HANDOUTS IN INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

Lesson 1. What is philosophy?

The word philosophy comes from two Greek words; philos (love) and sophia
(wisdom). The ancient Greeks used this terms to refer to “love of wisdom” and they soon
applied it to the study or discipline that uses human reason to investigate the
ultimate causes, reasons, and principles which govern all things. People who
engage in philosophy are called philosophers or “ lovers of wisdom”. Thales of Miletus
father of Philosophy in the West.

The following are the most notable ancient Greek philosophers.

Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE)- A mathematician and scientist, he was credited with
formulating the Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers, and he
established a community of learners who were devoted to the study of religion and
philosophy.
Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE)- he proposed that everything that exists is based on a
higher order or plan which he called logos. For him, change is permanent aspect of the
human condition as he was credited with the saying, “ No man ever steps in the same
river twice.”
Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE)- he devoted himself to the study of the causes of natural
phenomena. He was among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles
called atoms.
Diogenes of Sinope (460 BCE to 323 BCE)- he was known advocate of living a simple and
virtuous life. He was also known to be a vocal critic of well-known philosophers such as Plato
and Aristotle. His teaching and views were later developed by his followers and influenced
the development of several schools of Philosophy such as Cynicism and stoicism.
Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE)- he believed that philosophy could enable man to live a life
of happiness. His views gave rise to Epicureanism- a school of philosophy which believes
that wisdom and simple living will result in a life free of free of fear and pain.
Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) – he was considered the foremost philosopher of ancient
times. He made great contributions to the field of ethics. He also believed that philosophy
could enable a man to live a life of virtue. He was credited for formulating the Socratic
Method – a means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner
examine and analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic.
Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) – a student of Socrates. His teachings and writings were
considered the foundation of Western philosophy. Plato’s most significant ideas, included his
Theory of Forms, which proposes that everything that exist is based on an idea or
template that can only be perceived in the mind. Plato is also known for his dialectic – a
method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at knew
knowledge. Plato’s lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the Academy, an
institution of higher learning which was the first of its kind in the Western World.
Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) – prominent student of Plato. For him, all ideas and views
are based on perception and our reality is based on what we can sense and perceive.
Deductive reasoning – the process by which specific statements are analysed to reach a
conclusion or generalization.
Why is there a need to philosophize?
Philosophers have often wondered and argued about the role of philosophy in man’s life.
We all have the potential to philosophize since we have the tendency to wonder and doubt.
We possess the capacity to reflect on our experiences, and we have a never-ending need to
learn and discover.
The following are reasons why there is need to philosophize:
1. Plato – sense of wonder. It begin when we wonder about what otherwise is taken
for granted or assumed to be true.
2. Rene Descartes – Doubt. Famous for rejecting or questioning established ideas,
and he even went as far as doubting his own ideas.
3. Karl Jasper- Experience. He believe that man is often confronted by experiences
which challenge his ideas and frameworks.
4. Love of wisdom. To love for wisdom is to have an insatiable desire for truth.
How do we characterize the study of philosophy?
Philosophers have employed varied means of looking into the fundamental questions
regarding the human condition. One way of looking at philosophy is to consider it as a way
of analysing frameworks. A frameworks. Is defined as a way of thinking about the world
and is composed of the views and beliefs of a person. Questions dealing with our own
correctness and values are considered internal questions which can be addressed using
our own personal frameworks, also there are external questions that seek to question the
very frameworks upon which people base their own beliefs and views.

Philosophy can also be thought of as an examination of a particular area of

knowledge. The central principle in philosophy is examination and questioning, and this is
often applied in the analysis of the frameworks of other areas or sciences. Philosophy goes
hand in in hand with other disciplines in examining their fundamental purposes and
evaluating the changes they experience.

Philosophy itself is a distinct area of knowledge with its own goals, concerns, and
ways of doing things. It is often divided into several branches each of which deals with a
particular aspect of life or phenomena. The philosophy which deals with beauty and what
makes things “beautiful” is called Aesthetics. Logic is the branch of philosophy which
deals with correct reasoning, while Epistemology discusses the nature of knowledge and
knowing. Ethics is the branch which deals with questions and dilemmas, while Political
Philosophy studies governments and deals with questions of justice, power and the rights
and obligations of citizens. Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which deals with
questions regarding reality and existence. Aesthetics - deals with the nature of
art/objective and judgement of beauty. Although not a branch itself, philosophy of the
Human Person is an area in philosophy that understands the human person from a
philosophical perspective- integrating and synthesizing the different branches of philosophy
and other fields of study to know the truth about the human person. However complex and
varied the perception, they suggest two important facts about philosophizing: philosophy
is a reflective and meditative activity, and it has no designated subject matter of its
own. It is also a method of mental exercise on any type of experience. When confronting
human experience, philosophers often employ tools that engage the mind in analyzing
problems and situations. For instance, in discussing complex philosophical issues,
philosophers often use thought experiments. Individuals also engage in this form of
philosophizing when they ponder possible consequences regarding their actions. When one
imagines certain alternatives and possible outcomes, one already engages in philosophy.

What is the difference between holistic thinking and partial thinking?

Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that considers large-scale patterns in system.
This is often described as looking at the “big picture” when describing and analyzing a
situation or problem. A holistic perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset
and an ability to get the general sense or impression regarding a situation. Partial
thinking, on the other hand, focuses on specific aspects of a situation. The partial view is
an important component of analytical thinking, as an individual focuses on certain areas or
aspects of a problem in order to understand it. Though partial thinking is useful, philosophy
utilizes holistic thinking in making sense of problems and issues related to the human
experience.
A holistic view also gives rise to a more appreciative perspective about life, as we are able
to look at life in its totality. This means that we try to understand a situation from different
vantage points so we can see it more fully. All the positive and negative experiences in our
life come together to give meaning to our existence, and we learn to appreciate our
individual experiences as vital aspects of a larger and more meaningful life.

How does one engage in reflection?

Reflection requires a person to be willing to examine one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions
to learn more about one’s life and experiences. One can reflect on almost any subject. For
instance, the moment you wake up you can already reflect upon the things that you plan to
do for the day. This will enable you to set your daily goals and set you on the path of
thinking of ways to achieve them.
Reflection is vital in ensuring that our actions and decisions are well thought out and are
done with due regard for their implications and consequences on ourselves, others, and our
surroundings. Reflection help us understand ourselves and our actions better. When we
reflect, we can judge whether our actions or decisions are reasonable or not. Taking time to
analyze your decisions and actions is one vital skill that will greatly help you as you
encounter more challenges in life.

What are the practical uses of philosophy in our lives?

Philosophy has an important place in our daily lives engaging in philosophical reflection
leads to the development of the beneficial skills that individuals can apply in everyday
situations.

Philosophy enables as a person to engage in critical analysis and interpretation

concepts, definitions, arguments, and problems. It also trains us to be critical of our
own ideas as well of others- meaning, we don’t simply accept or reject whatever is
presented to us. One can apply this critical and analytical mindset in processing information
gained from media and addressing certain issues encountered in life. Critical thinking skills
can help us avoid being tricked by false claims or manipulative schemes.
 Philosophy also improves problems-solving and decision making. The ability to
analyze a problem or dilemma, identify its significant aspects, and come up with alternative
solutions is an important skills learned through philosophy.

A philosopher is a good communicator who can clearly and adequately present

his or her ideas. Discussion and debate require skills in presenting and communicating
ideas. Philosophy can also help us be more open to new and different ideas. Communication
skills are also enhanced by the study of philosophy because it trains us to be very clear and
precise about our thoughts and sentiments in order to express exactly what we want to say.
Wisdom is one intended product of philosophizing, and this refers to a person’s ability to
apply knowledge to daily life particularly in making sound choices and judgement.
Finally, knowledge of philosophy can contribute to self-development. One can be
a better students, scientist, artist, professional, and reflection. In addition, philosophy
encourages a person to know oneself, his or her strengths and weaknesses, establish an
identity, and determine his or her purpose in life. Self-knowledge also grows along with
one’s understanding of the world and this is essential to the realization of the self. These are
tools develop one's own and this ideas and view and engage fully in useful activities in the
community, nation, and the world at large.

LESSON 2. METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

Philosophy is concerned with determining the truth since it lies at the heart of every inquiry.
The discussion on truth is part of philosophical studies on knowledge and the ways of
knowing. As we know from out previous lesson, facts are statements that are observed to be
real or truthful and claims are statements that require further examinations or test to
determine their truthfulness.
There are various philosophical views regarding truth. Philosophers consider something as
truthful if it corresponds with an observable fact or reality. Something is also true if it can be
justified through experience and the use of one’s senses. Another view believes that truth is
a product of agreement or consensus. And last, there is perspective that considers a claim
as truthful if it can be tested or verified.

BASIS FOR DETERMINING THE TRUTH

 A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses.
 A belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.
 Getting consensus or having people agree in a common belief
  Determining truth in this case requires a person to prove a statement through an
action
 Claims and beliefs should be subjected to tests to determine the truth.

What should we consider when looking at arguments or opinion?

Arguments - are series of statements that provide reasons to convince reader or listener
that a claim or opinion is truthful. There are also numbers of arguments based on faulty
reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called fallacies. We must be aware of the various
kinds of fallacies as these affect the validity of the arguments.

Logic – branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments. It studies and
elaborates on good argumentation. Study of correct thinking and reasoning.
Fallacies are group of statement that appear to be arguments but fail to support the
conclusion.

FALLACY Latin Term CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

Attacking Argumentum ad Attacking the person “Of course he

the Person Hominem presenting the argument believes that the
instead of the argument government is
Hominem came itself flawed, he is a
from a Latin word rebel and a
“homo” which Attacking the character of an Communist”.
means man. individual rather than an
attempt to address the issue “How can we
believe him when
he talks about
social distancing,
he is a lawyer who
is a liar. ”

Appeal to (ARGUMENTUM AD Using the threat of force or “If these peace

Force BACULUM – an undesirable event to agreement will not
argument with advance an argument be signed by the
aidgel) government, then
Disbelief will tend to physical we will have no
Baculum – is a abuse. recourse but to go
latin word which to war”.
means scepter or This is committed when a
stick. A scepter is person uses threat or force “TV Patrol is the
a symbol of to advance an argument. best news program
authority. on Tv. If you don’t
believe me, I won’t
let you watch the
TV.”

Appeal to (Argumentum ad Using emotions such as pity “All these charges

Pity are baseless; this is
 misercordiam) or sympathy. just plain
harassment – can’t
Misercordiam is a A person uses emotion such you see how this is
Latin word which as pity to convince someone affecting my
means pity or family?”
compassion.

Appeal to Argumentum as The idea is presented as Every boy your age

People4 Populum acceptable because a lot of already has a
people accept it girlfriend, you
Or Populum is a latin should go find
word for people. Making an argument right one!”
Bandwagon
because a lot of people
Fallacy
accept it I’m sure you want
to have an I phone.
Almost 80 % of
your schoolmates
are using it”.

Appeal to (Argumentum ad The idea is acceptable Marriage should be

Tradition tradition/ because it has been true for between a man and
ANTIQUITATEM) a long time. a woman. It has
been so for a long
Traditio means “this is the way it has always time in this
tradition. been done”. country; it should
Advancing an remain so today
ideas since it has and in the future.
been using fo a
lonf time.

Appeal to Argumentum ad Committed when a person “I am sure that the

Ignorance Ignorantiam could not give a counter students have
argument or if he/she could understood the
Ignorantiam is a not present any evidences or instructions
latin word for witnesses to prove or perfectly well
ignorance. disapprove the statement of because no one
Whatever has another, his/her assertions raised a hand to
been proven false are correct and the opponent ask anything on
must be true and is wrong. them.”
vice versa.

Begging the (PETITIO PRINCIPII) – A fallacy n which conclusion “I have a right to

question Fallacy of is taken for granted in the speech; therefore
Presumption premises. you cannot stop me
from talking.”
Assuming the thing or idea to
proven true “kung saan ka
masaya, dun ka
Also known as circular happy’.
argument
 Unfair talaga kapag
hindi patas

Cause and Post Hoc, Ergo, Assuming a cause and effect “Ever since you
Effect Fallacy Propter Hoc relationship between bought that
unrelated events sweater, everything
has been going
wrong in your life.
Get rid of it.”

Fallacy of (MODO HOC Assuming that what is true a “You are a doctor,
Composition FALLACY) part is true for the whole therefore you came
9 from a family of
Individual to all. Infers that something is true doctors.”
of a part, is true of a whole.
“These cases of
robbery in this
district have
convinced me that
the city has
become a den of
thieves and
criminals.

Fallacy of All to individual Assuming that what is true “Your family is

Division for the whole is true for its smart, therefore
parts you are smart."

Infers that something is true “You come from a

of the whole. Must also be family of doctors
true on its parts. and intellectuals.
Surely you can do
better in this
course.

Fallacy of Using the same term in “Humans walk by

Equivocation different situation with their legs,. The
different meaning. table has legs.
Therefore the table
Calling two different things walks by its legs. “
by the same name.

Fallacy of Occurs when one attempts to Cutting people with

Accident apply a general rule to an knives is a crime.
irrelevant situation. Surgeons cut
people with knives.
Surgeon are
criminals.

Argument Argumentum ad Committed when a person My assignment in

 from Verecundiam uses a name of a popular Chemistry is not
authority celebrity or name of an wrong. MS. Aguire,
expert to put more weight in my English teacher
the assertion being made. who is known
internationally as a
novelist, conformed
my answer.

Red Herring Diveting the topic and makes #Neveragain, Eh

an argument of it. kumusta naman
ang Hacienda
Luisita.

Biases – these are tendencies or influences that affect the views of people.

BIAS CHARACTERISITICS EXAMPLE

Correspondence bias or Tendency to judge person’s “These soldiers who fought

attribution bias personality by his or her in the wars are all
actions, without regard for bloodthirsty murderers.”
external factors or
influences

Confirmation Bias Tendency to look for or “How can I accept his view
readily accept information that there is no God? I am a
which fits one’s own beliefs Christian.”
or views that go against it

Framing Focusing on a certain aspect Preliminary evidence has

of a problem while ignoring still not pointed out the
other aspects actual cause of the plane
crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the
possibility of pilot error.

Hindsight The tendency to see past Magellan’s assault on

events as predictable, or to Mactan Island was a
ascribe a pattern to foolhardy ventures, made
historical events by an overconfident,
careless man who
underestimated the valor of
the native Filipinos.

Conflict of Interest A person or group is As the daughter of the

connected to or has a vested accused, I believe I have the
interest in the issue being right to express my opinion
 discussed on the issue of his alleged
corrupt practices.

Cultural Bias Analyzing an event or issue I do not agree with this

based on one’s cultural Western practice of placing
standards aged parents in retirement
homes. We Filipinos take
care of our family members.

Lesson 3. HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT

Key Terms!
Man – the general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race.
Human – refers to man as a species. Human being – used to distinguish man from other
animals
Person – refers to human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection,
responsibilities, and dignity above all. It is the totality of an individual, possessing
awareness, self-determination, and the capacity to interact with others and with him/her.
Personhood – refers to the state of being a person.
Human nature – refers to the characteristics (like thinking, feeling and acting) that
distinguish humans from all other creatures. These traits are considered to form the essence
of humanity, and without them, an individual may not be considered a human person.
 What is the human person?

Character Traits of a Human Person

1. Self – awareness - refers to the person having a clear perception of oneself,
including his thoughts, emotions, identity and actions This awareness goes beyond
perception and reaction to the environment. We have deeper awareness that is
driven by rationality or human thought. A person is aware of both his surroundings
and himself. He knows that he is living an experience and is an active participant in
this experience.
This awareness gives rise to the notion of the “self” which the philosophers describe
as the person who is actively aware that he/she is perceiving and experiencing reality. This
awareness of the self also enables us to experience an “inner world” that is defined by our
personal thoughts and ideas. We experience interiority, that is, the quality of being
focused on one’s inner life and identity. This interiority enables us to practice creativity.

Creativity also means that a person can create within himself what does not yet exist
outside. Having an inner world allows a person to create goals, dreams and plans which may
be realized through activity.
2. Externality - this refers to the capability of a person to reach out and interact with
others and the world. The realization that we are not alone and that there are indeed
other people around us enables us to reach out and establish meaningful
relationships with others. Philosophers consider man as a social being and that a
 person never exists in isolation. Man has the natural tendency to seek out fellow
human beings, and the relationships established by this interaction are a vital
component for survival. Our interactions with others define our existence as
persons. We grow and develop not only through our thoughts and actions, but also
through the influence of other people in our lives, and the individuals we meet and
interact with.
3. Self – determination - this refers to the capability of persons to make choices and
decisions based on their own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be
goal-oriented and self-directed. We are persons because we act and we are aware of
our actions. Our free will enables us to do actions whenever we want to and make
various alternatives. The existence of free will enables a person to act willfully,
control his actions, and recognize himself as the source of action.
Consequence is the result or effect of an action or condition. Philosophers believe that a
person acts freely and with due regard for the consequences of his actions. Morality is the
goodness or ‘badness’ of an act. Human action is such an important aspect of the person
that many philosophers consider human action as a way to reveal a person’s true nature.
Human acts complete the person, as it is through his actions that his inner self is revealed to
others, and it is through action that a person is able to explore and fulfill his potential.

4. Dignity - Inherent rights to respect and values are meant by this. Philosophers see
all persons as having an intrinsic worth or value. “You’re worthless! " Is an insult
because it takes aim at the idea that someone has value or worth. Each individual is
worth the same as another person in the sense that every person is valuable, unique,
unrepeatable and irreplaceable. Nobody can be used or exchanged for another.
Because of this, saying goodbye to the people we cherish and care about is a
challenging and painful experience.
Human dignity is rooted in the nature of the human being, meaning, a person has dignity
simply because of the fact that he is human. Dignity is not defined by outside factors like
intelligence, beauty, skills, etc. A person retains his dignity in spite of his actions or
behavior. Dignity also drives us to seek what is good. Doing good deeds upholds and
promotes dignity of the human person. This recognition of dignity is also the basis for the
recognition of human rights.
How are the body and spirit related?
Embodied – materialized, personify, epitomize “kumakatawan”
Embodied Spirit – inseparable union pf spirit and soul. It is known to be the driving force
behind what we actually think, do and say.
Philosophers consider the human person as defined by the union of the body and the spirit.
THE HUMAN PERSON IS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT. The body and the spirit are not only
united, but they are integrated with each other. Embodiment enables us to do and
experience all the things that make us human persons. Embodiment - the human body
stands as the mediator between the material world and the spiritual world. Being an
embodied spirit, the person is able to encounter the world of objects (and other personal
subjects) in a manner that transcends the physical. This feature allows him to form intimate
relationship with those outside him. Human embodiment allows persons to attach certain
feelings or ideas not only to people but also to objects. (Pair of shoes as a present from a
loved one).
With human embodiment, physical acts are no longer purely physical acts, because the body
conveys something from a person’s inner world. A pat on the shoulder from your idol, a
smile from your crush, a kiss from your partner will create intense emotional reaction in you.
These examples show that it is through embodiment that a person in able to have a very
unique relationship with the world. And it is this unique relationship that defines us as
humans.
What is in our human nature that enables us to become persons?
Aside from the physical characteristics, another aspect of the human that defines us
as persons is the spirit. This intangible element enables us to exercise thought, possess
awareness, interiority, and the capacity to reach out to the outside world and other persons.
How does my human nature enable me to explore my limits?
Human nature still has limits despite being an embodied spirit. It can be said that the
person is very biologically deficient being. We do not have the natural ability to fly. We
cannot breathe underwater without using breathing apparatus. We cannot survive in certain
environments like other animals. Despite these limitations, we have used out intellect to
devise means to achieve several feats.
The ability to surpass limits is called transcendence, and it is also one important
trait that distinguishes the human person from other beings in existence.
Our mind is an important tool that allows us to go beyond many of our physical
limits. Although we have these physical limitations, we can transcend them because of our
spiritual dimension. As human persons, we have natural tendencies or inclinations. Some of
these are felt bodily functions like hunger, fatigue, etc. transcendence means overcoming
oneself or being in control even if the body reminds us of certain tendencies. Although these
tendencies are felt, the person can govern them and ensure that they are exercised within
the bounds of reason.
 Each individual carries within himself the possibility of transcending his limits by
exerting enough effort and perseverance. Philosophy gives us useful tools to explore our
limits and possibilities.
The essence of transcendence is to acknowledge our limitations, identify
possibilities for development and change ourselves for the better. Opening yourself to new
experiences and ideas is another aspect of transcendence. Our capacity for transcendence
gives us the opportunity to work toward becoming better versions of ourselves.

LESSON 4. THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Anthropocentrism – focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and

considers nature as the means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive.
This view believes that humans are the most important species on the planet and they are
free to transform nature and use its resources.

Biocentrism – believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and
that all other organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view advocates
ethical treatment of animals.

Ecocentrism – places great value on ecosystems and biological communities. This view
believes that humankind is a part of a greater biological system or community and that we
have a significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. This view promotes the idea that
order and balance in nature brings about stability and beauty. The influence of humanity on
the environment can be best understood if we consider the individual person as a
dynamic source of change within his particular environment.

Environmentalism - This perspective advocates addressing the growing environmental

problems. It has become an important issue in international politics as governments and
international organizations have devoted efforts to discuss environmental issues and
formulate plans to address them (Kyoto Protocol in 1997, where various nations committed
to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in order to curb global warming; and the
celebration of Earth Day, first instituted in 1970, a global effort to raise awareness of issues
and inspire action among communities).

Economic Efficiency – refers to prudence in decision – making regarding the use of

resources to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste.

Environmental Aesthetics - Philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the

environment will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings and contribute to the well-
being of the people and other organisms living in it. The appreciation of natural beauty
brings about the concern for the environment and helps people relate more effectively with
nature.

Environmental Ethics - This is a moral approach that analyzes the relationship between
humans and the environment. It also discusses environmental problems caused by human
activities and social issues that impact the environment. It serves as a basis for reflecting on
how our actions show our regard for nature. It also guides us in upholding the welfare of the
environment and everything in it. As persons, it is our responsibility to start with our own
actions and how they affect our immediate surroundings

Environmental Integrity – refers to maintaining the state of the environment. This means
that human activities should not unduly disrupt the ecosystems and human communities
located in the area. Care should be taken that the surrounding landscape is not drastically
impacted by human activities.

Environment philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human
beings with the environment and its non-human contents. Philosophers believe that the
human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes.

Equity – it demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are
conserved so that the next generation will be able to use them. Frugality is being thrifty
with the use of one’s resources.

Prudence – is the ability to regulate one’s actions and behavior.

Sustainable Development – is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.