
Wind pollinated flowers are adapted so that wind can easily catch pollen grains and carry them to the
stigmas of other flowers
The anthers and stigmas of wind pollinated flowers hang outside the flower so that:
pollen can easily be blown away by the wind
pollen can easily be caught by the stigmas of other flowers

Feature Adaptations of a wind pollinated flower

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Small and dull, often green or brown in colour; producing colourful petals
Petals
would be a waste of energy Your notes
Scent and
Scent and nectar are not produced; this would be a waste of energy
nectar

Held on long filaments outside the flower to release pollen grains easily
Anthers
into the wind

Stigma Feathery stigmas outside the flower catch airborne pollen grains

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The Process of Fertilisation in Plants

Your notes
Fertilisation & Fruit Formation
Fertilisation
After successful pollination a pollen tube forms to deliver the male nucleus to the egg cell, or ovum, in
the ovary of a flower
The pollen tube grows down the style towards the ovary
The pollen grain travels down the pollen tube
Fertilisation occurs when the pollen nucleus and the ovum nucleus fuse together to form a zygote

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Your notes

The pollen nucleus travels down a pollen tube before fusing with a female nucleus during fertilisation
Seed and fruit formation
After fertilisation the ovule develops into a seed
The parts of the flower surrounding the ovule develop into a fruit, which contains the seeds
Fruits provide a mechanism for seed dispersal, e.g.
some fruits are eaten by animals, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings
some fruits have sticky hooks that get caught in the fur of passing animals

Examiner Tip
Students often get confused between pollination and fertilisation in plants, but they are not the same
thing.
Pollination = pollen landing on the stigma of a flower
Fertilisation = fusion of the male and female nuclei

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Practical: Conditions for Germination

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Practical: Conditions for Germination
Germination marks the beginning of seed growth
Three key factors are needed for successful germination:
Water: swells the seed, breaks the seed coat, and activates enzymes for growth
Oxygen: necessary for respiration to provide energy
Warmth: boosts enzyme activity and improves germination until a certain temperature
Carbon dioxide has no effect on germination
Apparatus
Test tubes
Test tube holder
Cress seeds
Cotton wool
Fridge
Method
Prepare 4 test tubes with 10 cress seeds on cotton wool, labeled A, B, C, and D
Tube A: Keep the cotton wool dry
Tube B: Moisten the cotton wool with water
Tube C: Cover the seeds and cotton wool with water and add a layer of oil on top
Tube D: Moisten the cotton wool and place the tube in a fridge (~4°C)
Keep tubes A, B, and C at room temperature or around 20°C
After 3-5 days, ensure the cotton wool in tubes B and D stays moist
Compare the number of germinated seeds in each tube

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Your notes

Conditions required for germination: how to set up the experiment

Results and Analysis
The test tubes are set up to test the necessity of water, oxygen, and warmth for germination by
removing each factor in turn:
Tube A: Water is absent
Tube B: Control, all factors present
Tube C: Oxygen is blocked by oil and water layers
Tube D: Warmth is removed by refrigeration
As germination requires all three factors, only the seeds in the control tube (B) are expected to
germinate

Conditions required for germination: Example results table

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Your notes

Applying CORMS to practical work

When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation
In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:
C - We are changing the abiotic conditions in which the seeds are germinating

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O - The cress seeds will all be taken from the same parent plant (or at least from the same species
of cress plant)
R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable Your notes
M1 - We will record how many seeds in each test tube germinate
M2 - ...after a set time period (e.g. 3 days)
S - We will control the temperature for tubes A, B and C. We will also control the type of water used
(i.e. sterile water, which is made by first boiling then cooling water)

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Germinating Seeds
Your notes
Germination
Germination is the beginning of seed growth
The seed contains a zygote that develops into the embryo
During germination, the embryo grows into a seedling
Cotyledons surround the embryo, storing food for the seedling
Some plants have one cotyledon, others have two
Cotyledons provide energy until the plant can photosynthesize
Water absorption splits the seed coat (testa), allowing the plumule (first emerging shoot) and radicle
(first emerging root) to emerge

The structures of a germinating seed

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Asexual Plant Reproduction

Your notes
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Plants can reproduce asexually as well as sexually
Asexual reproduction only involves one parent and all offspring produced are exact genetic
copies of each other and the parent plant – they are clones (genetically identical)
Asexual reproduction in plants can occur naturally or humans can control asexual reproduction in
plants artificially for their own uses

Natural asexual reproduction in plants – runners

Some plants grow side branches, known as runners, that have small plantlets at their ends
Runners are horizontal stems that grow sideways out of the parent plant
Once they touch the soil, these plantlets will grow roots and the new plantlets will grow and become
independent from the parent plant

Some plants grow side shoots called runners that contain tiny plantlets on them. These will grow roots
and develop into separate plants.
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Artificial asexual reproduction in plants – cuttings

A simple method to clone plants (mainly used by gardeners) is by taking cuttings Your notes
This is an artificial method of asexual reproduction
The method for taking cuttings is as follows:
Gardeners take cuttings from good parent plants (i.e. those that are healthiest and best-looking)
A section of the parent plant with a new bud is cut off
This cutting can either be placed into water until new roots grow or can sometimes be placed
directly into soil
Sometimes, the stem of the cutting may first be dipped into 'rooting powder', which contains
plant growth regulators (rooting hormones) that encourage new root growth
These cuttings are then planted and eventually grow into adult plants that are genetically identical
to the original plant
Plants cloned by taking cuttings can be produced cheaply and quickly

Artificial asexual reproduction in plants – cuttings

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Human Reproductive Systems

Your notes
The Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system consists of several key components:
Prostate gland: Produces fluid called semen that provides sperm cells with nutrients
Sperm duct: Sperm passes through the sperm duct to be mixed with fluids produced by the
glands before being passed into the urethra for ejaculation
Urethra: Tube running down the centre of the penis that can carry urine or semen. A ring of muscle
in the urethra prevents them from mixing
Testis: Contained in a bag of skin (scrotum) and produces sperm (male gamete) and testosterone
(hormone)
Scrotum: Sac supporting the testes outside the body to ensure sperm are kept at a temperature
slightly lower than body temperature
Penis: Passes urine out of the body from the bladder and allows semen to pass into the vagina
during sexual intercourse
Diagram of the male reproductive system

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The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system consists of several key components: Your notes
Oviducts: Connects ovary to the uterus, lined with ciliated cells to push released ovum,
fertilisation occurs here
Ovaries: Contains ova (female gametes) that mature and develop when hormones are released
Uterus: Muscular bag with soft lining where fertilised egg (zygote) implants to develop into foetus
Cervix: Ring of muscle at the lower end of the uterus to keep the developing foetus in place during
pregnancy
Vagina: Muscular tube leading to inside of woman's body, where male's penis enters and sperm
are deposited during intercourse
Diagram of the female reproductive system

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Roles of Oestrogen & Progesterone in the Menstrual Cycle

Your notes
The Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle is one of the secondary sexual characteristics that starts in early adolescence in
females (around age 12)
The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long
Ovulation occurs around day 14, with the egg traveling to the uterus
If the egg is not fertilised, menstruation (period) begins due to the breakdown of the uterine lining
Menstruation lasts around 5 - 7 days and signals the beginning of the next cycle
After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken again in preparation for
possible implantation in the next cycle

Changes in the lining of the uterus during the menstrual cycle

Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones, two of which are oestrogen and progesterone
Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14
This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature
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The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released

Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has occurred
The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further; a fall in progesterone levels Your notes
causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation / ‘period’)

Changes in the levels of oestrogen and progesterone in the blood during the menstrual cycle
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Roles of FSH & LH in the menstrual cycle

Your notes
Roles of FSH & LH in the Menstrual Cycle
In addition to oestrogen and progesterone, the menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH and LH
Both of these hormones are released from the pituitary gland in the brain
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) causes an egg to start maturing in the ovary
It also stimulates the ovaries to start releasing oestrogen
LH (luteinising hormone) is released when oestrogen levels have reached their peak
LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone

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Your notes

Changes in the levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the blood during the menstrual cycle
Interaction between all four of the menstrual cycle hormones
1. The pituitary gland releases FSH to develop an ovarian follicle
2. The follicle produces an egg and oestrogen

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3. Oestrogen stimulates uterine lining growth and inhibits FSH production

4. High oestrogen levels trigger LH release from the pituitary, causing ovulation (around day 14)
5. The follicle becomes the corpus luteum, producing progesterone Your notes
6. Progesterone maintains the uterine lining
7. If the egg isn't fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down, progesterone levels drop, and menstruation
occurs
8. If pregnant, the corpus luteum continues producing progesterone until the placenta develops, which
then maintains progesterone production throughout pregnancy

Diagram showing where hormones involved in the menstrual cycle are made and act

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Role of the Placenta

Your notes
The Placenta
After fertilisation in the oviduct the zygote divides to form an embryo, and travels to the uterus
Upon reaching the uterus the embryo implants in the uterine lining, where it continues to develop
A structure called the placenta forms at the implantation site
In the placenta the mother’s blood comes into very close proximity to the blood of the fetus
The umbilical cord connects the embryo’s blood supply to the placenta
The role of the placenta is to enable exchange of substances between the mother's blood and that of
the fetus
Substances that travel from the mother's blood to the fetus include:
oxygen
nutrients, e.g. glucose, amino acids and mineral ions
Substances that travel from the fetus' blood to the mother include:
carbon dioxide
urea
The placenta is an efficient exchange surface because it has:
a large surface area
a thin wall for efficient diffusion
The placenta also acts as a barrier to toxins and pathogens, although not all are stopped from passing
through, for example:
nicotine and alcohol can pass across the placenta
virus particles can pass across the barrier

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Your notes

The placenta allows exchange of substances between the fetus and the mother

Examiner Tip
It is worth learning at least two examples of substances that move in either direction across the
placenta – this is a common exam question and non-specific answers such as ‘waste products’ and
‘nutrients’ will not get any marks!

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Amniotic Fluid
Your notes
Amniotic Fluid
In the uterus the developing embryo is surrounded by amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid is contained within the amniotic membrane, also known as the amniotic sac
The amniotic fluid protects the embryo during development by cushioning it from bumps when the
mother moves around

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The foetus in the uterus is protected by amniotic fluid

Your notes

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Development of Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Your notes
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Secondary sexual characteristics are the changes that occur during puberty
Their development is controlled by the release of hormones
Oestrogen in females
Testosterone in males

Female secondary sexual characteristics

Female Effects of Oestrogen

Development of breasts

Body hair grows

Menstrual cycle begins

Hips get wider

Male secondary sexual characteristics

Male Effects of Testosterone

Growth of penis and testes

Growth of facial and body hair

Muscles develop

Voice breaks

Testes start to produce sperm

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Some changes occur in both males and females, including growth of sexual organs and growth of
body hair
Emotional changes also occur due to the increased levels of hormones in the body Your notes
These include more interest in sex and increased mood swings

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