UNIT-II
🠶 Design Process:
🠶 Understanding how people interact with
computers, Human characteristics in Design,
Human Considerations , Human Interaction
speeds
2.1 Understanding how people interact with
computers
🠶 The Human Action Cycle is a model that describes how people interact
with computer systems to achieve their goals. It was first introduced by
Norman in 1988 and later adapted by Stone and others in 2005.
🠶 Goal Formation(what you want to achieve.)
🠶 Execution(how to achieve your goal )
Plan General Methods
Plan Action Sequence
Perform Actions
🠶 Evaluation(check if what you did achieved your goal.)
🠶 Perceive Output: See what happens as a result of your actions.
🠶 Interpret Outcome: Compare what happened to what you expected
🠶 Compare with Goal: Decide if you reached your goal.
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Historical Context
• Old Design Practices: In the past, computer systems were designed
mostly by programmers and system designers who knew a lot about
technology but not much about how people use computers.
• Recent Changes: Nowadays, with the rise of the Internet and
graphical interfaces, graphic artists have joined design teams. However,
like their predecessors, they often lack training in making systems easy
to use.
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Factors Making Systems Hard to Use
1.Too Much Flexibility
Designers add too many functions because they don’t fully
understand what users need.
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Factors Making Systems Hard to Use
2.Use of Jargon
• Systems use unfamiliar or technical language
(like "filespec" or "boot").
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Factors Making Systems Hard to Use
3.Non-obvious Design
• Complex designs are not intuitive and require
mastery. Sometimes, actions have preconditions
or delayed outcomes that are not clear.
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Factors Making Systems Hard to Use
4.Fine Distinctions
• Small differences in actions can lead to different
outcomes, or the same action can have
different effects.
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Factors Making Systems Hard to Use
4.Fine Distinctions
• Small differences in actions can lead to different
outcomes, or the same action can have
different effects.
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Factors Making Systems Hard to Use
5.Disparity in Problem-solving Strategies
• People learn by doing and often use trial and
error to solve problems.
Why People Have Trouble with Computers
🠶 Factors Making Systems Hard to Use
6.Inconsistency
• Inconsistent use of terms and actions. For
example, "save" might be called "keep" on
different screens.
Responses to Poor Design
🠶 Psychological Responses
1. Confusion
1. Cause: Overwhelming detail, unclear patterns
2. Effect: Difficult to understand system structure
2. Annoyance(Irritation)
1. Cause: Task roadblocks(Unnecessary steps to perform a simple action)
slow reactions, inconsistent design, outdated information.
2. Effect: Task completion delays, user irritation
Responses to Poor Design
🠶 Frustration
• Cause: Too many annoyances, inability to convey intentions or finish
tasks, inflexible systems
• Effect: Increased frustration, especially with irreversible or unclear
responses
🠶 Panic/Stress
• Cause: Overly complex systems, long delays, high-pressure situations
• Effect: User stress, panic, especially under deadlines or customer
pressure
🠶 Boredom
• Cause: Underuse of cognitive abilities, slow pacing, simplistic tasks
• Effect: Apathy, increased error rates
Responses to Poor Design
Physical Responses to Poor Design
🠶 Abandonment of the System
• What? Users stop using it.
• Why? They find other ways to get their work done.
• Example: A manager choosing to use paper records instead of a
confusing software.
🠶 Partial Use of the System
• What? Users only use the easiest or most beneficial parts.
• Why? Complex features are avoided.
• Example: Using a word processor only for typing, not for
advanced formatting.
Responses to Poor Design
Physical Responses to Poor Design
🠶 Indirect use of the System
• What? Users ask someone else to use the system for them.
• Why? They prefer not to deal with it themselves.
• Example: Asking an assistant to enter data into a
complicated system.
🠶 Modification of the Task
• What? Users modify what they need to do to fit the system.
• Why? The system can't handle the original task.
• Example: Simplifying a report because the software can't
handle complex calculations.
Responses to Poor Design
Physical Responses to Poor Design
🠶 Compensatory Activity
What? Users do extra work to make up for system issues.
Why? To get things done properly.
Example: Manually adjusting data before entering it into a
system.
Misuse of the System
🠶 What? Users find shortcuts that aren't intended by the
system.
🠶 Why? To make things easier or faster.
🠶 Example: Using unofficial methods to speed up a slow
process.
Responses to Poor Design
Physical Responses to Poor Design
🠶 Direct Programming
What? Users change the system's code to suit their
needs.
Why? To make the system work better for them.
Example: A tech-savvy user creating custom scripts to
automate tasks.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Characteristics Influencing Interface Design
1. Perception: How users interpret sensory information from the interface.
2. Memory: The ability to remember and recall information when using the
interface.
3. Visual Acuity: The clarity of vision affecting how users see details on the screen.
4. Foveal Vision: The central vision used for focusing on details.
5. Peripheral Vision: The side vision that detects surroundings and movement.
6. Sensory Storage: The short-term holding of sensory information.
7. Information Processing: How users understand and act on information.
8. Learning: The process of gaining knowledge or skills over time.
9. Skill: The proficiency with which users can perform tasks.
10. Individual Differences: The unique attributes and preferences of each user.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Characteristics Influencing Interface Design
1. Perception: Awareness and understanding of our environment through our senses (sight,
sound, etc.)
Perceptual Characteristics
🠶 Proximity
• Importance: Group related items together.
• Example: Place buttons for similar actions near each other to indicate they are
related.
🠶 Similarity
• Importance: Use similar visual properties (color, shape) for similar functions.
• Example: All "submit" buttons across different pages should look alike.
🠶 Matching Patterns
• Importance: Ensure users can recognize patterns in different contexts.
• Example: Icons for 'save' should be recognizable whether large or small.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
Perceptual Characteristics
🠶 Succinctness
• Importance: Design simple and memorable shapes.
• Example: Use clear, simple icons for common actions.
🠶 Closure
• Importance: Help users see complete objects even if parts are missing.
• Example: Ensure incomplete shapes still suggest the full shape (like a
loading circle).
🠶 Unity
• Importance: Create a sense of cohesion with closed shapes.
• Example: Group elements within a well-defined boundary or box.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
Perceptual Characteristics
🠶 Continuity
• Importance: Design interfaces that guide the user’s eye naturally.
• Example: Use lines and arrows to lead users from one step to the next in a
process.
🠶 Balance
• Importance: Create a visually pleasing and stable design.
• Example: Use symmetry and consistent alignment.
🠶 Three-dimensional Projection
• Importance: Give a sense of depth when needed.
• Example: Use shadows to make buttons look pressable.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
Perceptual Characteristics
🠶 Top-down Lighting Bias
• Importance: Make designs look natural by simulating light from above.
• Example: Use shading to enhance 3D effects.
🠶 Expectancies
• Importance: Meet user expectations to avoid confusion.
• Example: Ensure commonly used elements (like navigation bars) are in expected
locations.
🠶 Context
• Importance: Design elements considering their surroundings.
• Example: Ensure text contrasts well with the background for readability.
🠶 Signals vs. Noise
• Importance: Highlight important information, minimize distractions.
• Example: Use bold or color to emphasize key actions, keep the background simple.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Memory in UI Design
🠶 Memory Types:
1. Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)
1. Definition: Holds a small amount of information for a short time (5-30 seconds).
2. Capacity: Can hold about 3-4 items at once.
3. Example: Remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it.
2. Long-Term Memory
1. Definition: Stores information permanently.
2. Capacity: Unlimited.
3. Example: Remembering how to ride a bike or your home address.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Design Strategies to Aid Memory:
1. Organized and Structured Information
1. Explanation: Present information in a clear, logical manner.
2. Example: Group related options together in a menu.
2. User Control
1. Explanation: Let users control the pace of information.
2. Example: Allow users to pause or skip through tutorials.
3. Close Proximity
1. Explanation: Keep related information close together.
2. Example: Place form labels next to their input fields.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Design Strategies to Aid Memory:
4.Important Items First or Last
• Explanation: Place crucial information at the beginning or end of lists.
• Example: Highlight key instructions at the top or bottom of a webpage.
5.Comparison in Close Proximity
• Explanation: Place items that need to be compared close together.
• Example: Show side-by-side comparisons of product features.
6.Avoid Multitasking
• Explanation: Don't require users to remember information while doing another task.
• Example: Avoid asking users to read instructions and perform actions simultaneously.
7.Highlight Key Elements
• Explanation: Make important items stand out.
• Example: Use bold text or color to emphasize crucial buttons.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
3.Sensory Storage
🠶 What is Sensory Storage?
• Definition: Sensory storage is like a temporary buffer where our
senses (sight, sound, etc.) process information automatically.
• Function: It constantly scans the environment for important
information and quickly detects changes.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
3.Sensory Storage
🠶 Why Designers Need to Consider Sensory Storage:
1. Automatic and Unconscious: Since sensory storage works
without conscious thought, users can easily get overwhelmed by
too much information or visual clutter.
2. Quick to Detect Changes: Interfaces should highlight changes or
important information quickly and clearly so users can notice them
easily.
3. Noise Overload: Excessive irrelevant information can make it
harder for users to focus on what’s important.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
3.Sensory Storage
🠶 Design Strategies for Sensory Storage:
• Minimize Clutter: Keep the interface simple and relevant.
• Example: Use only necessary buttons and links.
• Highlight Key Information: Make important details stand out.
• Example: Use bold text or contrasting colors for alerts.
• Reduce Unnecessary Elements: Avoid overloading users with
too many options or decorations.
• Example: Limit the number of animations or flashing elements.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Visual Acuity:
• Definition: Visual acuity is the eye's ability to see details
clearly. It means that objects become clearer as we focus
directly on them and blurrier as we look away.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Visual Acuity characteristics
🠶 Focus and Clarity (The closer an object is to the center
of our gaze (the fixation point), the clearer it appears. The
further away it is, the less distinct it becomes.)
• Optimum Area: The optimal area where we see best is
within a small circle around our focal point, about 5
degrees in diameter.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Visual Acuity characteristics
🠶 Implications for Design:Place the most important
information within this small circle to ensure it’s easily
readable
🠶 Sensitivity and Perception: Our eyes are most
sensitive to characters or objects closest to the focal point
and less so to those at the edges of this optimal circle.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Foveal Vision: This is the sharp, detailed vision we use to
focus directly on something. It's like the spotlight in our
vision, giving us a clear view of the details right in front of
us.
🠶 Peripheral Vision: This is the blurry, less detailed vision
that senses things around the edges of where we are
looking. It helps us detect motion and see general shapes
and patterns, but not fine details.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Peripheral vision can distract us from what we are
focusing on with our foveal vision, especially if there
is movement.
🠶 Use peripheral vision to guide users’ eyes through a
screen with patterns and alignments.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Individual Differences:
🠶 Everyone has different abilities, speeds, and ways of
interacting with technology. This diversity must be
considered when designing user interfaces.
🠶 Because of these differences, designing for a wide range of
users is complex.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Skill
The goal of human performance is to perform tasks skillfully,
which involves doing things in the right order and with the
right precision. Skillful performance is consistent and
efficient.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Performing actions in the correct order and with
enough accuracy.
🠶 Doing tasks in a reliable way without wasting effort.
🠶 Skills improve over time with practice and learning
shortcuts or more efficient methods.
🠶 Basic skills combine to form more complex skills.
🠶 User interfaces should help users develop and
improve their skills over time.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Information processing:
Our brains process information on two levels—
conscious (high level) and unconscious (low level).
Good design uses this understanding to make
interfaces that are easy to use and understand.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Information Processing
🠶 Two Levels of Processing:
• High-Level Processing: Conscious, slow,
sequential, used for reading and understanding.
Example: Reading a book.
• Low-Level Processing: Unconscious, fast, parallel,
used for familiar tasks. Example: Recognizing a stop
sign while driving.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
🠶 Both levels work together. The high level handles
complex reasoning, while the low level quickly
processes familiar information
🠶 With practice, tasks move from high-level
(conscious) to low-level (unconscious). Example:
Learning to type without looking at the keyboard.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
• Types of Interference:
• Stroop Interference: Conflict between aspects of a
stimulus. Example: The word "RED" printed in blue ink.
• Proactive Interference: Old memories interfere with
new learning. Example: Mixing up grammar rules when
learning a new language.
• Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes
with old memories. Example: Forgetting an old phone
number after learning a new one.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
• Performance Load
• Performance load refers to how much effort is
needed to complete a task. The less effort required,
the more likely the task will be completed
successfully. Performance load includes both mental
(cognitive) and physical (kinematic) effort.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
• Performance Load
🠶 Two Types of Performance Load:
• Cognitive Load: The mental effort needed
to perform a task. Example: Remembering
a password.
• Kinematic Load: The physical effort needed
to perform a task. Example: Typing a long
command.
Important Human Characteristics in Design
• Performance Load
🠶 Reducing Cognitive Load
1.Eliminate Unnecessary Information
2.Properly Format and Group Information
3.Use Recognition Over Recall
4.Automate Memory-Intensive Tasks
Important Human Characteristics in Design
• Performance Load
🠶 Reducing Kinematic Load
1.Minimize Steps
2.Minimize Movements
3.Automate Repetitive Tasks
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 When designing systems or interfaces, it's important
to take into account a variety of user and task
characteristics. This helps ensure that the system is
usable and effective for its intended audience. Below
is a summary of these characteristics, followed by a
more detailed description based on Mayhew (1992)
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 The User’s Knowledge and Experience.
🠶 The User’s Tasks and Needs.
🠶 The User’s Psychological Characteristics.
🠶 The User’s Physical Characteristics.
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 The User’s Knowledge and Experience.
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 The User’s Tasks and Needs.
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 The User’s Tasks and Needs.
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 The User’s Psychological Characteristics.
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 The User’s Physical Characteristics.
Human Considerations in the Design of Business Systems
🠶 The User’s Physical Characteristics.
Human Interaction Speeds
🠶 These speeds, as summarized by Bailey (2000),
provide insight into how efficiently users can
interact with different systems. Here are the
typical interaction speeds for various tasks.
Human Interaction Speeds
Performance vs Peference
🠶 Performance: In the context of interface design, performance refers
to how well an interface allows users to complete tasks. This is often
measured by:
• Speed: How quickly users can accomplish tasks.
• Accuracy: How correctly users can perform tasks without errors.
• Efficiency: How easily users can complete tasks with minimal effort
and resources.
Performance vs Peference
🠶 Preference: Preference in interface design is about what
users like or choose based on their:
• Personal Tastes: Individual likes and dislikes.
• Familiarity: Comfort with interfaces they have used before.
• Aesthetics: Visual appeal and design elements.
• Perceived Effort: How easy or difficult they think the
interface is to use.
Methods for Gaining an Understanding of
Users
🠶 Preference: Preference in interface design is about what
users like or choose based on their:
• Personal Tastes: Individual likes and dislikes.
• Familiarity: Comfort with interfaces they have used before.
• Aesthetics: Visual appeal and design elements.
• Perceived Effort: How easy or difficult they think the
interface is to use.
