Unit – 1 Power Generation techniques by Conventional energy Sources

Syllabus :
Introduction to energy sources, selection of site – classification – general arrangements and
operations – functions of each component – types of turbines – electric generators – advantages
and disadvantages - list of major power stations : of Hydro electric , Thermal and Nuclear power
plants in India with capacity. Basic layout and working of diesel and gas power plant. Concept of
grid, types of grids.

1.1 Introduction

Energy plays a very important role in day to day life for overall development of country. There are
different forms of energy out of that the dependence of electrical energy is such that without it life get
somewhat cumbersome. The use of electrical energy is in different fields such as for domestic purpose,
where it is used for heating, cooking, refrigeration, light etc. Also it is used in industries, commercial
complex, irrigation purpose, etc.
Thus to satisfy everyone’s need, supply utilities provide electrical energy to them via a network
which is known as power system. Fig. 1.1.1 (a) indicates the general arrangement of a power system.

Fig. 1.1.1 (a) : General arrangement of power system

Fig. 1.1.1 (a) also can be represented by the block diagram.

Fig. 1.1.1(b) : Block diagram of power system

 It mainly consists of generating stations (also known as power stations), substations, transmission
network and distribution network.
 According to the law of conservation, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can be
transferred from one form to another form.
 Therefore power stations converts some form of energy into the electrical energy. It mainly consists
of two parts, one is turbine and other is alternator.
 Turbine converts some form of energy into mechanical form and then alternator converts it into
electrical form.
 Fig. 1.1.1 (c) indicates the above principle.

Fig. 1.1.1 (c) : Prime mover-alternator unit

 Generated electricity is in the form of 3 phase supply which is step up in power substation.
 Then this high voltage electrical energy is transmitted by transmission lines over a long distance.
Then it is stepped down in distribution substation to utilization level.
 This step up and step down is done by transformer.
 Then the electrical energy is distributed to different consumers.

1.2 Types of Energy Sources

There are different types of energy sources available in world. But these sources are mainly classified
into two categories.

Corel 1

 Existing power stations operates on fossil fuel such as oil, coal, gas etc. This storage of fossil fuel is
limited and its storage is getting depleted everyday to meet today’s electrical energy requirement.
These sources of energy are known as conventional sources.
 The energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal etc. which will be available all the times, are known as
non-conventional energy sources.

Fig. 1.2.1 : Contribution of different energy sources

 Fig.1.2.1 shows the percentage of use of these energy sources for contribution of generation of
electrical energy.
1.3 Generating Stations

 A place where the electricity is generated is known as generating station.

 It mainly consists of turbine and alternator, both coupled to each other.
 In hydro power stations, dam is erected to store the water and then it is passed through turbine. Thus
potential energy and kinetic energy of water is converted into mechanical energy by the turbine.
Further it is converted into electrical energy
(3 phase 11 kV, 50 Hz).
 In thermal power stations, coal or gas is burned in the boiler and the heat of combustion is utilized
for conversion of water into steam. Then this high pressured steam is passed over the turbine which
converts heat energy into mechanical energy which is further converted into electrical energy.
 In nuclear power station, radioactive element is bombarded with slow moving neutron, this causes
the chain reaction. Heat generated in separation of electron is utilized for conversion of water into
steam. Further procedure is same as that of thermal power station.
 All the generating stations in a state are interconnected with each other to form a national grid.
 The purpose of interconnecting of all the generating stations with each other is to increase the
reliability and continuity of supply to consumer.

1.5 Comparison between Conventional and

Non-conventional Energy Sources

Sr. Particular Conventional energy sources Non-conventional energy sources

No.
1. Availability Limited Unlimited
2. Cost of fuel / fluid Very high Negligible
3. Power generated Huge amount of power can be Less, compared to conventional
generated sources
4. Space required for Large space required Less space is sufficient
power plant
5. Site selection Particular sites are required Can be located anywhere
6. Types Coal, petrol, oil, etc. Solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal energy, etc.
7. Generating capacity Very large Less(except wind and tidal)
8. Reliability More Less(as dependent on the
atmospheric condition)
9. Firm capacity More Less
10. Efficiency Less(except HPS) More
11. Capital cost/MW More Less(except solar )
12. Air Pollution More(except HPS) No
13. Types of sources Coal, Gas, Oil, Uranium etc Wind, Solar, Tidal, Biogas etc.
 Sr. Particular Conventional energy sources Non-conventional energy sources
No.
14. Effect of atmospheric No, gas independent on Yes, as dependent on atmospheric
condition atmospheric condition condition

Hydro Power Station

Selection of Site for Hydro Power Station

1. Quantity of water available 2. Storage of water

3. Head of water 4. Cost and type of land
5. Near to load centers 6. Transportation facilities

1. Quantity of water available :

As the primary requirement of a hydro-electric power station is the availability of huge quantity of
water. This is estimated on the basis of measurements of stream flow over a period as long as
possible. Previous records of rainfall are studied and minimum and maximum quantity of water
available during the year is estimated. After allowing for losses due to evaporation and percolation
the net volume of water available for power generation can be determined.
2. Storage of water :
There are wide variations in water supply from a river or canal during the year. This makes it
necessary to store water by building a dam in order to ensure the generation of power throughout the
year. The storage helps in equalizing the flow of water so that any excess quantity of water at a certain
period of the year can be made available during times of very low flow in the river. Hence the site
selected for a hydro-electric power station should provide adequate facilities for erecting a dam and
storage of water.
3. Head of water :
The available water head depends upon the topography of the area. Availability of head of water has
considerable effect on the cost and economy of power generation. Generally to obtain the high water
head, the dam is constructed in hilly areas and turbine is located at the base of hills.
4. Cost and type of land :
The land for the construction of the plant should be available at a reasonable cost. Further the bearing
capacity of the ground should be adequate to withstand the weight of heavy equipment to be installed.
Also the site selected should be away from the earthquake centre.
5. Near to load centres :
The site selected for the hydro-electric power station should be such that it should be near to load
centre owing to minimizing the transmission line cost.
6. Transportation facilities :
The site selected for hydro-electric plant should be accessible by rail and road so that necessary
equipment and machinery could be easily transported.
 4.3 Layout of Hydro-electric Plant
 As stated earlier one of the essential requirements for hydro-electric power generation is the
availability of a continuous source of water with a large amount of hydraulic energy.
 Such a source of water may be made available if a natural lake or reservoir may be found at a higher
elevation or an artificial reservoir may be formed by constructing a dam across a river.
 Fig. 4.3.1 shows the general layout of a hydro-electric plant in which an artificial storage reservoir
formed by constructing a dam has been shown.

Fig. 4.3.1 : Layout of H.P.S.

 The water surface in the storage reservoir is known as head race level or simply water head.
 Water from the storage reservoir is carried through penstocks or canals to the power house.
 Penstocks are pipes of large diameter usually made up of steel or reinforced concrete which carries
water under pressure from the storage reservoir to the turbine.
 In some installations smaller reservoirs known as forebays are also provided.
 A forebay is essentially a storage reservoir at the head of the penstocks.
 The purpose of the forebay is to temporarily store water when it is not required by the plant and
supply the same when required.
 When the hydro-electric plants are located just at the base of the dam no forebays are required since
the reservoir itself serves the same purpose.
 However when the plants are situated away from the storage reservoir a forebay may be provided.
 In that case water from the reservoir is first led into forebay which in turn distributes it to penstocks
through in which it is supplied to the turbines.
 The water is brought to valve house at the start of penstock. The valve house contains main sluice
valves and automatic isolating valves.
 The former controls the waterflow to power house and latter cuts off the water supply when penstock
bursts.
 From the valve house, water is taken to water turbine through a huge penstock. The water turbine
converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
 Turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 A surge tank is built just before valve house and protects the penstock from bursting if in case the
turbine gates gets suddenly closed due to electrical load being thrown off.
 When the gates close, there is a sudden stopping of water at the lower end of the penstock and
consequently the penstock can burst. Surge tank absorbs this pressure swing.
 Water after passing through the turbines is discharged to the tail race. The tail race is the channel
which carries water away from the power house after it has passed through turbine.

4.4 Functions of Different Components of H.P.S

 Reservoir, dam, trash rack, forebay, surge tank, penstock, spillway are some of the important
component of hydro-electric station. In addition to these components there is the power house itself which
has prime movers and generators.
1. Reservoir :
It is a basic requirement of a hydro-electric plant. Its purpose is to store water which may be utilized
to run the prime mover to produce electrical power. A reservoir stores water durig the rainy season
and supplies the same during the dry season.
2. Dam :
A dam is a barrier which stores water and creates water head. Dams are built of concrete or earth or
rock fill. The arrangement of the dam depends on the topography of the site.
3. Trash Rack :
The purpose of providing trash rack is to prevent entry of debris which might damage the wicket
gates and turbine runners or mean checking of nozzles of impulse turbine. A trash rack is made up
of steel bars and is placed across the intake.
4. Forebay :
The forebay serves as a regulating reservoir storing water temporarily when load on the plant is
reduced and providing water for initial increase on account of increasing load during which time
water in the canal is being accelerated. In short a forebay may be considered as the enlarged body of
the water just above the intake. This may either be a pond behind the diversion dam or an enlarged
section of a canal spread out to accommodate the required width of intake.
5. Surge tank :
 Generally open conduits (penstocks) carrying water to the turbine requires no protection.
 However when closed conduits are used, protection becomes necessary to limit the abnormal
pressure in the conduits.
 To protect the conduit from abnormal pressure, surge tank which is open at top is located near
the beginning of the conduit. The water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the
conduit.
 When the load on the alternator is steady, turbine is running at steady speed and there is no
surge in the flow of water through penstock i.e. the quantity of water flowing through the
penstock is just sufficient to meet the load requirement.
 However when the load on the alternator decreases suddenly (hence the load on the turbine
also reduces suddenly) governor has to close the gates of turbine to reduce the water supply to
the turbine.
 But due to certain time lag in the operation of governor there exists excess of water in penstock
creating a high pressure in it.
 Due to this excess pressure penstock may bursts.
 But by providing surge tank, the excess of water at the lower end of the conduit rushes back to
the surge tank and increases its water level. Thus the conduit is prevented from bursting.
 On the other hand, when the load on the alternator (hence the load on turbine) increases
suddenly, governor has to open the gates of turbine to increase the flow of water to the turbine.
 But due to certain time lag in the operation of gate, water available in penstock is not sufficient
to meet the load demand and it completely rushes to the turbine and creates the vacuum pressure
in the penstock.
  The surge tank will provide the additional water to meet the increased load demand.
 Hence, a surge tank overcomes the abnormal pressure in the conduit when the load on the
turbine falls and rises.
 Sometimes this fall and rise in the pressure of penstock is known as water hammering effect.
6. Penstock :
 It is a conduit system for taking water from the intake and forebay to the turbines.
 There are two types of penstock, the low pressure and high pressure.
 The low pressure type consists of canal, a flume or a pipe. The high pressure type consists of
steel pipes which can take water under pressure.
 Penstock pipes are generally of steel for high and medium head plants, they may be of concrete
in low head plants.
 The diameter and cross sectional area of penstock pipe is dependent on the velocity of water
and pressure of water.
 When the distance from the forebay to the power house is short, separate penstocks are used
for each turbine.
7. Spillways :
In the rainy seasons the river flow exceeds the storage capacity of the reservoir. In order to discharge
the surplus water from the storage reservoir into the river on the downstream side of the dam,
spillways are used. Spillways are constructed of concrete piers on the top of the dam. Gates are
provided between these piers and surplus water is discharged over the crest of the dam by opening
these gates.
8. Power house :
It is generally located at the foot of the dam and near the storage reservoir. If the power house is near
the dam, the loss of head due to friction in the penstock would be less. A power house consists of
two main parts, a substructure to support the hydraulic and electrical equipment and super structure
to house and protect this equipment.

4.5 Turbines used in Case of H.P.S.

The turbines are used for converting hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Further this
mechanical energy is given to the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 The turbines are classified according to :
(a) The type of flow of water.
(i) Axis flow along the shaft of turbine.
(ii) Axis flow along the radius.
(iii) Axis flow along the tangential directions.
(b) Action of fluid on turbine blades :
(i) Impulse turbine – Pelton wheel type
(ii) Reaction turbine – Francis and Kaplan turbines.

4.5.1 Impulse Turbine :

 This turbine works on the principle, that it first converts entire potential energy of water into kinetic
energy and then water with kinetic energy is directed to strike on turbine blades.
 Such turbines work for high head generally above 200 m.
 Pelton wheel turbine is an example of this type.
 It is a wheel having number of buckets along its periphery.
 The buckets are elliptical in shape.
 The strong water jet is directed to strike on these buckets.
 Due to impact of water jet on buckets, rotor starts rotating.
 Usually pelton wheel turbines are equipped with more than one jet (two, four or six jets) to avoid the
mechanical imbalance.
 Fig. 4.5.1 : Pelton wheel

4.5.2 Reaction Turbine :

 Reaction turbine, utilises the total available head partly in the form of potential energy and partly in
the form of kinetic energy.
 Reaction turbines are suitable for low and medium water heads.
 The type of reaction turbines are :
(a) Francis turbine

(b) Kaplan turbine

(c) Propeller type turbine

(a) Francis turbine :

 Francis turbines are suitable for medium heads and medium range of specific speed (60 to 300
rps).
 It utilises the total available head partly in the form of potential energy and partly in the form
of kinetic energy.
 As shown in Fig. 4.5.2, the water flow is radially inward and it leaves to tail race at the central
axis.

Fig. 4.5.2 : Francis turbine

 Francis turbine has high efficiency (about 90 to 92%).

(b) Kaplan turbine :
 Kaplan turbines are used for low heads and for large quantities of water to be handled.
  Its mechanism is similar to that of francis turbine. Only difference in mechanism is that kaplan
turbine has got 3 to 6 blades as compared to 16 to 24 blades of francis turbine.
 The other difference is in flow of water. Francis turbine receives water radially whereas kaplan
runner receives water axially.
(c) Propeller turbines :
 It is designed in such a manner that axial flow through the runner is maintained and is without
provision for changing the runner blade angles when turbine is in motion.
 Integral casting blades with the hub are used in this type of turbine.
Table 4.5.1

Sr. No. Head conditions Type of turbine used

1. Heads lower than 30 meters and for Kaplan or movable vane propeller
variable load operation
2. Head less than 70 meters and for fairly Fixed vane propeller
constant load operation.
3. Heads 70 to 500 m Francis
 The efficiency of this type of turbine is about 90 to 92% at full load and 62% at half load.
Table 4.5.2 : Comparison between Pelton wheel and Francis turbine

Sr. No. Parameter Pelton Wheel Francis turbine

(i) Types of turbine Impulse Reaction
(ii) Number of vanes 2, 4, 6, 8 One
(iii) Position of shaft Horizontal Vertical
(iv) Draught tube required. No Yes

4.5.3 Specific Speed :

 This is defined as that speed at which a turbine would run when developing 1 metric horse power
under a head of 1 metre.
1/2
nP
ns = 5/4 revolutions per minute. …(4.5.1)
h
 Further if power is expressed in kW, the Equation (4.5.1) becomes :
1/2
n (kW)
ns = 1.165 5/4 revolutions per minute.
h
 Ordinary ranges of ns are as follows :
Pelton wheel – 12-70
Francis – 80-420
Propeller and Kaplan – 310-1,000.

4.6 Electrical Equipments used in H. P.S.

 1. Generators 2. Exciter
3. Transformer 4. Switchgear

1. Generators used in case of H.P.S. :

 These are low speed machines of the salient pole type.
 They have a large number of poles, a large diameter and short rotor.
 The capacity for such generators varies from 500 kW to 200 kW.
 The power factor for which such generators are usually designed is 0.90 or still higher up to
0.95 lagging.
 Being low speed machines air cooling is usual.
 The efficiency of full load varies from about 95% for small machines to 97.5% for larger
machines.
 The standard voltages for generation used in this country are 3.3, 5 and 11 kV at 50 Hz.
 The amount of excitation required for hydro-electric generator depends upon speed, load and
power factor.
 The exciter is provided to supply the field winding of the generator; it is a d.c. generator shunt
or component wound.
 The exciter voltage is generally 125 or 250 Volts.
2. Exciter :
 Exciter is d. c. compound generator and mounted on the same shaft of the steam turbine and
generator.
 It continuously supply (excite) the field winding of the alternator.
3. Transformer :
 Power transformer is used to step-up the generated voltage because high voltage transmission
has certain advantages, such as reduction in transmission losses, reduced cross section area of
conductor, large power handling capacity, etc.
 One more type of transformer is used in generating stations known as station transformer which
is used for general service (i.e. lightening) in the power station.
4. Switchgear :
 Switchgears senses the abnormal conditions in the electrical component/network and
immediately isolates the faulty part of the system from healthy part.
 It mainly consists of relays, circuit breakers isolators, fuses, etc.

4.7 Classification of Hydro-electric Plants

Basically there are three different methods of classifying hydro-electric plants.

 Advantages of Hydro-electric Plants

 It requires no fuel as the generation of electrical energy is done by using potential and kinetic energy
of water.
 It has very small running charges because water is the source of energy and freely available from the
nature.
 It is quite neat and clean. It does not produce any smoke and dirt as there is no burning of any type
of fuel.
 It’s construction is simple.
 It requires less maintenance.
 It’s starting time is very less (about 10 minutes). Hence such plants can be put into service instantly.
 It is robust and has a longer life (40 to 50 years).
 In addition to generation of the electrical energy, they also help in irrigation and controlling floods.
 Skilled employees are required only for erection but for running the plant very few experienced
people can operate the plant.

4.9 Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Plant

 Due to construction of dam in hilly areas, the capital cost is high.

 The generation of electricity totally depends on availability of water. There is uncertainty about the
availability of water due to dependence on weather conditions.
 Due to high capital investment, fixed charges per kWh unit is much higher than other power stations.
 Skilled and experienced persons are required to built the dam.
 The transmission cost is high as the plant is located in hilly areas which is generally away from the
populated area.
 Thermal Power Station

Fig. 2.2.1 : Simple layout of thermal power station

 A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy is known
as steam power station.
 In thermal power station boiler is main equipment which has three inputs namely; coal (fuel), air (for
combustion of coal) and water.
 The steam is produced in the boiler by utilizing the heat of coal combustion.
 This steam is fed to steam turbine where it is expanded and condensed in condenser to be fed into
the boiler again.
 The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Selection of Site for Thermal Power Stations

(1) Availability of coal :

 The huge amount of coal is required for generation of electrical energy. The thermal power
plant of 400 MW capacity requires 5000 to 6000 tons of coal per day. Therefore thermal power
stations should be located near to coal mines to minimise the transportation cost.
 If the plant is installed away from the coal mines, then site should be facilitated by adequate
transportation facility.
(2) Ash disposal facilities :
 Ash produced after burning of coal is about 20 to 40% of the weight of coal i.e. 1500 to 2000
tons per day. Thus it becomes a more serious problem as it comes out in hot condition and is
highly corrosive.
 Therefore there must be sufficient space available for disposal of large quantity of ash.
 The ash from the power plants is used for many industrial process. Therefore disposal problem
does not arise.
(3) Space requirement :
 The space required by the thermal power plant is quite large (3 to 5 acres per MW) for plant
equipment, coal storage, ash disposal, staff colony etc.
 The land available for power plant must be available at low cost also it should have sufficient
bearing capacity to withstand the load of machinery.
(4) Availability of water :
 As the secondary requirement of the thermal power station is the water.
 The water is required for two purposes, firstly for conversion into steam for steam turbine and
secondly for condenser.
 Hence such plants should be located near the water resource such as a river, lake or canal.
(5) Transportation facilities :
Power station should have the transportation facility such as road and rail for transportation of
material and machinery.
(6) Away from populated area :
 Steam power plant produces smoke and fumes by burning of huge amount of coal.
 This pollutes the atmosphere.
 Hence plant should be located at considerable distance from populated area.
(7) Near to load centre :
 Power station should be located near to load centre to minimize the transmission cost of
electrical energy.
 The basic requirement of thermal power station is the huge amount of coal.
 There are many coal mines in Vidharbha, Marathwada and Khandesh.
 Hence most of the thermal power stations are erected in this region so as to reduce the
transportation cost and storage of lots of coal is not necessary.

2.5 Block Diagram of Thermal Power Station

 Fig. 2.5.1 : Layout of thermal power station

 Energy conversion
Thermal energy  Mechanical energy  Electrical energy
 Electricity is generated at the voltage of 6.6 kV or 11 kV. It is to be stepped up to 132 kV or 220 kV
by a step up transformer shown in the Fig. 1.2.3.
 Isolators and circuit breakers are connected in the circuit and high voltage transmission line starts from
this point.
1. Water cycle
 After the work done by the steam, its pressure decrease, the outlet steam from turbine is taken into
condenser.
 Condenser condenses the steam (condensate). It is then forced to the low pressure feed water heater.
 Here the temperature is raised by the heat from the bled steam (i.e. the steam extracted from the lowest
extraction point of the turbine).
 Feed water is pumped through deaerator to high pressure feed water heater where it gets heated by the
heat from bleed extracted from suitable point of turbine. (Function of deaerator is to reduce dissolved
oxygen content in the condensate (i.e. in the feed water)).
 This water is pumped up to economiser.
 Economiser receives heat of flue gases and hence the water is heated up and hot water goes to boiler.
 To make up the water, some water is added up by makeup water tank.
2. Air supply to boiler (Air cycle)
For combustion of coil air is required. It is taken from atmosphere with force by force draft fan.
 The air goes to air preheater. In the preheater this air is heated by the heat of flue gases.
 This heated air goes to boiler.
 In the last stage the flue gases are taken up from air preheater and by induced draft fan it goes to
chimney from where the flue gases are expelled in the air at very high height (Due to chimney).
3. Ash handling system
After complete combustion of fuel the ash is collected at the back of the boiler and it is removed by
ash conveyors to the ash storage.
4. Flue gas outlet system
 Gas after burning of coal from the boiler is called as flue gas. It passes via super-heater for superheating
the steam (drying) to be sent to turbine unit.
 Then forward journey of gas heats the inlet water in economizer. Then on the way prior to be exhausted
in the air through chimney it heats the inlet air to be sent to boiler.
5. Cooling water circuit
 Ample quantity of cooling water is required to condense the steam from turbines in the condenser and
maintaining low pressure in it.
 If river or canal is nearby, cooling water may be taken from the upper side of the river or canal and
after passing it through the condenser may be discharged to the lower side of the river or canal; such a
system will be possible only when ample water is flowing through the river or canal throughout the
year.
 When sufficient quantity of water is not available, water from the condenser may be used either in a
cooling pond or cooling towers and reused. The quantity of water reduced in the cycle is made up by
other sources of water.
Feed water and steam generating plant :
1) Feed water :
 In thermal power station steam is generated from water by using the heat of combustion
of coal.
 Therefore thermal power stations requires a huge amount of water. Hence such plants
should be located near to lake or river.
 The condensate leaving condenser is used as a feed water to the boiler. Lost water in the
cycle is recovered from the external source.
 Before feeding this water to the boiler, it is passed through the feed water heater and
economiser.
 This increases the temperature of feeding water by utilizing the heat of flue gases.
 This helps in rising the overall efficiency of the plant.
2) Steam generating plant :
Boiler :
 Boiler is a device meant for producing steam under pressure.
 Steam boilers are broadly classified into fire tube and water tube boilers.
 Generally water tube boilers are used for electric power stations.
 If the hot combustion gases are restricted to inside the tubes and are surrounded with
water then the boiler is known as fire tube boiler.
 If water is inside the tubes and hot gases are outside the tubes then the boiler is a water
tube boiler.
 Steam pressure obtained from the water tube boilers is 125 kg/cm2 and temperatures
from 315C to 575 C.
 In the boiler, coal is burnt and heat is utilized to convert the water into steam. Flue gases
after combustion of coal are exhausted to atmosphere through the chimney.
 Flue gases are passed through the superheater, economiser, and air preheater before
releasing to the atmosphere.
(c) Superheater :
 The steam produced in the boiler is impure i.e. it contains some moisture in it.
 Hence before supplying wet steam to boiler, it is passed through superheater, when it is dried
and superheated by the ‘flue gases’.
 Super heating increases the overall efficiency of the plant. Also it reduces the too much
condensation in the last stage.
(d) Economiser :
The purpose of economizer is to heat the feed water so that it recovers a part of heat which would
otherwise be lost through flue gases.
(e) Air pre-heater :
 If the hot air is used in the boiler, it helps the fast combustion of the coal.
  Since the entire heat of the flue gases cannot be extracted through the economizer, air pre-
heater are employed to recover some of the heat in these gases.
 An air pre-heater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal combustion.
 The main advantages of preheating the air are that it increases steam capacity per square meter
of boiler surface and also it increases the thermal efficiency.
(f) Steam turbine :
 The dry and superheated steam obtained from the superheater is fed to the steam turbine.
 The steam is expanded in the steam turbine. Therefore steam attains a higher velocity.
 Potential energy in steam due to pressure and internal energy is converted to kinetic energy.
 There are number of stationary blades and moving blades.
 A partial drop of pressure is used to allow the steam into the moving blades. The pressure is
gradually decreases in the blades as the steam passes through them.
 Fig. 2.7.2 (a) and (b) shows impulse and reaction turbines respectively.

(a) Impulse turbine

(b) Reaction turbine

Fig. 2.7.2

(g) Condenser :
The condensers are mainly classified as :
(1) Mixing type or jet condensers and
(2) Non mixing type or surface condensers.

 In mixing type condensers, the exhaust steam from prime mover (i.e. turbine) and cooling water
directly comes in contact with each other.
 Thus helps in condensation of steam into water.
 The temperature of condensate (condensed steam + cooling water) is same as that of cooling
water leaving the condenser.
 This condensate can not be used as feed water to the boiler as it contains salt and pollutants.
 In non mixing type of condenser, steam, coming out from turbine and cooling water does not
came in contact directly.
  The cooling water is generally passes through number of closed tubes and steam surrounds the
tubes.
 As the condensate coming out from the condenser can be used as feed water to boiler, these
type of condensers are universally used.

Fig. 2.7.3 : Mixing type condenser

(h) Cooling systems :

The closed system of cooling is of two types :
(a) Cooling towers (b) Spray ponds

(a) Cooling tower :

 In a cooling tower the amount of water which is large, is divided in smaller quantities
practically of the size of drops.
 These water drops fall from a height of 8 to 10 metres to the bottom of the cooling tower.
 The height of the cooling tower and its water handling capacity are suitably designed for
particular cases.
 The splitting of water into small droplets, help to cool water very quickly.
 Water from the base of the cooling tower is pumped to the condenser and the cycle is repeated.

Fig. 2.7.4 : Cooling tower

 Some water (about 2 to 5%) is lost owing to evaporation and has to be added from the tank.
(b) Spray pond :
 When a large river or a natural lake is not available as a source of cooling pond or tower is
used.
 In this system, water is circulated in closed loop and is used again and again.
 The condensate whose temperature is more than the cooling water is distributed throughout the
pond and is sprayed in air at a pressure.
 The water is cooled by both convection and evaporation.
 The sprayed water comes in contact with atmospheric air and is cooled.
 Since the cooling is mainly effected by evaporation, it is necessary that a large surface of water
is exposed.
(i) Alternator :
 The alternator is a device which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 The mechanical energy is obtained from the steam turbine which is directly coupled to an
alternator.
 Most of turbo alternators are designed for 2 poles corresponding to a speed of 3,000 r.p.m. for
50 Hz frequency.
 Turbo alternators have cylindrical rotors and therefore have uniform air gap.
 The rotor and stator of a turbo alternator may be air cooled in size upto 40 MW.
 Above this rating it is usually more economical to cool the rotor and stator by hydrogen.
 Turbo alternators are usually rated at 11 kV, 3 phase star connection of stator windings being
universal.
 Standard frequency is 50 Hz.
 Generally turbo alternators are rated at 0.8 power factor lagging.
 Exciter used is a d. c. compound generators of 115 V or 230 V ratings capable of supplying
required excitation for main generators on full load and with an overload of about 20% at rated
power factor.
(j) Draught System :
 Forced draught fan – To feed the hot air for combustion of coal.
 Induced draught fan – To pass the flue gases through Chimney.

(k) Chimney : To release the flue gases to the atmosphere.

Function of natural, mechanical, forced and induced draught systems :
 The natural draught is obtained with the use of tall chimney which may be sufficient or insufficient
to overcome the losses in the system.
 Its usefulness depends upon the capacity of plant and duct work. This system of producing the
draught is useful for small capacity boilers and it does not play much important role in the present
high capacity thermal power plants.
 A chimney is a vertical structure of masonry ; brick, steel or reinforced concrete built for the purpose
of enclosing a column of hot gases to produce the draught and discharge the gases high enough which
will prevent an air pollution the draught produced by the chimney is due to the temperature difference
of hot gases in the chimney and cold air outside the chimney.
(a) Advantages :
1. Thermal power station has less initial cost as compared to hydro-electric
generating station.
2. It requires less space as compared to the hydro-electric power station.
3. The fuel cost is less as compared to gas.
4. It can be installed at any location irrespective of coal mines. The coal can be
transported to site by road and rail.
5. Huge amount of power can be generated by T. P. S.
(b) Disadvantages :
1.The running cost of thermal power station is more as compared to hydro power
station.
2. It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large amount of smoke and
fumes.
3. Maintenance cost is more.
4. Skilled persons are required for erecting and maintaining the power station.
5. Starting time is quite high (6 to 7 hours from cold condition). Hence not suitable
for peak loads.
6. Efficiency of thermal power plant is quite low.
The overall efficiency of power station is given as =
 Thermal efficiency  
 Generator   {Boiler 
    of steam turbine  
 efficiency  (including condenser)}  efficiency} 
 Typical values of generator efficiency is 97 to 98%.
 Thermal efficiency of steam turbine is 28%.
 Boiler efficiency without economiser and air preheater is 60% to 65%.
 Thus the overall thermal efficiency of a steam station may be taken as 18 to 24%.
 The thermal efficiency is quite low due to too much condensation is required in the last stage
where heat is lost.
 Therefore the overall efficiency of T. P. S. is low.
 The efficiency of thermal power station is increased by pulverised coal.
 Also the heat of flue gases are utilized in superheater, economiser and air preheater to heat the
steam, feed water and supply air respectively.

- Nuclear Power Plant

 1.5 Introduction of Nuclear Power Plant

 Day by day the demand of electricity in the country (in the world) increasing.
 This is because the population is increasing so also there is unending growth of industries which needs
a bulk amount of electrical power for industrial products.
 So many activities in day to day life basically need electrical power.
 Electricity production needs fossil fuels like coal in steam power plant, oil in the diesel electric power
plants and gases in gas-turbine power plants. The reserves of this fossil fuel are fast depleting
(exhausting).
 So to find the alternative methods for electric power generation new methods are in process, such as
wind energy utilization, solar energy utilization, tidal energy from sea, geothermal energy etc.
 The other alternative is “Nuclear power generation to meet the increasing demand of electric power”.
Fuel required for this conversion is “uranium”
 If we compare ‘uranium’ with coal, for production of electrical energy if 1 kg of uranium is required,
then for producing the same amount energy the high grade coal requirement is 3,000 tonnes.
 This relates that uranium has 3 million times the energy of coal.
 Still there is an energy reserve of uranium/thorium in comparison with fossil fuels.
 The first country of developing nuclear power plant is USSR (in 1954).
 There after other countries also commissioned the nuclear plants – U.S.A, Canada, Great Britain, Japan,
France.
 In our country also nuclear plants are commissioned.

 1.5.2 Site Selection for Nuclear Power Plant

Factors of site selection [For economical and efficient generation]

 1. Availability of water
 A very large amount of water is required for steam
formation and cooling purpose. (If compared with
thermal plant it is about 2 times).
 So selection near river running through the year,
near any lake or better near sea.
 2. Transportation facilities (Roads, rails)
 Constructing a nuclear plant is a major job, for
which different materials, equipments are to be
transported to the plant place.
 However transportation of fuel is not the problem
(which is the problem in coal thermal power plant)
 3. Distance from the localities (Population)
 Dome is provided in the plant not to allow the radio
activity (which is dangerous to public health) in the
atmosphere near the plant.
 Even then as a precaution major the plant should
located at the reasonable distance from the
populated area.
 4. Load centre
 To minimize the cost of transmission/distribution of power lines the ideal way is to locate the plant
at the centre of the load.
 5. Land Quality
 The main equipment in the plant is ‘reactors’ which are very heavy and strong.
 To support such machinery the substrata of the land must be very strong. (Approximate weight of
reactor is about100,000 Tonnes imposing the bearing pressure of about 50 Tonnes/m2).
 6. Site to be avoided
Site should not be adjacent to Hospitals schools, PWD works, chemical industries, oil refineries etc.
 7. Accessibility
Reasonable accessibility is a must for hauling equipments, dispatching and receiving heavily shielded
radioactive materials, for plant personnel’s etc.
 8. Availability of space for Disposal of waste
There should be sufficient space and arrangements for disposal of radioactive waste.

 1.5.3 Representation of Nuclear Power Plant by Block Diagram

 Main Components of Nuclear Power Plant

(1) Atomic reactor
(2) Heat exchanger
(3) Filter
(4) Steam valve
(5) Turbine
(6) Condenser
(7) Alternator
(8) Exciter
(9) Feed water pump

Fig. 1.5.2 : Nuclear power plant

 Working of Nuclear Power Plant

 Nuclear fission process is the process in which heavy nucleus is split when it is bombarded by certain
particles.
 The spitting of heavy nucleus into two or more smaller nucleus is termed as fission process.
 The process of fission is always accompanied by the ejection of two or more neutrons and vast amount
of heat energy is liberated.
 This process takes place in Atomic reactor (1).
 The heat is extracted by pumping fluid or molten metal (liquid sodium or gas) is passed through tubes
in the heat exchanger (2) which contains water.
 Water is heated up to form steam which is supplied to the water turbine (5) through valve (4).
 The high pressure steam is impinged on the blade assembly of turbine and turbine (shaft) starts rotating
producing mechanical power.
 The shaft of turbine is coupled to the shaft of alternator (7) having its exciter (8).
 Alternator (7) converts mechanical energy received from turbine (5) into electrical energy.
 Electrical energy so produced by alternator is taken out and with protective/operative circuit (Isolators,
circuit breakers) is fed to the bus bars (10) for onward transmission.
 The low pressure steam coming out from turbine goes to condenser (6) and in it is condensed by cool
water circulation.
 Water is fed to the condenser via pump (9).
 The cycles are repeated and plant works continuously.
 [The main control room is collated at the central portion. All provisions are there in the control room].

 Functions of Main Components in Nuclear Power Plant

(1) Atomic reactor - Atomic fission to produce tremendous heat.
(2) Heat exchanger - Heat from the atomic reactor carried by tube in the heat exchanger to heat the
water to convert into steam.
(3) Filter- For filtration purpose.
(4) Steam value - Steam from heat exchanger to be sent to steam turbine.
(5) Turbine -High pressure steam drive the turbine which produces mechanical power to run alternator.
(6) Condenser -Outlet steam from turbine after expansion is condensed in condenser and by cooling it
forms water to be fed back in heat exchanger.
(7) Alternator -Converts mechanical energy received from turbine into electrical energy.
(8) Exciter -To excite the field coil of alternator.
(9) Feed water pump - Feeds the water from condenser to heat exchanger.

 1.5.4 Nuclear Fission Process and Chain Reaction

92 92
Uranium U or U have heavy nucleus which are best suited nuclear materials used in power
233 235

plants.
 Heavy nucleus is generally more unstable. If moving neutron hits unstable nucleus the neutron is
absorbed. Nucleus is splits into two smaller nuclei which are more unstable. Also two or three neutrons
are released.
 In this process a lot of heat energy is released. This heat generated because the neutrons and split nuclei
move at a very great speed and collide with another atom and thus this kinetic energy appears in the
form of heat. This is fission process.
 This cycle continuously repeated and a very large amount of energy is liberated. This process is a
chain-reaction.

Fig. 1.5.3 : Steps in chain reaction

 1.5.5 Fuels used in Nuclear Power Station (and their Features)

(1) Uranium

Natural uranium  U

92
(a) (b) Uranium oxide (UO2) (c) Uranium Carbide
235
 more stable than natural  It has high melting point
 It has only 0.7% of uranium (2350C)
fissionable isotope
 Less oxidation  It is more stable.
 Melting point = 1129 
 Melting point = 2750  It is a black ceramic used in
 Strongly corrode if water
 Not corrode easily the form of pellets.
contacts
 It has good thermal
conductivity.
 But not economical for use.
 It is brittle powder uranium and has less than natural problems of oxidation.
 It does not corrode. It is used in advanced gas cooled reactors.
 Th Converted to  U
232 233
(2) Thorium –  92   92 
– Low mechanical strength
– Poor resistance to corrosion
– Melting point = 1690 C
– Oxidize at low temperature.
– But cost is very high so not much used.
  1.5.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

 Advantages (Merits)
1. Amount of fuel (its weight) is very small and hence fuel transportation is not a problem.
2. Fossil fuels like coal, oil, gas are the natural resources which are exhausting due to use from the past
and so nuclear fuels which are available is now used to produce electric power. This saves the fossil
fuels.
3. Thermal power plants need small area (Land) as compared with other thermal, diesel, gas, hydro-
plants. 2000 MW capacity nuclear plant needs only 80 acres of land in comparison with 250 acres
needed for coal fired thermal plants of same capacity.
4. Plants can be located near the load centre as fuel transportation is not the problem.
5. Very economical for bulk-power production.
6. Running cost is less as compared to other thermal plant.
7. Plant is capable of providing power so many years as the fuel is available in large scale whereas fossil
fuels are exhausting.
8. Plant is very neat, clean, and free from smoke, ash, so no pollution as compared to other type of
thermal plants.
9. Output control is very easy and flexible i.e. it can be instantly adjusted to desire value.
10. Operated as a base load plant at higher load factor.
11. Load shading is not the problem as fuel is always available.
12. Performance of plant is high.
13. Large storage not needed for fuel as it is in other thermal plants.

 Disadvantages (De-merits)
1. It is initial capital cost construction cost is very high.
2. Trained and highly skilled man power is required.
3. There is problem of radio-active waste disposal.
4. Cooling water requirement is much more i.e. twice the requirement of steam (coal) power plants.
5. High degree of safety is needed against nuclear radiations.
6. Enrichment technology is essential for fuel processing and fabrications.
7. Erection and commissioning work is complicated and needs experts for this work.
8. Maintenance charges are somewhat more.
9. Possibility of accidents in transporting nuclear fuel or nuclear waste.

 1.5.7 Nuclear Reactor - Construction, Main Components and their Function

The main part and very important part in the nuclear plant is ‘Reactor’ – which can be called as
‘Heart of the plant’.

 Main Components of Nuclear Reactor

(1) Reactor vessel
(2) Fuel
(3) Moderator
(4) Control rods
(5) Reflectors
(6) Coolants
(7) Shielding

Fig. 1.5.4 : Nuclear Reactor

 Functions of Components in Nuclear Reactor

(1) Reactor vessel
 This vessel is made from the strong metal like low carbon steel. To avoid corrosion it is clad with
stainless steel.
 The structure is very strong.
(2) Fuel rods
 These rods may be of variety in shapes like rods, pallets, rods plates etc.
 The fuel used by nuclear reactors may be of the materials –
235 233 239
U ; U ; Pu
92 92 94
235
 Generally U is being used it is stable and sustaining chain reactions.
92

 These fuel rods are placed inside the reactor core. Placing of these rods is such that uniform is produced
in the reactor.
 To prevent oxidation of fuel-uranium the rods are clad with Aluminium or stainless steel or Zirconium.
(3) Moderator
 Nuclear power plants can work continuously for 24 hrs. of a day as fuel is available. Generally these
plants are big capacity plants and can supply power so can function as base load plant.
 Peak load plants are commenced in peak demand periods and can be started quickly and shut down
within short period. So diesel power plant can function well as peak load plant.
 Nuclear power plant cannot be started or shut off frequently. So can’t be used as peak load plant.
 Moderator substance is lighter than fuel.

 Different materials used for moderators

 Graphite and beryllium, D2O i.e. deuterium or heavy water, or light water i.e. H2O.
 In this group of material D2O is the best. This can also be used as coolant [But it is expensive, having
low boiling point]
 Moderator substances help in reducing the speed of neutrons to make them too loose their kinetic
energy by collision. Secondly they do not absorb them but scatters them.
 Reduced velocity of neutrons helps fission chain reaction.
(4) Control rods
 Control rods are made from material ‘Boron’ or ‘Cadmium’
 They surround the fuel. In the reactor, the chain reaction is to be initiated and maintained at a steady
rate during reactor operation and also under emergency the reactor should be stopped.
 Chain reaction is controlled by these control rods by absorbing free neutrons as the chain reaction
progresses.
(5) Reflectors
 Reflectors surround the reactor core
 Reflectors help to bounce the escaping neutrons back into core.
 Thus this helps in conserving the fuel.
 The material used for reflector is graphite and beryllium as these materials has good absorbability. This
material is same as used for moderators.
(6) Coolants
Various coolants are –
(i) CO2 (ii) H2 (iii) air (iv) He (v) Heavy water (vi) liquid
sodium etc.
 The coolant absorbs the huge amount of heat generated in the reactor core and transfers the heat energy
to the heat exchanger for the purpose of heating water to produce steam which is sent to turbine for
rotation.
 Coolants used must have
(i) High specific heat to reduce its mass flow rate (ii) Should not absorb
neutrons
(iii) Should be non-corrosive (iv) Should be non-toxic
(v) Should be non-oxidising (vi) Should be of high chemical
stability
(7) Shielding
 Constructed from concrete.
 It consists of inner-lining of steel (thickness ≃ 60 cm) plates on the reactor core called as Thermal
shielding.
 Surrounding the inner shield there is few meters concrete wall. This is called as Biological shield.
 In nuclear fission and chain reaction radiations are produced of , ,  rays which are very harmful for
living creatures. Protection against this is provided by the shielding.

 1.5.8 Types of
Reactors
 Fig. 1.5.5 : Types of Reactors

Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)

Fig. 1.5.6 : Pressurized water reactor

The reactor is explained with its connection to the plant and shown the parts - Reactor core/shielding,
pressure equalizer, heat exchanger, circulating pump and feed pump, turbine, alternator, condenser etc.
235
 Fuel used U i.e. enriched uranium. For moderator and coolant water under pressure is used.
92

 As the water is circulated very fast it does not boil.

 Pressure equalizer maintains the desired pressure on the water.
 Due to chain reaction, heat is generated which is absorbed by the water and heat is transferred to the
heat exchanger steam is generated.
 Steam passes to turbine and turbine produces mechanical energy and acts as prime mover of alternator
and by alternator mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
 After expansion in the turbine the steam is passed from condenser and steam passes back to heat
exchanger.
 As water (i.e. coolant) actually passes through core of reactor it becomes radioactive and hence heat-
exchanger is also shielded.

 Advantages
1. Reactor has high power density.
2. Reactor is small size and very compact in shape.
3. Water is used both as coolant and moderator which is cheap and easily available.
4. Small number of control rods are required.
5. Fission products remain contained in the reactor.
6. It responds to supply more power when the load increases.

 Disadvantages
1. There is a heat-lost due to exchanger.
2. To prevent corrosion cladding material is used which is very costly.
3. It requires more elaborate safety devices.
4. As there is a high pressure a strong pressure vessel is required.
5. Capital cost is high due to high pressure.
6 Efficiency of the plant is lesser as only saturated steam can be generated in secondary circuit.
7. The fuel suffers from radiations and therefore its reprocessing is difficult.
8. For charging of fuel the plant is to be shut down.
(ii) Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Normal connections of turbine,
Alternator, condenser, pumps are shown
connected to the reactor as shown in the Fig.
1.5.7.
 Fuel used - Enriched Uranium.
 For coolant and moderator - Water is used.
 Heat exchanger is not needed in this type
of reactor as the water is directly converted
into saturated steam at 285C at the
pressure 70 Bars. Fig. 1.5.7 : Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR)
 We can, therefore, call this as a direct cycle boiling water reactor.
 In the fission process, energy is released in the reactor core. So the feed water circulated in the reactor
is converted into saturated steam.
 The high pressure steam so produced is fed to the steam turbine to do the mechanical work. Turbine
drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 After expansion and doing the useful work in the turbine the steam comes out and directed into the
condenser.
 The condensate is pumped by feed pump to enter into reactor.
 The cycles are continued.
 In Maharashtra such type of BWR nuclear power plant is working at ‘Tarapur’.

 Advantages
1. The system of power generation is very simple as heat exchanger, pressurizer, circulating pump,
piping is not needed as used in PWR plant.
2. Cheaper and efficient plant.
3. Cost of plant is reduced as it is low pressure reactor very compact, reactor vessel is much lighter.
4. The metal surface temperature is much less as compared with PWR type.
5. Stability of this reactor is much more than PWR type.

 Disadvantages
1. Sudden changes in the load disturb its performance.
2. More radioactive radiations hence requires extensive safety devices which are costly.
3. Possibility of contamination of steam turbine due to radioactive effects.
  1.3 Introduction of Gas Turbine Power
Plant

 Gas turbine is similar in action as steam turbine used in thermal power station.
 Gas turbine plant is also in many respects similar as thermal power plant. Instead of steam a hot gas is
used.
 In steam power plant the working medium is steam formed from water heated by burning the coal.
 In gas plant the working medium is either a mixture of combustion products and air or heated air at a
certain pressure and higher initial temperature.

 1.3.1 Selection of Site for Gas Power

Plant

Following factors are taken into account for deciding the site for the plant.
1. Availability of fuels : It should be easily available at reasonable price.
2. Transportation : Transportation facilities should be easily available by road, railways.
3. In order to reduce transmission and distribution of electricity the station should be planned at the load
centre.
4. To locate at load centre, the land required should be easily available at low cost. This reduces capital
cost and reduces energy cost.
5. The location of plant shall be away from the populated area because the operation of plant is noisy
and disturbs the day to day activities of the people.
6. The plant requires strong foundation. So the quality of land / soil shall withstand the vibrations of
working plant due to compressors and turbine operations.

 1.3.2 Fuels used in Gas Turbine Power

Plant

 Precaution is taken not to damage the gas turbine blades by the use of fuels.
 So products of combustion shall contain a minimum of matter which way get deposited on turbine-
blades.
 Fuels may be in the form of solid, liquid or gas.
 Due to coal handling and ash disposal problems, generally coal is not the suitable solid fuel to be used
in Gas-turbine plant.
 The other alternative is to use liquid fuels.
 These liquid fuels are :
 (i) Petroleum oil (ii) Kerosene (iii) Gas oil (iv) Diesel
oil (v) Residual oil
These are most suited liquid fuels to be used in gas turbine plants.
 But the limitation is due to their high cost.
 So their use is limited.
 So mostly used fuels are natural gas (Methane) having higher calorific value.
 Petroleum fuels are also used now-a-days.
 The composition of natural gas is :
80% - Methane
20% - Small fractions of other gases.
 Natural gas is very easy to burn and it mixes with air very easily. It can be easily transported by pipe
lines.
 But it is difficult to be stored in large quantity. Natural gas is clean and eco-friendly fuel. Natural gas
has very low content of sulphur.

 1.3.3 Types of Gas Power

Plant

There are two types of gas power plant -

1. Open cycle gas turbine plant 2. Closed cycle gas turbine plant.

 1.3.4 Layout and Working of Gas Turbine

Power Plant

 Layout of gas turbine plant

 Main components such as compressor, gas turbine, alternator motor, combustion chamber, air filter are
connected as shown in Fig. 1.3.1.

Fig. 1.3.1 : Gas Turbine Power plant

 Turbine : It is reaction type non-condensing turbine.

 Compressor : It sucks the air through filter from atmosphere then compresses the air and pressure
increased. It has rotary blades and stationary blades. Compressor is driven by the turbine as it is
connected to the shaft of turbine. Compressor is rotary type.
 Combustion chamber : It consists of a vessel. In the vessel, air at high pressure comes inform
compressor unit. Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber and burnt in it.
 Alternator : It is a 3-phase synchronous generator having exciter and two ends of its shaft is coupled
to gas turbine one side and starting motor on the other side. Motor is also connected to alternator for
initial start of compressor.

 Working of simple gas turbine plant

 Motor is started which rotates compressor (before starting turbine). Once the system starts the further
running is by turbine. So motor is disconnected.
 Air is sucked from the atmosphere through filter by the compressor. Filter filters dirt dust from air.
 The rotary blades of compressor push the air between the stationary blades to raise its pressure to 4 to
5 atmosphere.
 This air at high pressure is available at the output of compressor.
 Combustion takes place in the combustion chamber by fuel burnt due high pressure stream of air
supplied by compressor.
 Part of the air is delivered ahead of burning fuel for cooling the not combustion products from 1650
to 800 which do not damage turbine blades in first rows.
 High pressure, high temperature gases pass through the turbine, they expand and turbine starts rotating.
 Pressure and temperature of gas decreases and gas is exhausted from turbine to atmosphere.
 Alternator coupled to turbine, starts rotating and converts mechanical (rotational energy into electrical
energy). Voltage of electricity is increased by step-up transformer.
 Through protective circuit breakers, isolator as shown in the Fig. 1.3.1 the electric circuit is completed
and electrical energy is fed to transmission line / bus-bars and sent for use through transmission and
distribution lines.
 One point is to be noted here that complete mechanical power developed by the turbine is not fully sent
to alternator rotation but some major power is used to drive the compressor.
 As portion of mechanical energy is sent for compressor the output is lesser and efficiency of the plant
is much less as compared with steam or water turbine plants.
 As noted, the gas turbine has to drive (1) Alternator and also (2) Compressor. In such arrangement it
is difficult to keep the speed (synchronous speed) constant for the alternator as the speed is adjusted
for the compressor according to output required. To overcome this difficulty two turbines are used.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.3.1.

 1.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Open Cycle Gas

Turbine

 Advantages
(i) Very simple design. (ii) Small size (iii) Less space required, so cost is less
(iv) Light in weight (v) No need of warm up time. (vi) No cooling water required
(vii) Self contained (viii) Combustion chamber can be designed to use any type of fuel even
solid fuel.

 Disadvantages
(i) Higher air rate in combustion to other prime movers.
(ii) Due to dirt, dust deposition on compressor blades efficiency reduces.
(iii) Deposition of carbon, other foreign depositor on turbines, combustion chamber and regenerator
affects performance.
(iv) Erosion and corrosion of turbine blades is more so maintenance.

 1.3.6 Layout Diagram of Gas Turbine Power

Plant

Following components are incorporated to improve thermal efficiency of the plant.

1. Regenerator 2. Inter cooler 3. Re-heater
Fig. 1.3.2 shows the layout diagram of gas turbine power plant using different components connected
in the system for improving performance of the plant.

Fig. 1.3.2 : Open cycle power plant with regenerator, intercooler and re-heater

 Components
LP comp - L. P. Compressor Hp comp - H. P. Compressor RG - Regenerator
comb - Combustion IC - Inter cooler HPT - H. P. Turbine
chamber
LPT - L. P. Turbine RH - Re-heater AL - Alternator
M - Motor Tr - Transformer CB - Circuit breaker
BB - Bus bars C - Couplings
(A) Regenerator
 This component is used in the system to improve the efficiency of the plant.
 It consists of shell and tubes.
 It uses heat of exhaust gases from LP turbine.
 It uses heat of exhaust gases from LP turbine. Exhaust gases flow inside the nest of tubes and air flows
outside the tubes in the shell in the counter flow and heated up by exhaust gases heat.
 Thus compressed air form compressor is heated before it is sent to combustion chamber.
 Due to this heating by exhaust gases the advantages are :
1. Reduces fuel consumption 2. Improves cycle thermal efficiency
 Heat transfer from regenerator is improved by :
(i) Increasing surface area but initial cost is increased
(ii) Increasing the flow of turbulence but it increases pressure drop.
 So the designer has to find best compromise.
(B) Intercooler
 Inter cooling means removal of heat from compressed air between the stages of compression.
 For this, two compressors are needed :
(1) Low pressure compressor (2) High pressure compressors. So we get
two stages of compression.
 Inter cooler cools the partly compressed air in order to reduce volume and increases density.
 Intercooler is thus a ‘Heat Exchanger’.
 Inter cooler therefore
(i) Improves thermal efficiency. (ii) Improves air rate. (iii)
Improve work ratio.
 Due to use of inter cooler the size of turbine and size of compressor is reduced which reduces cost,
space etc.
(C) Reheater
 Reheater in between the two turbines i.e. between H.P. turbine and L.P. turbine.
 Combustion gases (High pressure) come in turbine and expand there. Here two turbines are used HP
and LP.
 The exhaust gases from HP turbine come out and go to reheater.
 Gases reheated and enter into LP turbine and expand in it doing mechanical work of turning turbine
shafts.
 Reheating improves the output from the turbines due to multiple heating.
 Cost increases due to the additional fuel heat exchanger are therefore also employed.
 By these additional components namely :
(i) Regenerator (ii) Intercooler (iii) Re-heater the over
efficiency of plant increases by about 30%.

 1.3.7 Applications of Gas

Turbine Plant

1. It is used in peak loads in steam and hydropower plants.

2. It is used as stationary standby power plants.
3. It is a starting plant for driving auxiliaries in other plants.
4. It acts as a base load power plant where fuel oil or natural gas is available at cheap rate and easily
available and where there is less water available in the area.
5. It can be used in parallel with tidal power plants.
 Diesel Electric Power (Plant) Station

 1.4 Introduction of Diesel Electric Power Plant

 As the name suggests, the input side is a fuel i.e. diesel oil burnt in the diesel engine producing high
pressure gas to drive the engine and engine drives the generator producing electrical power.
 The diesel engines may be two stroke or four stroke engine.

 1.4.1 Block Diagram of Diesel Electric Power Station

 Main Components of Diesel Power Plant

1. Diesel engine (as prime-mover). 2. Engine air-intake system.
3. Engine fuel system. 4. Engine exhaust system.
5. Engine cooling system. 6. Engine lubricating oil system.
7. Engine starting system. 8. Mechanical to electric power converter generator (alternator).

Fig. 1.4.1 : Block diagram of diesel electrical power plant

 Working of Diesel Electric Power Station (Function of main components)
1. Diesel engine
 This is the main component of the power plant which develops power. The diesel engines employed
for diesel electric power plants may be four or two stroke engines.
 In 4-stroke engine the complete cycle of operations are performed in four strokes namely, suction,
compression, expansion, and exhaust strokes and two revolutions of the engine.
 In the case of a two-stroke diesel engine all the four operations are completed within two stroke of the
piston or during one revolution of the crank shaft - the power and exhaust operations are completed
during the travel of the piston in backward direction (i.e. toward crank end of the cylinder) while intake
and compression operations are completed during the forward travel of the piston.
 A two-stroke engine is rugged and compact in construction, simple in mechanical design, easily
reversible, cheaper in cost and develops more power for the same speed and piston displacement
because of elimination of two idle strokes.
 Flywheel required is also smaller one because of development of more uniform torque.
 However, a four-stroke engine has lower specific fuel consumption and more effective lubrication,
more flexibility, less noisy exhaust, simple and better cooling, better scavenging and higher efficiency
than a two-stroke engine.
2. Engine air intake including air filters, ducts and supercharger (Integral) with the engine
 Air intake system is provided to supply necessary air to engine for fuel combustion. Air requirements
of large diesel electric power plants are considerable (about 4-8 m3 per kWh).
 The air filters are provided to remove dust and other suspended impurities from the air to be supplied
to the engine.
 The supercharger is usually employed to increase the pressure of intake air above atmospheric one in
order to develop an increased power output.
 The air is drawn from outside the engine room and delivered to the inlet manifold through ducts or
pipes and filters. In cold season, the intake air is heated by the heat for exhaust gases, before injection.
 The filters are to be cleaned periodically. Superchargers are usually in between the engine and the
intake since the noise may be transmitted back to the outside air via the air intake system.
 There should minimum pressure loss in the air intake system, otherwise specific fuel consumption will
increase and the engine capacity will be reduced.
3. Engine fuel system including fuel storage tanks, fuel transfer pumps, strainers, heaters
and connecting pipe work
 Fuel transfer pumps are required to transfer fuel from delivery point to storage tank and from storage
tanks to daily consumption tanks and then to engine.
 Strainers are provided to remove suspended impurities and thus ensure clean fuel supply to the engine.
 Heaters are required to heat the oil specially during winter season. The fuel oil is supplied at the plant
site by rail or road. The fuel oil is stored in bulk storage tanks which are usually situated outdoor for
safety.
 The fuel oil is transferred from these tanks to the small storage tanks called day tanks daily or at suitable
intervals by means of transfer pumps through filters.
 From the day tank the fuel oil is passed through the strainers and fired into the engine through fuel
filter and fuel injection pump.
 The capacity of the daily consumption tank should be at least the 8 hour requirement of the plant.
4. Engine exhaust system including silencers and connecting ducts
 This system is provided to discharge the engine exhaust to the atmosphere outside the building.
 The exhaust manifold connects the engine cylinder exhaust to the exhaust pipe provided with a muffler
to reduce pressure in exhaust line and eliminate most of the noise which may result if the waste gases
were discharged directly into the atmosphere.
 As the temperature of the exhaust gases is sufficiently high, therefore, the heat of these gases is utilized
in heating oil or air supplied to the engine.
 In case of diesel electric generating units installed in steam power plants exhaust system also includes
water heaters and steam boilers in order to utilize the heat of waste gases.
5. Engine cooling system
 It is known that the heat generated by the burning of fuel in the engine cylinder is partially converted
into useful work.
 The remainder is wasted as heat in the outgoing exhaust gases and in heating the engine, and if not
removed may disintegrate the lubricating oil film on the cylinder walls and damage the cylinder liners,
heads, walls, piston and rings.
 Small engines may be air-cooled but large engines mostly make use of forced water cooling. In the
forced water cooling cold water is sent through the cylinder jacket with the help of a pump. The hot
water is cooled in spray pond and is re-circulated.
 The water used for cooling engine cylinder is softened by water treatment or water filtration plant in
order to avoid formation of scales etc. in it.
 This requires a control of the flow of cooling water according to the load on the engine.
6. Engine lubricating oil system
 This system is of great importance and is provided for lubrication the moving parts, removing the heat
from the cylinders and the bearings, helping the piston rings to seal the gases in the cylinders and for
carrying away the solid dirt particles from the rubbing parts.
 The life of the engine and its efficiency depend largely on its lubrication system. The parts of the engine
requiring lubrication are piston and cylinders, gears, crankshaft and connecting rod, bearings etc.
 Piston and cylinder require special lubricating oil. The forced feed lubrication is mostly employed.
 In this system of lubrication the lubrication oil is drawn from the sump by means of a pump and is
passed through a strainer and then through a filter in order to remove impurities.
 Usually the lubricating oil is hot when drawn from a sump, if it is not, it should be heated, first before
passing through the filters, in order to decrease its viscosity and make the filtration easy.
 The lubrication oil costs of a diesel power plant are about 30 % of the fuel costs.
7. Engine Starting including Battery, Starter, Compressed Air supply etc.
 This system is provided to rotate the engine initially while starting until the firing starts and the unit
runs under its own power small sets are usually started manually by handles but for sets of large
capacity, say above 75 kW, the compressed air system is mostly employed for starting diesel engines.
 Battery driven motors can also the used for starting the diesel engine sets. In compressed air system of
starting the compressed air from a tank, at high pressure (say 20 atmospheric pressure) is admitted to
a few of the engine cylinders making them to act as reciprocating air motors to turn the engine shaft.
 The fuel is admitted to the remaining cylinders which causes the engine to start under its own power.
A motor driven compressor is employed for supply of air to be compressed air tank.

S = Solenoid, SS = Starting switch

B = Battery, M = Motor (for starting)
E = Earthing, HC = Holding coil
P = Pull in coil,
SMP = Starting Motor Pinion Shaft

Fig. 1.4.2 : Diesel engine starting system (Electrical)

 Battery supplied electric power to the motor through starting switch. Motor is large current, low voltage
series motor.
 This motor is linked with engine flywheel through gears and rotates the engine to start it. Once the
engine is started it is disconnected automatically in engine running condition.
 A solenoid helps positive engagement of starting motor pinion with flywheel until the engine is started.
Diesel Engine Generator (Alternator)
 The alternators used in diesel electric power plants are of rotating field, salient pole construction, speed
ranging from 214 to 1,000 rpm (pole 28 to 6) and capacity ranges from 25 to 5,000 kVA at 0.8 pF
lagging.
 Their output voltages are 440 V in case of small machines and as high as 2200 V in case of large
machines. Voltage regulation is about 30%.
 They are directly coupled to the diesel engines. They are provided with automatic voltage regulators
to allow close voltage regulators to allow close voltage regulation and satisfactory parallel operation.
 The excitation is usually provided at 115 or 230V from a dc exciter of rating about 2-4 % of the
alternator rating, usually coupled to the engine shaft either directly or through a belt.

 1.4.2 Factors Considered for Selection of Site for the Diesel Power Plant

Following are the important factors of selection of site

 1. Availability of fuel
The fuel required for the diesel engine “i.e. Diesel
oil” should be available at the cheaper rate at any
time.
 2. Distance from the load centre
The major problem is the cost of transmission line.
So the plant be located never the load centre so that
transmission line cost is less so also the losses in the
line (which depends on length of line) are lesser to
get more efficiency of line.
 3. Availability of Land
 Capital cost is important which should be as
minimum as possible so that energy cost/unit is
lesser so land must be available at cheaper cost and
sufficient for future expansion.
4. Quality of land
In the running conditions vibrations are produced. The land shall be able to with stand such vibrations.
 5. Away from populated area

The plant under running condition produces unbearable noise and also exhaust gases are harmful. So
the site should be away from the thickly populated area.
 6. Availability of water in sufficient quantity
For cooling purpose sufficient amount is required. So water availability is equally important.
 7. Transportation facility
Transportation facility such as roads, rail line transporting vehicles be available.

 Applications of Diesel Power Plant

The size limitations are not with-standing, the

escalating oil costs have made the operation of diesel
electric power plants very uneconomical. In view of
this, such plants play a very minor role in electric power
generation. Their principle fields of use are given below
:
 (1) Central power stations
 Diesel power plants are installed where supply of
coal and water is not available in sufficient quantity
or where power is to be generated in small quantity.
 Power stations of these types in common use are of capacities up to 10 MW.
 The limit will be decided by the economics of the cost of the plant and the local conditions such as fuel
costs, availability of water supply etc.
 (2) Standby power stations
 Diesel power plants may be used as standby plants where continuity of power supply is essential such
as in hospitals, telephone exchanges, radio stations, cinemas etc.
 (3) Peak load plants
 Diesel power plant can be employed to supply the peak load on the power system while the base load
is supplied by a nuclear or hydro power plant.
 The base load factor will thus be improved and cost of electrical energy per unit will be reduced. Diesel
power plant is particularly suitable for supplying a load of small load factor.
 Its characteristics of quick starting and absence of standby losses make such plants very suitable for
 supplying peak loads.
 (4) Emergency plants
 A small diesel power plant may be installed in a large power station to supply essential auxiliaries in
case of failure of main supply.
 Arrangements can be made to start the diesel plant automatically.
 (5) Private power plant for small industries
 Diesel electric power plants can be employed as private industrial plants for supply of electric power
especially if the capacity requirements are within the limits, set by the size of the diesel units available.
 The diesel power plants have certain advantages over the steam power plant.

 1.4.6 Advantages (Merits) and Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plant

 Advantages
1. Construction - very simple design, easy installation. 2. Space requirement is very less for fuel oil
storage.
3. No ash handling problems. 4. Requires less time for commissioning.
5. Location can be at any place. 6. Plant has minimum accessories.
7. Without any troubles plant quickly responds to varying loads. 8. Cooling water required
is less.
9. Capital cost is lesser in comparison with thermal plant. 10. Efficiency is higher.
11. Less fire hazard problems. 12. Labour, supporting staff, operating staff required is less.
 Disadvantages
1. Life - very short only 10 to 15 years.
2. Noise produced in operation is troublesome to near residing population.
3. Continuous overload supply is not possible. 4. Operating cost is higher due to costly oil.
5. Maintenance is periodically required. 6. Lubrication cost is higher.
7. Large scale plants not possible.

 Constructional details of Oil Engine

 To understand the working of diesel engine, we should know the main parts of diesel engine and the
functions of each part.
 Fig. 1.4.6represents the main working components of a compression ignition, four-stroke cycle diesel
engine.
 The main parts are :
(a) Cylinder. (b) Cylinder head. (c) Piston and piston
rings.
(d) Connecting rod. (e) Crank shaft and crank webs. (f) Main bearing.
(g) Crank pin and bearing. (h) Nozzle. (i) Piston pin and
bearing.
 (j) Exhaust valve. (k) Cam shaft. (l) Valve springs.
(m) Cylinder block or crank-case. (n) Fly wheel. (o) Bed plate.
(p) Cooling water jackets.

 We will discuss about the function of each part in brief.

(a) Cylinder : Cylinder is the main part of engine, fuel is burnt in it and develops
the power. Inside of the cylinder is formed by a liner or sleeve. The inner
diameter of cylinder is termed as bore and is used for movement of piston with
rings.
(b) Cylinder head : It closes one end of the cylinder and usually contains the valves
which admit the air and fuel and discharge the exhaust gases.
(c) Piston and piston rings : Piston closes the other end of the working space of
the cylinder. It transmits the power developed by burning of fuel to the crank
shaft. In this process, the distance travelled by it from one end of cylinder to the
other is termed as stroke. The piston rings lubricated with engine oil produce
gas-tight seal between the piston and the cylinder liner.
(d) Connecting rod : The function of the connecting rod is to change and transmit
the reciprocating motion of the piston to the continuously rotating crank pin
during the working stroke and vice-versa during other strokes. The small end of
it is attached to the wrist pin located in the piston and the other end i.e. big end
has a bearing for the crank pin.
(e) Crank shaft : It transmits the power from piston to the driven shaft. The parts
of the crank shaft supported by and rotating in the main bearing are called as
journals. It runs under the action of the piston through the connecting rod and
crank pin located between crank webs or checks.
(f) Main bearing : The main bearings support the crank shaft and the crank shaft
is turning in these main bearings.
(g) Crank pin and bearing : This is a bearing between the big end of the
connecting rod and crank pin.
(h) Nozzle : The fuel injection system consists of a fuel pump, fuel line and the fuel
injector. Fuel is delivered into the combustion space of the cylinder by an
injection system. The injector also called as fuel injection nozzle or spray nozzle
delivers fuel in the form of fine spray under pressure through small hole.
(i) Piston pin and bearing : Piston pin and bearing connects the piston with
connecting rod, to make it possible to move the piston in the cylinder.
(j) Exhaust valve : The products of combustion after doing work on the piston are
removed from cylinder via this valve.
 (k) Cam shaft : It is driven from the crank shaft by a timing gear on a chain. It
operates the intake valve and the exhaust valve through the cam, cam followers,
push rods and rocker arms.
l) Valve springs : Valve springs serve to close the valve.

Fig. 1.4.6 : Major components of a diesel engine

(m) Cylinder block or crank case : The crank case holds together the cylinder,
piston and crank shaft. It is also called as cylinder block if the cylinder liners
are inserted into it.
(n) Fly wheels : Fly wheels are used to take care of fluctuations of the cyclic
variations in the speed. It stores energy during the power stroke and releases it
during other strokes, giving nearly constant output torque.
(o) Bed plate : The lower portion of the crank case which is bolted to the foundation
is called the bed plate.
(p) Cooling water jackets : The cooling water enters the jackets in the cylinder
head which is comparatively hot and passes on to the jackets for the cylinder.
Its purpose is to keep the combustion space walls cool.

 1.4.9 Working of Four Stroke Oil Engine

Oil engine performs the various sequential moments to do the work and movements of pistons, cranks
etc. inside the cylinder.
 1st stroke – This stroke is called as suction stroke. In this stroke inlet valve is open and descends and
draws in the air and cylinder is filled with air.
 2nd stroke – This stroke is called as compression stroke. In this movement all valves are closed. Rising
piston compresses the air. Injection of fuel starts near the end of compression.
 3rd stroke – This stroke is called as expansion stroke or power stroke. In this movement all the valves
are closed. The ignited mixture of air and fuel expands and force the piston downwards.
 4th stroke – This stroke is called as exhaust stroke. In this movement only exhaust valve opens. The
rising piston forces the burnt gases out of the cylinder.
 Diesel power plant uses liquid oil fuel.

 More about oil fuel

 Oil fuels are easily handled, stored, transported.
 No problems of ash disposal.
 Crude oil products can be either distillates or residual oils or mixture of the two.
 The light petroleum products are liquefied petroleum gas, naphtha and motor spirit.
 The middle distillates are kerosene, “high speed diesel” and aviation turbine fuel.
 Diesel engines can operate on diesel oil or other fuels.
 It should have higher calorific value.
 It is cleaner than fuel oil.