COMPLETE NOTES AND PAST QUESTIONS SOLVED

BIO-ENGINEERING
1. INTRODCUTION TO BIO-ENGINEERING (8)
2. SITE INVESTIGATION (16)
3. BASIC ASPECT OF VEGETATION (8)
4. ROLE OF VEGETATION (8)
5. PLANT SPECIES SELECTION (8)
6. VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES (8)
7. SMALL SCALE CIVIL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS (8)
8. OPTIMAL TECHINQUE (4)
9. NURSERY (8)
10.MANAGEMENT (4)
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Bio-engineering

Generally and usually (8) Mks

QUESTIONS REVOLVES AROUND

DEFINITION
SCOPES
ADVANTAGES
REAL FIELD EXAMPLES AND
FROM NOTES
 Bio-Engineering
Bioengineering is a discipline that applies engineering principles of design and
analysis to biological systems and biomedical technologies. Examples of
bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals,
new medical imaging technology, portable disease diagnostic devices, and
tissue engineered organs.

1.1Glimpse of Landslide and scenario of soil erosion in Nepal

Landslides and Soil Erosion in Nepal: A Bioengineering Perspective
Nepal’s rugged terrain (dhungaei dhunga vako,surface level navako ) and
intense monsoon rains make it highly vulnerable to landslides and soil erosion.
Bioengineering has emerged as a sustainable and cost-effective solution to
mitigate these hazards, especially in rural and mountainous regions.
Glimpse of Landslide Issues
Frequent Occurrence: Landslides are common during the monsoon season,
especially in the Middle Hills and Siwalik regions.
Human Impact: Deforestation, poorly planned road construction, and
overgrazing have accelerated slope instability.
Disaster Risk: Landslides often result in loss of life, destruction of property, and
displacement of communities.
Soil Erosion Scenario
 High Sediment Load: Nepal’s rivers carry over 336 million tons of soil
annually, contributing to riverbed rise and widening during monsoons.
  Vulnerable Slopes: Natural and engineered slopes with angles between
30° and 40° are highly prone to erosion.
 Agricultural Threat: Soil erosion reduces fertility and affects food
security in hilly farming areas.

Role of Bioengineering
Bioengineering uses vegetation and natural materials to stabilize slopes and
control erosion. It blends ecological, mechanical, and civil engineering
principles.
Techniques Used:
 Vetiver and Broom Grass Planting: Their deep root systems bind soil and
prevent erosion.
 Bamboo Crib Walls: Used to reinforce slopes and absorb water runoff6
 Check Dams and Toe Walls: Combined with vegetation to slow water
flow and trap sediment.
 Gabion Structures: Wire mesh filled with rocks, often paired with
plantings for long-term stability.

1.2Identification of problem on slopes

identifying problems on slopes is crucial for designing effective stabilization and
erosion control measures. Here are the key issues typically assessed:
Common Problems on Slopes
 Soil Erosion: Caused by rainfall, runoff, and wind, leading to loss of
topsoil and slope instability.
 Shallow Slope Failures: Slips or slides due to weak soil structure or
saturation from water infiltration.
 Landslides and Debris Flows: Triggered by heavy rainfall, earthquakes, or
human activity, especially in mountainous regions like Nepal.
  Poor Vegetative Cover: Lack of plant roots reduces soil cohesion and
increases vulnerability to erosion.
 Water Drainage Issues: Improper drainage can saturate slopes,
weakening soil and increasing failure risk.
 Human Interventions: Road construction, deforestation, and agriculture
can destabilize slopes if not managed properly.
Identification Techniques
 Visual Inspection: Look for cracks, tilted trees, exposed roots, or signs of
soil movement.
 Vegetation Analysis: Assess type and density of plants—healthy
vegetation often indicates stable slopes.
 Soil Testing: Evaluate soil composition, moisture content, and
compaction levels.
 Hydrological Assessment: Study water flow patterns and drainage
efficiency.
 Slope Angle Measurement: Steeper slopes are more prone to failure and
require tailored bioengineering solutions.

1.3Engineering functions to be performed

The engineering functions in bioengineering typically revolve around designing,
analyzing, and improving biological systems and devices. Here's a breakdown of
the key functions:
Design and Development
 Biomedical devices: Create prosthetics, pacemakers, artificial organs,
and imaging systems.
 Bioprocessing equipment: Design tools for producing biologics like
vaccines or enzymes.
 Biomaterials: Develop materials compatible with living tissue (e.g., for
implants or drug delivery).
Research and Testing
 System modeling: Simulate biological systems to predict behavior and
test designs.
 Clinical trials: Engineer protocols to ensure safety and effectiveness of
medical devices or therapies.
 Genetic engineering tools: Improve CRISPR systems, microfluidics, and
lab automation.
Manufacturing and Optimization
 Scale-up processes: Transform lab-scale biological processes into
industrial applications.
 Quality control: Ensure consistency and safety in production lines
(especially in pharma and food industries).
 Process automation: Integrate robotics and sensors to optimize
workflows.
Environmental and Agricultural Systems
 Bioremediation: Engineer microbes or systems to clean pollutants from
water, soil, or air.
 Bioenergy: Develop systems to produce sustainable fuels from biomass
or algae.
Data and Computational Engineering
 Bioinformatics: Design algorithms to analyze genetic, proteomic, or
metabolomic data.
 Machine learning models: Predict disease outcomes, personalize
medicine, or optimize synthetic biology.
 Wearable health tech: Develop devices that monitor and transmit
biological data in real time.
 FUNCTION OF BIO-ENGINEERING SYSTEM
1.4Materials to be used for slope protection and stabilization
works
Bioengineering for slope protection blends natural vegetation with
engineering techniques to stabilize terrain and prevent erosion. Here's a
breakdown of commonly used materials:
Vegetative Materials
These are the heart of bioengineering, offering long-term stabilization through
root reinforcement and surface cover:
 Vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides) – Deep-rooted and resilient,
ideal for steep slopes
 Cynodon dactylon – A creeping grass that withstands heavy grazing and
shallow rooting
 Phragmites vallatoria – Tall grass often found near riverbanks
 Shrubs and small trees – Like Pithecellobium dulce, which grows well on
embankments
Structural and Support Materials
Used in combination with vegetation to provide immediate protection:
 Gabions – Wire mesh cages filled with stones to stabilize slopes and
prevent erosion
 Stone pitching – Laying stones on slopes to reduce runoff velocity and
erosion
 Soil-cement layers – A mix of soil and cement applied to slopes for
added strength
Organic and Mulching Materials
These help retain moisture and support plant growth:
 Mulch – Organic cover like straw or wood chips to protect soil and
encourage vegetation
  Coir mats – Biodegradable mats made from coconut fiber to hold soil in
place
Organic and Mulching Materials
These help retain moisture and support plant growth:
 Mulch – Organic cover like straw or wood chips to protect soil and
encourage vegetation
 Coir mats – Biodegradable mats made from coconut fiber to hold soil in
place
Hybrid and Civil Engineering Materials
For areas needing extra reinforcement:
 Geotextiles – Synthetic fabrics that stabilize soil while allowing water
flow
 Live fascines – Bundles of live branches placed in trenches to reduce
erosion

1.5Use of vegetation as a slope stabilizing material

Vegetation in Bioengineering for Slope Stabilization

Using vegetation to stabilize slopes is a cornerstone of soil bioengineering,
which blends ecological principles with engineering techniques to prevent
erosion and landslides. Here's how it works and why it's effective:

Why Vegetation Works?

 Root Reinforcement: Plant roots bind soil particles together, increasing

shear strength and reducing the risk of slope failure.
 Surface Protection: Foliage shields the soil from direct rainfall impact,
minimizing surface erosion.
 Water Regulation: Vegetation improves infiltration and reduces surface
runoff, helping manage water flow on slopes.
 Self-Healing System: Unlike rigid structures, plants grow and adapt over
time, enhancing long-term stability.
 Common Bioengineering Techniques Using Vegetation

Technique Description
Inserting live woody cuttings (e.g., willow) directly into the slope to root
Live Staking
and grow.
Alternating layers of live branches and soil to reinforce the slope
Brush Layering
structure.
Bundles of live branches placed in trenches along the slope to stabilize
Live Fascines
and drain.
Vegetated
Combining synthetic geogrids with live plants to reinforce steep slopes.
Geogrids
Coconut fiber rolls planted with vegetation to protect streambanks and
Coir Rolls
slopes.

Benefits of Vegetative Slope Stabilization

 Eco-Friendly: Enhances biodiversity and integrates with natural

landscapes.
 Cost-Effective: Reduces reliance on expensive materials and heavy
machinery.
 Aesthetic Value: Creates green, visually appealing environments.
 Adaptability: Suitable for various climates and soil types.

1.6 Definition of soil Bio-Engineering

Soil bioengineering is the use of vegetation and plant-based systems to
perform engineering functions such as:

 Stabilizing slopes and embankments

 Preventing soil erosion
 Improving drainage and water retention
 Rehabilitating degraded land

Why It Matters?

 Eco-friendly: It promotes biodiversity and enhances the local ecosystem.

 Cost-effective: Often cheaper than traditional engineering solutions.
 Sustainable: Uses renewable materials and supports long-term soil
health.

1.7 Justification of Bio-Engineering

Bioengineering, as a broad interdisciplinary field, bridges biology with
engineering principles to create solutions for medical, environmental, and
technological challenges. Within this domain, bio-engineering (or biological
engineering) stands as a core subdiscipline—its justification lies in the very
essence of what bioengineering aims to achieve.

Why Bio-Engineering is Justified?

Core Functionality: Bio-engineering applies biological systems and processes
directly to engineering designs. This includes biomaterials, tissue engineering,
synthetic biology, and systems biology—all essential components of modern
bioengineering.

Problem-Solving Power: Biological engineering enables scalable and

innovative solutions to global challenges, such as:

 Creating tissue scaffolds and artificial organs

 Developing biosensors for detecting disease
 Engineering microbes to produce biodegradable plastics or clean
pollutants

Interdisciplinary Integration: It links molecular biology, biotechnology, and

mechanical engineering—making it foundational rather than optional.
Bioengineering without biological engineering is like architecture without
structural design.

Research and Development Backbone: Most academic and industrial R&D in

bioengineering stems from biological engineering concepts—like CRISPR gene
editing, protein engineering, and biocompatibility studies.

1.8 Field Of Application and Scope

Fields of Application

Bioengineering touches many sectors, including:

 Medical Devices & Diagnostics

o Development of imaging systems (MRI, CT scans)
o Artificial organs and prosthetics
o Patient monitoring systems and wearable tech
Tissue Engineering & Regenerative Medicine

 Creating lab-grown tissues and organs

 Stem cell technologies for healing and repair

Biomechanics

 Designing orthopedic implants and rehabilitation devices

 Studying movement and physical function

Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology

 CRISPR and gene therapy applications

 Biomanufacturing of pharmaceuticals and vaccines

Neuroengineering

 Brain-computer interfaces
 Neural prosthetics and cognitive enhancement tools

Environmental & Agricultural Bioengineering

 Bioremediation and waste treatment

 Genetically modified crops and sustainable farming.

Scope of Bioengineering

The scope is expanding rapidly due to technological advances and global health
needs:

 Career Opportunities
o Biomedical engineer, clinical researcher, medical device designer,
bioinformatics analyst, and more
o Roles in hospitals, research labs, biotech firms, and academia

Global Demand

 Rising healthcare needs and aging populations are driving demand for
innovative medical solutions
 Countries like the USA, UK, Germany, and India are investing heavily in
bioengineering research

Nepalese Context
  In Nepal, bioengineering is gaining traction in hospitals and academic
institutions
 Applications include diagnostic equipment, physiotherapy tools, and
medical research.

Academic Growth

 Universities worldwide offer specialized programs in bioengineering

 Subjects range from biomechanics to bioinformatics and tissue mechanics

1.9 Advantages And limitations

ADVANTAGES
Erosion control: In places like Nepal, bioengineering has been used to stabilize
slopes and prevent landslides using vegetation-based techniques.

Green construction: Bioengineered materials offer low-carbon alternatives to

concrete and steel.

Innovation across fields: Bioengineering touches everything from robotics to

space exploration, making it one of the most versatile scientific disciplines.

Eco-friendly farming: Bioengineered fertilizers and pesticides reduce

environmental damage compared to synthetic chemicals.

Improved healthcare: Bioengineers design life-saving devices like artificial

organs, prosthetics, and advanced diagnostic tools.

Biofuels: Engineered organisms can produce renewable energy sources,

reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

Resilient crops: Genetically engineered plants can withstand drought, pests,

and poor soil, helping farmers grow more with fewer resources.

Longer lifespans: Some bioengineering breakthroughs have extended the lives

of organisms, hinting at future human applications.

LIMITATIONS
Complexity of Biological Systems: Living organisms are incredibly intricate, and
small changes can have unpredictable ripple effects.
Equity & Accessibility: Advanced bioengineering solutions may be costly,
making them accessible only to wealthier populations or countries.
Genetic Modification Concerns: Editing human, plant, or animal genomes
raises questions about long-term effects and moral boundaries.
Unintended Ecological Impact: Engineered organisms released into nature can
disrupt ecosystems.
Biosecurity Risks: Misuse or accidental release of synthetic organisms could
pose health threats or ethical dilemmas.
Incomplete Understanding: We still don’t fully grasp many biological
processes, especially at the cellular and molecular levels.
Data Overload: High-throughput experiments generate massive data, but
extracting meaningful patterns requires advanced computation and deep
insight.
Control & Precision: Technologies like CRISPR are powerful but can result in off-
target effects or unintended mutations.
Limited Integration: Devices like bioimplants or prosthetics still struggle with
full biological integration or long-term stability.

Old Questions Solved

2081 Bhadra Regular

1.Bio-engineering as the sustainable technique for landslide mitigation. (8)

Bio-engineering stands out as a sustainable technique for landslide mitigation

because it harmonizes ecological integrity with engineering effectiveness. This
is why it's such a powerful solution:
Environmental Sustainability
 Uses vegetation and natural materials to stabilize slopes, reducing
reliance on concrete or steel.
 Promotes biodiversity by incorporating native plant species that support
local ecosystems.
 Minimizes ecological disruption compared to heavy civil engineering
methods.
Economic Viability
 Cost-effective for developing regions like Nepal due to use of locally
available resources and labor2.
 High cost-benefit ratio, especially when combined with civil and social
engineering measures.
 Reduces long-term maintenance costs as vegetation matures and
strengthens slope stability over time.
Engineering Effectiveness
 Roots reinforce soil, increasing shear strength and anchoring unstable
layers2.
 Vegetation acts as armor, shielding slopes from rain impact and erosion.
 Improves drainage and infiltration, reducing surface runoff and water-
induced slope failure.
Social and Community Benefits
 Engages local communities in planting and maintenance, fostering
ownership and resilience.
 Provides multipurpose vegetation—plants used for fodder, fuel, or food
add value beyond slope stabilization.
 Empowers local governments to integrate bio-engineering into
infrastructure projects sustainably.
Proven Success in Nepal
  Widely applied in roadside slope stabilization, hydropower sites, and
landslide-prone areas.
 Demonstrated effectiveness in reducing landslide risks in multiple
municipalities through Nature-based Solutions (NbS).
 Supported by decades of research and field application, making it a
trusted method in mountainous regions.

2081 baisakh back

2.Define Bio-engineering.Discuss the main engineering functions with examples
of civil and bioengineering structure. (2+6)
Bioengineering is a discipline that applies engineering principles of design and
analysis to biological systems and biomedical technologies.example Tissue
Engineering, Bioremediation, Synthetic Biology.
Main Engineering Functions
Engineers, across disciplines, typically perform these core
functions:
 Design: Creating plans or models for systems,
structures, or processes.
 Analysis: Using science and math to assess
performance, safety, efficiency.
 Construction/Implementation: Building the actual
systems or structures.
 Testing & Validation: Ensuring functionality, safety, and
compliance.
 Maintenance: Monitoring and repairing structures or
systems over time.
 Project Management: Planning, budgeting, coordinating
people and resources.

Civil engineering typically deals with infrastructure, but its functions are increasingly
integrated with bioengineering for sustainable and health-focused designs. Examples:
 Civil Engineering
Bioengineering Integration Example
Structure
Use bioengineered plants and soil systems to improve air quality
Green Roofs
and temperature regulation.
Wastewater Treatment Incorporate bio-filtration using engineered bacteria to break down
Plants pollutants.
Use biosynthetic materials and living plants to reinforce and
Flood Barriers
stabilize levees.

Civil engineers may design structures that use biological

processes or materials to make the environment healthier and
more resilient.
Bioengineering blends biology with engineering to design
systems that improve health or interact with biological
environments.
Bioengineering Engineering
Description
Structure Function
e.g. Bioengineered hearts or
Artificial Design, Analysis,
kidneys that mimic natural
Organs Testing
functions.
Used to grow tissues or
Construction,
Bioreactors bacteria for pharmaceutical
Maintenance
research.
Structures that guide cell
Tissue Design,
growth for regenerative
Scaffolds Implementation
medicine.
Devices that track vital
Wearable Design,
signs and transmit real-time
Biosensors Validation
data.
3.2080 bhadra Regular
Note 1.6 and 1.9
4.2080 Biasakh Back

Explain how the civil engineering structures interacts with the

vegetative structures in respects to time and relative shear
strength. Draw different graphs for different interacting
structures (6)
Bioengineering often marries civil structures (retaining walls,
check dams, slopes) with vegetative systems (grasses,
shrubs, trees) to enhance ecological stability. Let’s break down
how their interaction evolves with time and affects shear
strength:
1. Time-Dependent Interaction Dynamics
Vegetative growth isn't instant—it evolves over seasons or
years. This changes how it contributes to slope stabilization or
soil reinforcement.
 Initial Phase (0–1 year):
o Roots are immature; minimal impact on soil strength.
o Civil structures bear the load alone.

 Middle Phase (2–5 years):

o Roots start penetrating deeper.
o Soil-root matrix begins forming.
o Shear strength increases, reducing load on civil elements .
 Mature Phase (5+ years):
o Dense root networks fully reinforce soil.
o Vegetation can replace or supplement some engineered supports.

2. Types of Bioengineered Structures & Shear Strength Behavior

Here’s a breakdown of how various civil-vegetative combinations evolve and perform

differently:

Vegetative Relative Shear Strength

Structure Type Effect Over Time
Integration Trend
Reinforced Grasses on facade Cosmetic at first; minor Slight rise after root
 Vegetative Relative Shear Strength
Structure Type Effect Over Time
Integration Trend
Earth Wall frictional help later growth
Geotextile with Shrubs grow Roots interlock with textile Gradual but stable
Shrubs through mesh and soil increase over 3–5 yrs
Vegetation grows within Shear strength rises
Live Crib Wall Logs + live plants
logs, replaces decayed timber dramatically over time
Roots bind soil; erosion Delay then strong growth
Vegetated Slope No hard elements
control is gradual in strength
Check Dams + Trees stabilize Roots reduce scour; increase Slow but significant gain
Trees upstream retention with mature trees

Graphs Illustrating Interaction Over Time

2079 Bhadra Regular

5.How do you justify the use of bio-engineering techniques.What are

the fundamental issues related to bio-engineering slopes? Define RAR
and show its general trend. Estimated root reinforcement effect using the
fibre break model.(2+2+2+2)
Bio-engineering techniques are justified in bioengineering based on their
transformative potential, ethical frameworks, and tangible benefits to society.
how and why?
Advancing Medicine and Health

 Enables development of personalized treatments, such as gene therapy

for genetic disorders.
 Helps create synthetic organs and tissues for transplantation, reducing
dependency on donors.
Sustainable Agriculture
 Genetically engineered crops can resist pests, tolerate drought, and yield
more food.
 Reduces reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, lowering
environmental impact.
Environmental Solutions
 Bioengineered microbes can break down pollutants in soil and water.
 Bio-remediation techniques help restore ecosystems after industrial
damage.
Ethical Oversight & Justifiability
 Most techniques undergo rigorous ethical review before
implementation.
 Transparency and informed consent guide the use of these tools in
humans.
Scientific Curiosity and Progress
 Bioengineering is driven by the desire to solve real-world problems with
innovation.

Bio-engineering slopes involves stabilizing or restoring slopes using living plant

materials combined with natural or synthetic reinforcements. While it's eco-
friendly and often cost-effective, it comes with its own set of fundamental
issues:
Environmental & Site-Specific Challenges
 Soil Type & Stability: Weak, erodible, or contaminated soils may not
support plant growth or anchoring structures.
 Climate & Rainfall: Extreme weather conditions can hinder plant
establishment and increase erosion risks.
 Slope Angle & Aspect: Steep or poorly oriented slopes reduce viability
for rooting and long-term stability.
Biological & Vegetative Constraints
 Species Selection: Choosing appropriate native or adapted plants is
critical for effectiveness and ecological compatibility.
 Growth Rate & Coverage: Slow-growing species may delay slope
stabilization, increasing vulnerability during early phases.
 Pest & Disease Susceptibility: Plants used in bio-engineering must be
resilient to local threats.
Technical & Structural Limitations
 Integration with Civil Structures: Incorporating living materials into
engineering designs can be complex.
 Maintenance Requirements: Bio-engineered slopes may demand
ongoing care—irrigation, pruning, replacement—to remain effective.
 Durability Concerns: Natural materials may degrade faster than synthetic
alternatives, affecting long-term reliability.
Regulatory & Societal Issues
 Permits & Guidelines: Projects must comply with environmental
regulations, which vary by region.
 Community Acceptance: Locals may prefer hard-engineering solutions if
bio-engineering is perceived as less secure.
  Knowledge & Training Gaps: Limited expertise can hamper proper
implementation and upkeep.

The Retinoic Acid Receptor (RAR) is a type of nuclear receptor that plays a
crucial role in cell development, differentiation, and homeostasis.
General Trend in Bioengineering
RARs are increasingly studied and engineered in bioengineering for their
therapeutic and regenerative potential. Here's how the trend is evolving:
 Stem Cell Engineering: RARs are used to guide stem cell differentiation
into specific cell types, especially in neural and cardiac tissue
engineering.
 Cancer Research: Modulating RAR pathways helps in designing targeted
therapies for cancers like leukemia and breast cancer.
 Tissue Regeneration: Bioengineers are exploring RAR signaling to
enhance wound healing and organ regeneration.
 Synthetic Biology: RARs are being incorporated into synthetic gene
circuits to control gene expression in response to retinoic acid.

fiber break model (FBM) is a powerful tool in bioengineering for estimating

how plant roots reinforce soil, especially in slope stability and erosion control
contexts.
Fiber Break Model
The FBM simulates progressive failure of roots under tensile stress, treating
them like a bundle of fibers.
It accounts for how load is distributed among unbroken roots, often based on
root diameter.
The model can be enhanced with Weibull survival functions to reflect
probabilistic root failure, improving realism.
Estimating Root Reinforcement
Peak root reinforcement is calculated analytically using parameters like:
 Root area ratio
 Root tensile strength
 Load-sharing coefficient
A continuous power-law distribution of root diameters and biomechanical
properties is used to avoid overestimation from discretizing root classes.
The model shows that small roots tend to fail first, and reinforcement depends
heavily on the distribution of root diameters and their mechanical traits.
2078 Bhadra Regular

6. Describe the scope and field of application of bio engineering with

suitable examples you visited on field.(8)
Scope and field of applications read above
Field Applications with Real-World Examples
Here are some practical examples of bioengineering in action:

Application Area Example

Development of low-cost prosthetic limbs for rural

Medical Devices
clinics

Environmental Installation of bio-barriers to prevent landslides in hilly

Engineering regions

Agricultural Field trials of genetically modified rice with enhanced

Bioengineering vitamin A content

Setting up fermentation units for local production of

Bioprocess Engineering
antibiotics
In Nepal, bioengineering has been applied in slope stabilization projects using
vegetative techniques and geotextiles, especially in landslide-prone areas.
These methods combine engineering design with biological growth to reinforce
soil and prevent erosion—an elegant example of nature-based solutions.

2076 Ashwin Back

7. Describe different Bio-Engineering functions to address the

problems on slope (8)
Bio-Engineering Solutions for Slope Stability
Bio-engineering blends ecological principles with engineering practices to
stabilize slopes and minimize erosion, especially in mountainous regions like
Nepal. Here’s the key functions used to address slope-related challenges:
1. Soil Stabilization
 Vegetative Cover: Grasses, shrubs, and trees are planted to anchor the
soil with their root systems.
 Live Staking: Cuttings of fast-growing species (like Salix or Vetiver) are
inserted into the slope to take root and stabilize the soil.
 Hydroseeding: Spraying seed mixtures with mulch and binders to quickly
vegetate large slope areas.
2. Surface Protection
 Brush Layering: Branches are laid in layers with soil in between to reduce
runoff and trap sediments.
 Erosion Control Mats: Natural materials (like coir or jute) are laid over
exposed soil to reduce surface erosion while vegetation establishes.
 Mulching: Organic materials cover bare soil, regulating moisture and
reducing direct impact from rain.
3. Mechanical Reinforcement with Vegetation
 Retaining Structures with Live Plants: Combining wood, rock, or gabions
with live vegetation to form terraces and barriers.
  Live Fascines: Bundles of branches arranged in horizontal lines across the
slope, held by stakes, helping retain soil and moisture.
4. Water Management
 Drainage Channels and Diversions: Direct surface water safely away
from vulnerable areas.
 Vegetated Swales: Shallow troughs planted with grass to slow and filter
runoff.
5. Root Binding and Slope Armoring
 Deep-rooted Plants: Species with extensive root systems (like bamboo or
vetiver grass) offer subsurface stabilization.
 Bio-armoring: Dense planting or strategic placement of vegetation to act
like armor, protecting against surface slips and rain splash.
Strategic Design Principles
 Zonation: Dividing slopes into upper, middle, and lower zones for
tailored treatment.
 Phased Stabilization: Establishing pioneer vegetation first, followed by
long-term cover.
 Community Involvement: Engaging locals in planting, monitoring, and
maintenance for sustainable results.

2071 Chaitra Regular

8.How does Bio-Engineering differ from Biotechnical Engineering?(4)

Bioengineering
 Focus: Applies engineering principles broadly to biological systems.
  Scope: Includes medical devices, tissue engineering, biomechanics, and
genetic engineering.
 Goal: Solve biological and medical problems using engineering tools.
 Example: Designing artificial organs or prosthetics.
Biotechnical Engineering
 Focus: More closely tied to biotechnology—the use of living organisms to
develop products.
 Scope: Involves optimizing biological processes for industrial,
agricultural, or pharmaceutical use.
 Goal: Engineer systems and tools that support biotech innovations.
 Example: Developing bioreactors for mass-producing vaccines or
enzymes.

2070 Chaitra Regular

9. What is the present status of erosion from mountainous area of Nepal?

Write down the problems encountered in hill slope and engineering functions
to be performed to address them. (8)
Present Status of Erosion in Nepal's Mountainous Regions
Nepal faces severe soil erosion due to its rugged topography, intense monsoon
rains, and human activities like deforestation and unplanned infrastructure
development. Here's the current situation:
 Average annual soil loss is estimated at 25 tons per hectare nationwide,
with Middle Mountains experiencing the highest erosion rates at 38
t/ha/year.
 11% of Nepal’s land is under very severe erosion risk (>80 t/ha/year),
especially in steep slopes and barren lands.
  Human-induced landslides have increased, particularly in densely
populated hill regions, due to road construction and agricultural
expansion.
 Deforestation and overgrazing have destabilized slopes, accelerating
erosion and sedimentation in rivers.
Problems Encountered on Hill Slopes
Hill slopes in Nepal present unique challenges for infrastructure and land
management:
 Steep gradients increase runoff velocity, triggering landslides and slope
failures.
 Unstable geology and fractured rock formations make slopes vulnerable
to collapse.
 Poor drainage systems and blocked outlets worsen water infiltration
during monsoons.
 Improper road cut slopes—often steeper than recommended—fail
during heavy rains.
 Uniform retaining wall designs ignore site-specific conditions, leading to
structural failures like bulging and cracking.
Bioengineering Functions to Address Hill Slope Problems
Bioengineering combines vegetation with structural techniques to stabilize
slopes and control erosion. Key functions and techniques include:
Vegetative Functions
 Root reinforcement: Plant roots bind soil particles, increasing slope
stability.
 Canopy interception: Vegetation reduces rainfall impact and surface
runoff.
 Evapotranspiration: Plants help regulate soil moisture, reducing
saturation.
Engineering Techniques
 Brush layering: Horizontal placement of live branches to reinforce
slopes.
 Live check dams: Vegetative barriers across gullies to slow water flow.
 Fascines and palisades: Bundles of live or dead plant material placed
along contours.
 Vegetative stone pitching: Stones combined with plants to stabilize
stream banks2.
 Soil nailing with vegetation: Reinforcing steep cut slopes using steel nails
and planting over them for long-term stability.
Chapter 2: SITE INVESTIGATIONS
2.1 Analysis of Slope Stability based on the minerals types
Analyzing slope stability through the lens of bioengineering involves
understanding how mineral composition affects soil behavior and how
vegetation can reinforce it. Here's how mineral types play a role:

Mineral Types & Their Impact

Clay Minerals (e.g., kaolinite, montmorillonite)
 High water retention and plasticity
 Prone to swelling and shrinkage, which can destabilize slopes
 Vegetation with deep roots helps bind particles and reduce erosion

Silty Soils
 Moderate cohesion but poor drainage
 Susceptible to liquefaction during heavy rainfall
 Bioengineering can improve permeability and root reinforcement

Sandy Soils
 Low cohesion and high permeability
 Easily eroded but less prone to swelling
 Grasses like vetiver are effective in anchoring sandy slopes

Gravelly Soils
 Good drainage and stability
 Less responsive to vegetation unless combined with civil techniques
 Soil nailing or berming may be needed alongside bioengineering

Bioengineering Techniques
 Vetiver Grass Roots
o Proven to increase internal friction angle and reduce cohesion loss
o Deeper roots improve slope safety over time
  Mixed Vegetation & Structural Support
o Combining live plants with dead materials (e.g., brushwood,
fascines)
o Offers short-term and long-term slope protection
Soil Nailing + Vegetation
 Especially effective in clay and gravel soils
 Enhances mechanical strength while promoting ecological restoration
Analytical Methods
 Limit Equilibrium Method
o Widely used for slope stability modeling
o Incorporates soil properties, slope geometry, and vegetation
effects
 Numerical Simulation (e.g., Slide2 software)
o Allows modeling of root reinforcement and mineral interactions
o Useful for predicting long-term slope behavior

2.2 Analysis of Slope Stability based on orientation of

fracture and joints
Analyzing slope stability through the lens of fracture and joint orientation is a
crucial aspect of bio-engineering, especially in regions prone to landslides and
erosion like Nepal. Here's how this analysis works and why it's important:
Key Factors Influencing Slope Stability
 Orientation of Fractures and Joints: The angle and direction of
discontinuities (joints, cracks, faults) determine potential failure modes
—such as wedge, planar, or toppling failures.
 Rock Mass Properties: Cohesion, friction angle, and roughness of joint
surfaces affect how easily a slope might fail.
  Water Pressure: Pore water and joint water pressure can reduce shear
strength and trigger instability.
 Slope Geometry: Steep slopes with unfavorable joint orientations are
more vulnerable to failure.
Methods of Analysis
 Kinematic Analysis: Assesses whether the orientation of joints allows for
movement along potential failure planes.
 Limit Equilibrium Methods: Calculate factor of safety by balancing
driving and resisting forces.
 Numerical Simulations: Advanced modeling (e.g., Discrete Fracture
Network modeling) captures realistic fracture behavior.
 Empirical Approaches: Use rock mass classification systems to estimate
stability based on observed joint patterns.
Bio-Engineering Applications
 Vegetative Stabilization: Plants with deep root systems can reinforce
fractured slopes by increasing cohesion and reducing water infiltration.
 Site Investigation: Includes mapping fractures, assessing weathering
grades, and identifying mineral types to tailor bio-engineering solutions.
 Hybrid Systems: Combining vegetation with small-scale civil structures
(e.g., retaining walls) enhances slope resilience.

2.3 Analysis of Slope Stability based on weathering grade of

rock
Analyzing slope stability based on the weathering grade of rock is a crucial
aspect of bio-engineering, especially in regions prone to landslides and erosion
like Nepal. Here's how weathering impacts slope stability and how bio-
engineering integrates with it:

Weathering Grade & Its Influence

  Weathering grade refers to the extent of physical and chemical
breakdown of rock material.
 As rocks weather, their strength decreases, making slopes more
susceptible to failure.
 Highly weathered rocks (Grades IV–VI) often show reduced cohesion and
increased porosity, which can lead to raveling, rockfall, or sliding

Stability Assessment Techniques

 Deterministic methods (e.g., limit equilibrium, finite element) analyze
slope geometry and material strength.
 Probabilistic approaches like the Slope Stability Probability Classification
(SSPC) offer more nuanced insights, especially for weathered zones.
 Image analysis using tools like CIELAB color space can quantify
weathering by detecting surface discoloration, aiding in slope zoning and
risk mapping

Role of Bio-Engineering
 Bio-engineering uses vegetation and natural materials to stabilize slopes.
 Plants improve slope stability through:
o Mechanical effects: root reinforcement
o Hydrological effects: water absorption and reduced pore pressure
o Hydraulic effects: surface flow reduction
 Vegetative techniques are especially effective in shallow-seated
instabilities and weathered rock zones.

Integrated Approach
 Combine geomechanical tests, mineralogical assessments, and
vegetation mapping to tailor slope stabilization strategies.
 Use site-specific weathering data to select appropriate plant species and
engineering systems.
2.4 Analysis of the slope stability based on the rock types
Analyzing slope stability in bio-engineering involves understanding how
different rock types interact with vegetation and structural forces. Here's how
rock types influence slope behavior and how bio-engineering techniques adapt
to them:
Rock Types and Their Influence on Slope Stability
 Igneous Rocks (e.g., granite, basalt)
o Typically strong and less weathered
o Slopes are more stable but vegetation may struggle to root deeply
o Bio-engineering focuses on surface erosion control
 Sedimentary Rocks (e.g., sandstone, shale)
o Often layered and fractured
o Prone to planar and wedge failures
o Vegetation can help bind layers and reduce surface runoff
Metamorphic Rocks (e.g., schist, gneiss)
 May have foliation planes that act as failure surfaces
 Stability depends on orientation of these planes
 Bio-engineering targets reinforcement along weak zones
Highly Weathered or Fractured Rocks
 Increased risk of toppling and rockfall
 Roots from vegetation can penetrate fractures and improve cohesion
 Vetiver grass and deep-rooting species are commonly used
Bio-Engineering Techniques for Slope Stabilization
 Vegetative Reinforcement
o Roots increase shear strength and reduce pore water pressure
o Effective in shallow failures and erosion-prone zones
  Mechanical Effects of Roots
o Roots act like soil nails, anchoring unstable layers
o Vetiver grass has shown success in stabilizing embankments with
fractured rock
Hydrological Control
 Vegetation intercepts rainfall and reduces infiltration
 Helps prevent saturation-induced failures

2.5 Types of Slope Materials and its relationship with slope

failure
slope stability is deeply influenced by the type of slope material—whether it's
soil, rock, or a mix—and how it interacts with vegetation and environmental
forces.
Types of Slope Materials
 Coarse-Grained Soils (e.g., sand, gravel)
o Good drainage but low cohesion
o Prone to translational slides due to weak bonding
 Fine-Grained Soils (e.g., clay, silt)
o High cohesion but poor drainage
o Susceptible to rotational failures and slumping

 Rock Slopes
o Stability depends on joint orientation and weathering
o Common failures: plane, wedge, toppling, and rockfall2
 Mixed Materials
o Complex behavior due to varying permeability and strength
o Often found in mine dumps or weathered rock zones

Relationship with Slope Failure

 Water Content: Saturated soils lose strength, increasing failure risk
  Material Strength: Weak or fractured materials fail under stress
 Vegetation Interaction:
o Roots reinforce soil and reduce erosion
o Poor root penetration in rocky or compacted soils limits
bioengineering effectiveness4
 Weathering & Fractures: Heavily weathered or jointed rock masses are
more prone to instability.
Bioengineering Implications
 Vegetation Selection must match the slope material:
o Deep-rooted plants for loose soils
o Surface-binding species for erosion-prone areas
 Site Investigation is critical:
o Analyze mineral types, joint orientation, and weathering grade
 Combined Systems:
o Vegetative techniques often paired with small-scale civil structures
for optimal results

2.7 Introduction to mass movement and its classification

Mass Movement in Bio-Engineering: An Introduction
especially soil bio-engineering used for slope stabilization—mass movement
refers to the downslope movement of soil, rock, and debris under the influence
of gravity. It's a critical concept when designing sustainable infrastructure in
hilly or mountainous regions like Nepal.
What Is Mass Movement?
Mass movement (also called mass wasting) involves the displacement of earth
materials due to gravitational forces. It can be triggered by:
 Heavy rainfall
 Earthquakes
  Deforestation
 Human activities like road construction
understanding mass movement helps in applying vegetation-based techniques
to stabilize slopes and prevent erosion or landslides.
Classification of Mass Movement
Mass movements are typically classified based on the type of material and the
mode of movement:

Type of
Description Examples
Movement

Sudden vertical movement of rock or

Falls Rockfalls
debris

Material moves along a well-defined

Slides Landslides, Slumps
surface

Flows Material behaves like a fluid Debris flows, Mudflows

Soil creep on gentle

Creeps Very slow movement over time
slopes
Role in Bio-Engineering
Bio-engineering uses vegetation and plant-root systems to:
 Reinforce soil structure
 Improve water absorption
 Reduce surface runoff
 Stabilize slopes affected by mass movement
This approach is especially valuable in rural infrastructure development, such
as hill roads and erosion control projects

2.7 Introduction To landslides

Bio-engineering offers a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to managing
landslides, especially in mountainous regions like Nepal. Here's introduction to
how landslides are understood and addressed through bio-engineering:
What Are Landslides?
 Landslides are the downward movement of soil, rock, and debris on a
slope due to gravity.
 They are triggered by factors like heavy rainfall, earthquakes,
deforestation, and poor land management.
 In Nepal, landslides are common due to steep terrain, fragile geology,
and intense monsoon seasons.
Role of Bio-Engineering
Bio-engineering uses living vegetation and natural materials to stabilize slopes
and prevent erosion. It blends ecological principles with engineering
techniques.
Key Concepts:
 Soil Bio-Engineering: Using plants to reinforce soil and reduce surface
runoff.
 Vegetative Stabilization: Planting grasses, shrubs, and trees to anchor
soil and absorb water.
 Hybrid Systems: Combining vegetation with small-scale civil structures
like gabion walls or check dams.
Techniques Used
 Brush layering: Placing branches in layers across slopes.
 Live staking: Inserting live plant cuttings directly into the soil.
 Bamboo and shrub plantations: Strengthen soil and reduce water flow
velocity.
 Diagonal and contour planting: Helps intercept water and stabilize
slopes.
2.8 Causes and Mechanism of Slope Failure
Slope failure in bioengineering refers to the collapse or instability of slopes that
are being stabilized using vegetation and natural materials. Even with
bioengineering techniques, several factors can trigger failure:

Natural Causes
 Heavy Rainfall: Saturates the soil, reducing cohesion and increasing pore
water pressure, which can lead to landslides.
 Erosion: Wind and water erode surface soil, especially on unprotected or
freshly prepared slopes.
 Earthquakes: Seismic activity induces shear stress, weakening slope
stability.
 Weak Geological Formations: Slopes composed of loose or fractured rock
are more prone to failure.

Human-Induced Factors
 Poor Drainage Design: Without proper water management, slopes can
become waterlogged and unstable.
 Improper Vegetation Selection: Plants with shallow roots may not
provide adequate reinforcement.
 Overloading: Construction or heavy traffic near slopes can increase stress
and trigger failure.
 Deforestation: Removing vegetation reduces root strength and soil
cohesion.

Common Failure Mechanisms

Type of Failure Description
Planar Sliding Shallow slip along a surface parallel to the slope
Rotational Landslide Deep, curved slip surface causing large-scale movement
Gully Erosion Formation of deep channels that destabilize the slope
Debris Flow Saturated soil and debris flowing rapidly down a slope
Toe Failure Collapse at the base of the slope, often the first sign of instability
2.9 Landslide Mapping
Landslide Mapping refers to the process of identifying, analyzing, and
documenting areas prone to landslides, with the goal of applying vegetation-
based stabilization techniques to mitigate slope failures.
Step 16 : severity of instability
Fill in the scores on the score sheet for assessing severity of slope instability.
2.10 Assessment of seriousness
Assessment of seriousness typically refers to evaluating the potential risks,
impacts, and ethical implications of bioengineering activities—especially those
involving human health, environmental safety, or biotechnology applications.
Key Components of Seriousness Assessment
 Risk to Human Health: Evaluating how bioengineered products or
procedures might affect patients or populations. For example, in
biomedical engineering, this includes assessing adverse reactions to
medical devices or therapies.
 Severity vs. Seriousness:
o Severity refers to the intensity of an adverse effect.
o Seriousness refers to the outcome or consequence, such as
hospitalization, disability, or life-threatening conditions.
 Biosafety Risk Assessment: In labs, this involves identifying risks from
infectious agents or genetically modified organisms and implementing
safety protocols.
 Biosecurity Assessment: Focuses on protecting biological materials from
misuse, theft, or accidental release.
Ethical Considerations: Engineers must weigh the societal and moral
consequences of their innovations—especially when dealing with genetic
modification, synthetic biology, or human enhancement
Why It Matters
 Ensures patient safety and public trust.
 Helps comply with regulatory standards.
 Guides responsible innovation in fields like CRISPR, biomedical devices,
and tissue engineering.
2.11 Priorities of Repair
focus on restoring or replacing damaged tissues and organs using advanced
technologies and biological principles. These priorities guide research and
development in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

PAST QUESTIONS

2081Bhadra regular
1.What are the major component of a landslide? How can the
slope failures be categorized based on the effectiveness of
Bio-engineering application (4+4)
understanding landslides involves breaking them down into key
components that influence their formation, movement, and impact.
The major components/parts of a landslide:

Structural Components
Crown: The highest, mostly undisturbed part of the slope above the
main scarp.
Main Scarp: A steep surface marking the upper boundary of the
landslide, formed by the separation of displaced material.
Head: The upper portion of the landslide, just below the crown,
where movement begins.
Body: The main mass of displaced material that moves downslope.
Toe: The lowest part of the landslide, often curved, where material
accumulates.
Tip: The furthest point of the toe from the crown.
Foot: The portion that extends beyond the toe and overlies the
original ground surface.
Surface Features
 Surface of Rupture: The boundary between the displaced
material and the stable ground beneath.
 Surface of Separation: The original ground surface now overlain
by the landslide’s foot.
 Tension Cracks: Fractures that form near the crown due to
stress and movement.
 Minor Scarp: Smaller scarps within the landslide body caused
by internal movement.
Zones of Activity
 Zone of Depletion: Where material has been removed from the
slope.
 Zone of Accumulation: Where displaced material has piled up.
 Depleted Mass: Material that has moved but remains below
the original surface.
 Accumulation: Material now resting above the original surface
Orientation Features
 Flanks: The sides of the landslide, typically made of undisturbed
material.
  Original Ground Surface: The slope as it existed before the
landslide occurred.

slope failures can be categorized based on how effectively bio-

engineering techniques address their causes and stabilize the terrain.
Here's how these failures are typically classified in relation to bio-
engineering effectiveness:

Categories of Slope Failures by Bio-engineering Effectiveness

1. Shallow Slope Failures
 Effectiveness: High
 Description: Failures that occur in the upper soil layers, often
due to surface erosion or loss of vegetation.
 Bio-engineering Role:
o Vegetative cover (grasses, shrubs, trees) helps bind soil.
o Techniques like live staking, brush layering, and turf
reinforcement are highly effective.
 Best for: Roadside slopes, agricultural terraces, and degraded
hillsides

2. Moderate Depth Failures

 Effectiveness: Moderate
 Description: Failures that penetrate deeper into the soil but not
the bedrock.
 Bio-engineering Role:
o Combination of vegetation and mechanical support (e.g.,
geotextiles, bamboo crib walls).
 o Root systems provide partial reinforcement; additional
civil structures may be needed.
 Best for: Slopes with seasonal instability or moderate rainfall
impact.

3. Deep-seated Failures
Effectiveness: Low
Description: Failures involving large volumes of soil and rock, often
triggered by seismic activity or prolonged saturation.
Bio-engineering Role:
 Limited effectiveness alone.
 Often used in conjunction with civil engineering methods like
retaining walls or drainage systems.
 Best for: Long-term ecological restoration, not immediate
stabilization.
4. Debris Flows and Landslides
 Effectiveness: Variable
 Description: Rapid movement of soil, rock, and organic material
down slopes.
 Bio-engineering Role:
o Vegetation can reduce surface runoff and trap debris.
o Requires integrated approaches with hydrological
management.
 Best for: Mitigation rather than prevention.
2080dar regular
2.explain about the major causes and mechanism of slope
failure in hilly regions of our country.(8)
in Nepal’s hilly terrain, slope failure is a serious concern—especially
during monsoon season—and bioengineering plays a vital role in
mitigating it. Let’s break down the major causes and mechanisms of
slope failure, and how bioengineering helps stabilize these vulnerable
areas.

Major Causes of Slope Failure in Hilly Regions

Heavy Rainfall: Saturates the soil, increasing weight and reducing
cohesion, which leads to landslides.
Steep Slopes: Natural or man-made steepening (e.g., road cuts) can
exceed stability limits.
Weak Geological Formations: Soft rocks and loose soils are more
prone to failure.
Deforestation: Loss of vegetation reduces root reinforcement and
increases erosion.
Unplanned Construction: Alters drainage patterns and adds weight to
unstable slopes.
Seismic Activity: Earthquakes can trigger sudden slope failures in
mountainous regions.

Mechanisms of Slope Failure

Mechanism Description Depth Range
Rills and gullies form on exposed
Surface Erosion Top 0.1 m
slopes due to runoff.
Gullies deepen and widen, often
Gully Erosion Top 0.5 m
leading to small landslides.
Shallow slip along a plane parallel to
Planar Sliding 0.5–3 m
the slope surface.
Rotational Deep, curved slip plane causing large
>1.5 m
Landslide subsidence.
Saturated soil loses cohesion and
Slumping/Flow ~0.5 m
flows downslope.
Debris Rock or soil collapses due to 0.5–2 m or
Fall/Collapse undermining of support layers. deeper
Rapid movement of saturated debris
Debris Flow Variable
in gullies or steep channels.

Role of Bioengineering
Bioengineering combines vegetation, mechanical structures, and
ecological principles to stabilize slopes:
 Plant Roots: Reinforce soil structure and reduce erosion.
 Vetiver Grass, Bamboo, and Shrubs: Commonly used for slope
protection.
 Check Dams & Brush Layers: Slow down water flow and trap
sediment.
  Live Crib Walls & Fascines: Combine live plants with structural
support.
This approach is cost-effective, eco-friendly, and ideal for Nepal’s
diverse terrain.

2076 Aswin back

3.what are the causes of mass failure? Explain the different causes of
mass failure in Nepal.
Mass failure—also known as landslides or slope failure—is a major
concern in Nepal due to its rugged terrain, intense monsoon rains,
and fragile geology. In the context of bioengineering, which uses
vegetation and natural materials to stabilize slopes, understanding
these causes is crucial for designing effective solutions.
General Causes of Mass Failure
 Steep Slopes: Nepal’s mountainous topography naturally
predisposes slopes to instability.
 Weak Geological Formations: Young, fractured rocks and loose
soil layers reduce slope strength.
 Heavy Rainfall: Monsoon rains saturate soil, increasing pore
water pressure and triggering slides.
 Deforestation: Removal of vegetation weakens root structures
that help bind soil.
 Unplanned Infrastructure: Roads and buildings constructed
without proper slope analysis can destabilize terrain.
 Seismic Activity: Earthquakes can rapidly reduce slope stability,
especially in already fragile zones.
  Bioengineering-Specific Challenges in Nepal
Bioengineering aims to stabilize slopes using vegetation, but several
factors can undermine its effectiveness:

Cause Impact on Bioengineering

Water accumulation weakens soil and overwhelms
Poor Drainage
plant-based stabilization methods.
Improper Vegetation Using non-native or shallow-rooted plants reduces
Selection slope reinforcement.
Lack of technical expertise during setup leads to
Inadequate Installation
ineffective erosion control.
Limited Monitoring & Without regular checks, bioengineered slopes may
Maintenance degrade or fail over time.
Budget constraints can lead to shortcuts or
High Installation Costs
incomplete implementation.
Mechanical Strain from Vibration and load from vehicles can destabilize
Roads bioengineered slopes near roads.

Regional Examples in Nepal

 Siwalik and Terai Regions: Frequent bank cutting and farmland
inundation during monsoon seasons cause slope failures.
 Middle Hills: Deforestation and overgrazing have accelerated erosion
and landslides.
 Road Construction Zones: Areas like Krishna Bhir on the Prithvi
Highway suffer from poor drainage and weak geology, making
bioengineering difficult to implement effectively.

4. explain about the mass movement and its classification

indicating factor contilbuting to increase in shear stress.

Type Description Speed

Sudden detachment of rocks from a cliff
Rockfall Very rapid
face, falling vertically
Type Description Speed
Material moves as a single unit on a planar Moderate to
Slide
surface (e.g., landslides) fast
Curved surface movement of soil or rock, Slow to
Slump
often forming step-like features moderate
Debris Saturated material flows like a liquid
Fast
Flow (common in steep gullies after rain)
Earth Fine-grained material flows downslope, Slow to
Flow slower than debris flows moderate
Gradual downhill movement of soil—
Creep Very slow
imperceptible but persistent over time

Factors Increasing Shear Stress

Shear stress is the force trying to pull material downhill. When this
force exceeds the resisting force (like friction and cohesion), mass
movement begins.
Here are key contributors that increase shear stress:
 Overloading: Adding weight from rainwater, snow, vegetation,
or human construction increases gravitational force.
 Steep slope angle: Naturally or artificially steepened slopes
have less stability.
 Earthquakes or vibrations: Shaking can reduce internal strength
and trigger sliding.
 Undercutting: Erosion at the base of a slope (by rivers, waves,
or human activity) removes support.
  Rainfall or water infiltration: Water adds weight and lubricates
particles, reducing friction.
 Removal of vegetation: Roots hold soil together—clearing
vegetation decreases slope stability.

5. How is a landside different fiom mass wasting? Mention the

repair priorities of the landslide based on its history.
Repair Priorities Based on Landslide History
Landslide repair and mitigation strategies evolve depending on past
events and their impacts. Here’s how priorities are typically set:
1. Immediate Response
o Stabilize the slope to prevent further movement.
o Evacuate affected areas and restrict access.
o Install temporary drainage systems to divert water.
2. Short-Term Recovery
o Remove debris and restore basic infrastructure (roads,
utilities).
o Conduct geotechnical assessments to understand failure
mechanisms.
3. Long-Term Mitigation
o Historical data analysis: Areas with repeated landslides
get prioritized for permanent solutions.
o Implement structural measures like retaining walls, soil
anchoring, and rock bolting.
o Improve land-use planning to avoid construction in high-
risk zones.
 o Enhance public awareness and monitoring systems to
detect early signs of slope instability.
4. Modern Trends
o Shift from low-cost fixes (like vegetation removal) to high-
investment stabilization projects, especially in areas with
frequent or severe landslides
5. What are the general forms of failures that take place in slopes
in Nepal? Write down the general Criteria that lead to plane
failure of rock.
General Forms of Slope Failures in Nepal
Nepal’s rugged terrain and intense monsoon climate make slope
failures a common hazard. Here are the main types observed:
 Plane Failure: Occurs when a rock mass slides along a single,
planar discontinuity such as a bedding plane or joint. Common
in sedimentary rocks.
 Wedge Failure: Happens when two intersecting discontinuities
form a wedge that slides out.
 Toppling Failure: Involves blocks of rock rotating forward and
falling due to steeply dipping discontinuities.
 Circular Failure: Typical in soil or highly weathered rock, where
the failure surface is curved.
 Complex Failure: A combination of the above, often triggered
by human activities like road construction or deforestation.
General Criteria Leading to Plane Failure of Rock
Plane failure is one of the most predictable types of rock slope
failure. It occurs when a block of rock slides along a planar surface.
The key criteria include:
 Geometric Conditions:
o The dip of the discontinuity (e.g., bedding plane or joint)
must be greater than the friction angle of the material.
o The dip direction of the discontinuity should be similar to
the slope face.
o The discontinuity must daylight (i.e., intersect the slope
face).
 Mechanical Factors:
o Low cohesion and friction angle along the discontinuity.
o Presence of water reduces shear strength due to pore
pressure.
o Weathering weakens the rock and joints.
 External Triggers:
o Rainfall and infiltration during monsoon season.
o Toe cutting during road construction.
o Seismic activity which can destabilize joints
6.what are major metamorphic rocks available in Nepal Himalaya?
Mention the potentiality of slope failure on the basis of lithological
factor of rock.
Major Metamorphic Rocks in the Nepal Himalaya
Nepal's Himalaya is geologically diverse, with several metamorphic
rock types formed under varying temperature and pressure
conditions. These rocks are primarily found in the Higher and Lesser
Himalayan zones:
Gneiss: Coarse-grained, banded rock formed under high-grade
metamorphism. Common in the Higher Himalaya.
Schist: Rich in mica minerals like biotite and muscovite; often foliated
and found in both Higher and Lesser Himalaya.
Quartzite: Hard, resistant rock derived from sandstone; prevalent in
the Lesser Himalaya.
Slate: Fine-grained, low-grade metamorphic rock; common in the
Lesser Himalaya.
Phyllite: Intermediate between slate and schist; has a silky sheen and
is also found in the Lesser Himalaya.
Marble: Metamorphosed limestone; occurs in pockets within the
Lesser Himalaya
Slope Failure Potential Based on Lithology
Lithological characteristics play a crucial role in slope stability. Here's
how different rock types influence slope failure:
Rock Type Lithological Traits Slope Failure Potential
Slate & Thinly bedded, High – prone to sliding along
Phyllite foliated, low strength foliation planes
Strong foliation, mica- High – susceptible to weathering
Schist
rich and planar failures
Hard, massive, Low – generally stable unless
Quartzite
resistant fractured
Gneiss Banded, variable Moderate – stability depends on
Rock Type Lithological Traits Slope Failure Potential
strength foliation orientation
Moderate to High – karst
Marble Crystalline, soluble
features may enhance instability
Key Factors Contributing to Slope Failure:
 Foliation and bedding planes: Act as slip surfaces, especially in
schist, slate, and phyllite.
 Fracturing and faulting: Common in tectonically active zones
like the Main Central Thrust.
 Hydrothermal alteration: Weakens rock strength, especially in
phyllite and schist zones.
 Monsoon rainfall: Triggers landslides by saturating weak
lithologies
8. Write down the field method for slope stability based on
orientation of rock fractures.
Field Method for Slope Stability Based on Rock Fracture Orientation
1. Site Reconnaissance
 Identify and map the slope area under investigation.
 Note any visible signs of instability: cracks, rockfalls, tilting
trees, or water seepage.
2. Structural Mapping
 Measure orientation of rock fractures using a compass
clinometer:
o Strike: direction of the fracture line relative to north.
 o Dip: angle at which the fracture slopes downward from
the horizontal.
 Record the spacing, persistence, aperture, roughness, and infill
material of fractures.
 Identify different sets of discontinuities (joints, faults, bedding
planes).
3. Stereographic Analysis
 Plot fracture orientations on a stereonet (using either manual
or digital methods).
 Analyze intersection angles and their relation to slope face
orientation.
 Determine if any fracture planes daylight toward the slope,
which increases the risk of sliding.
4. Slope Geometry Assessment
 Measure slope face dip and direction.
 Compare slope orientation with the dominant discontinuity
sets.
 Assess whether conditions support planar, wedge, or toppling
failure.
5. Environmental Observations
 Note moisture conditions, vegetation, and surface runoff paths.
 Identify weathering processes that could weaken rock mass
over time.
6. Field Classification
  Apply classification systems such as Rock Mass Rating (RMR) or
Slope Mass Rating (SMR) to quantify stability.
 Evaluate based on joint conditions, slope geometry, and
orientation relationships.
7. Risk Evaluation
 Categorize slope stability (stable, marginally stable, unstable).
 Recommend mitigation measures if necessary: drainage
improvements, retaining structures, or slope angle
adjustments.

9. How can the seriousness of the failed site be evaluated? write

down the factors that lead to finalization of priority to repair the site
To evaluate the seriousness of a failed site and determine the priority
for repairs, engineers and project managers typically consider a
combination of technical, safety, and logistical factors
Evaluating the Seriousness of a Failed Site
This involves assessing the impact and potential risks posed by the
site failure:
 Structural Damage Level: The extent of collapse or disrepair—
partial failure versus complete structural compromise.
 Risk to Public Safety: Potential hazards to nearby residents,
traffic, or environment (e.g., falling debris, contamination).
 Functionality Loss: How the failure affects essential services—
power supply, water flow, communication systems,
transportation.
  Economic Disruption: Cost of downtime or halted operations;
impact on businesses or local economy.
 Environmental Impact: Pollution, habitat disruption, or other
ecological consequences.
 Legal or Regulatory Violations: Breach of codes, permits, or
safety regulations.
 Historical or Strategic Importance: Is the site culturally
significant, or part of critical infrastructure?
Factors Influencing Priority for Repair Finalization
Once the seriousness is assessed, the following guide the
prioritization:
 Urgency of Safety Restoration: Sites posing immediate danger
are addressed first.
 Population Affected: Higher priority goes to locations affecting
more people or key services.
 Resource Availability: Equipment, materials, and workforce
needed for repairs.
 Access and Logistics: Feasibility of reaching the site and
completing repairs without major obstacles.
 Repair Costs and Funding: Budget constraints, insurance
coverage, or available financial aid.
 Repair Duration Estimates: Preference may be given to quicker
fixes if they restore essential functions fast.
 Community and Stakeholder Input: Consideration of public
concern or government directives.
 Seasonal or Weather Constraints: Some repairs may need to
happen before monsoon, winter, or other climatic challenges.
 Chapter 3: BASIC ASPECT OF VEGETATION

3.1 Plant Types, Plant form and structures

understanding plant types, forms, and structures is essential for
selecting species that stabilize soil, prevent erosion, and support
ecological restoration.

Plant Types
Bio-engineering uses vegetation not just for aesthetics but for
engineering functions like slope stabilization and erosion control.
Plant types are selected based on their adaptability, root structure,
and ecological benefits:
Grasses: Fast-growing, fibrous roots ideal for surface erosion control.
Shrubs: Woody perennials with multiple stems; useful for slope
reinforcement.
Trees: Deep-rooted species that stabilize deeper soil layers and
provide canopy cover.
Climbers & Creepers: Useful for covering surfaces and binding loose
soil.
Herbs: Non-woody plants that can quickly colonize disturbed areas.
Plants are often chosen for their unpalatability to livestock, ability to
regenerate, and multi-purpose use (e.g., fodder, timber)

Plant Forms and Structures

Understanding plant morphology helps in selecting species that
perform well in bio-engineering applications:
Basic Plant Body
All vascular plants share a common structure:
  Roots: Anchor the plant and absorb water/nutrients.
 Stems: Support the plant and transport nutrients.
 Leaves: Photosynthetic organs that also regulate water loss
Growth Forms
Plants are categorized by their stem morphology:
 Herbs: Soft, green stems; die back seasonally.
 Shrubs: Woody, low-growing with multiple stems.
 Trees: Tall, woody with a single main trunk
Structural Features
 Nodes & Internodes: Points of leaf attachment and stem
segments.
 Axillary Buds: Potential sites for new growth.
 Petiole & Lamina: Leaf stalk and blade for photosynthesis.
 Root Systems: Taproots for deep anchoring; fibrous roots for
surface binding
3.2 VEGETATION AND PLANT COMMUNITY
the section on Vegetation and Plant Community explores how plant
life contributes to slope stabilization and ecological restoration.
Vegetation and Plant Community: Core Concepts
 Plant Types & Forms: Includes trees, shrubs, grasses, and herbs
—each with unique structural roles in stabilizing soil.
 Plant Communities: Groups of plant species that coexist in a
specific environment, forming a dynamic system that evolves
over time.
 Ecological Succession: Bioengineering often begins with
pioneer species that are stress-tolerant. These are gradually
 replaced by more stable and mature plant communities typical
of the local vegetation series.
 Native Species Use: Preference is given to native plants for
their adaptability and ecological compatibility. They also
support biodiversity and long-term sustainability.
Role in Bioengineering
 Erosion Control: Plant roots bind soil particles, reducing surface
erosion and landslide risks.
 Hydrological Impact: Vegetation regulates water infiltration and
runoff, improving slope stability.
 Mechanical Reinforcement: Root systems act like natural
reinforcements, enhancing soil strength.
Practical Applications
 Species Selection: Plants are chosen not just for engineering
benefits but also for being unpalatable to livestock or useful for
fodder and timber.
 Vegetative Stabilization Techniques: These include live staking,
brush layering, and vegetative crib walls, which integrate plant
communities into engineered structures.

3.3 BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANTS

understanding the fundamental requirements of plants is essential
for designing sustainable green infrastructure, stabilizing slopes, or
restoring degraded land. Here are the basic requirements of plants
Essential Requirements of Plants
1. Sunlight
Required for photosynthesis, which enables plants to produce
energy.
Influences growth direction, leaf size, and flowering.
2. Water
Vital for nutrient transport and cellular functions.
Availability must match species-specific needs; both drought and
waterlogging can be harmful.
3. Air (Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen)
 CO₂ is used in photosynthesis; O₂ is essential for respiration.
 Good air exchange ensures healthy root zones, especially in
compacted soils.
4. Nutrients (from Soil)
 Macronutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K).
 Micronutrients: Iron, Magnesium, Zinc, etc.
 Deficiency can lead to stunted growth, poor health, or
discoloration.
5. Suitable Temperature Range
 Affects enzyme activity, growth rate, and seasonal cycles.
 Each species has optimal temperature thresholds; critical for
bio-engineering success.
6. Growing Medium (Soil/Substrate)
 Provides anchorage and stores water and nutrients.
 Soil properties like texture, pH, and permeability influence plant
performance.
7. Space for Growth
 Roots and shoots require adequate room to develop.
 Crowding can lead to competition and reduced vigor.

3.4 PLANT PROPAGATION(process of reproducing or

multiplying plants,)
plant propagation is a key concept that supports ecological
restoration, slope stabilization, and vegetation management.
What Is Plant Propagation?
Definition: The process of multiplying plants using sexual (seeds) or
asexual (vegetative parts) methods.
Purpose in Bio-Engineering: To establish vegetation cover that
stabilizes soil, prevents erosion, and enhances biodiversity.
types of Propagation
1. Sexual Propagation
 Involves seeds formed by fusion of gametes.
 Used for species with strong genetic diversity.
 Common in crops like papaya and mangosteen.
2. Asexual (Vegetative) Propagation
 Uses plant parts like roots, stems, or leaves.
 Produces genetically identical offspring.
 Ideal for rapid multiplication and uniform growth

Methods of Vegetative Propagation

Method Description
Cutting Stem or leaf cuttings planted to grow roots.
Grafting Joining parts of two plants to grow as one.
Layering Bending stems to the ground to form roots.
Suckering Shoots from roots or stems transplanted.
Tissue Culture Culturing cells in nutrient media to grow plantlets.

STRUCTURES
Old question
 2081bhadra regular
1. Define Plant propagation. Explain various propagation methods for
grass, shrubs and tree.
Plant propagation is the process of growing new plants from a variety
of sources: seeds, cuttings, bulbs, or other parts of the parent plant.
It’s essentially how plants reproduce and spread, either naturally or
with human assistance. This practice is essential in agriculture,
landscaping, gardening, and ecosystem restoration.
Propagation Methods for Grasses
 Seeds: Most grasses are easily propagated through seeds,
especially turf and ornamental varieties.
 Sodding/Turfing: Strips or rolls of pre-grown grass are laid
directly on soil, ideal for lawns.
 Sprigging: Small sections of grass stems with roots (sprigs) are
planted in furrows.
 Plugging: Small plugs of grass are inserted into the soil,
commonly used with warm-season grasses like Bermuda.
 Division: Clumps of grass are split and replanted—useful for
ornamental grasses like fountain grass.
Propagation Methods for Shrubs
 Cuttings: Softwood or hardwood stems are clipped and rooted
in soil or water. Common for hydrangeas, boxwood, and roses.
 Layering: A low branch is bent to the ground, partially buried,
and roots while still attached to the parent before being
severed. Works well with azaleas and rhododendrons.
  Division: Some clump-forming shrubs like lilac or forsythia can
be divided at the root.
 Grafting/Budding: Joining parts from two plants—typically
used in commercial nurseries for species like camellias or
fruiting shrubs.
Propagation Methods for Trees
 Seeds: Common in forestry, but not always true-to-type (i.e.,
offspring may differ from parent).
 Cuttings: Used for species like poplar or willow that root easily.
 Grafting/Budding: Especially vital for fruit trees like apples,
mangoes, and citrus to ensure desirable traits.
 Air Layering: A branch is wounded, wrapped in moist medium
and sealed until roots form—used in species like guava and
rubber tree.
 Micropropagation (Tissue Culture): Advanced method done in
labs for mass propagation of disease-free and fast-growing
trees.

2. What are the factors governing the distribution of

vegetation? Discuss the major vegetation zones of
Nepal.
Factors Governing Vegetation Distribution
Altitude and Climate: Nepal's dramatic elevation change—from just
60 meters in the south to over 8,000 meters in the north—creates a
wide variety of climate zones. Temperature and precipitation
patterns shift sharply with altitude.
Soil Type: Different soils (sandy, clayey, loamy) support different
vegetation types. Fertile soils in river valleys encourage dense forests
and agriculture.
Topography: Hills, valleys, and slopes affect sunlight exposure,
drainage, and wind patterns, influencing what types of plants can
grow.
Human Activity: Deforestation, agriculture, urbanization, and
conservation practices reshape natural vegetation zones.
Water Availability: Regions with consistent rainfall or near rivers
have more lush vegetation than arid zones.
Sunlight & Aspect: South-facing slopes often receive more sunlight,
favoring different plant species compared to north-facing ones.

Major Vegetation Zones of Nepal

Thanks to its varied topography and climate, Nepal has richly diverse
vegetation zones. These can be broadly divided into:
Tropical Zone (Below 1,000 m)
o Found in the Tarai region
o Dominated by Sal forests, grasslands, and tropical
hardwoods
o Home to wildlife like tigers, elephants, and rhinos
Subtropical Zone (1,000–2,000 m)
o Includes the Siwalik and lower mid-hills
o Forests of Chir pine, Schima, Castanopsis, and broadleaf
species
 o Mixed farming and rural settlements common here
Temperate Zone (2,000–3,000 m)
 Mid-hill regions including parts of Kathmandu Valley
 Forests of Oak, Rhododendron, and Maple
 Beautiful in spring when rhododendrons bloom
Subalpine Zone (3,000–4,000 m)
 Found in higher hill regions and lower Himalayan slopes
 Forests of Birch, Juniper, and Mountain Rhododendron
 Sparse human settlement, often grazing zones
Alpine Zone (Above 4,000 m)
 Harsh, cold desert-like conditions in the upper Himalayas
 Vegetation includes mosses, lichens, and hardy grasses
 Very limited plant life due to short growing seasons
2. What do you mean by plant community? How plant community
helps for the sustainability of bio-engineering practice?
A plant community refers to a group of plant species that coexist in a
specific geographical area and interact with each other and their
environment. These communities are shaped by factors like climate,
soil type, altitude, and disturbances (natural or human-made).
often found distinct combinations of trees, shrubs, grasses, and herbs
that create a relatively stable ecosystem—whether it’s in a forest,
wetland, grassland, or slope.
Role in Bio-Engineering Sustainability Plant communities are
essential for the long-term success of bio-engineering practices—
especially in areas like slope stabilization, riverbank protection, and
erosion control.
Soil Stabilization: Root systems of different plants interweave and
anchor the soil, reducing erosion and landslides.
Biodiversity Resilience: Diverse communities adapt better to
environmental changes. If one species fails, others fill its ecological
role.
Water Regulation: Vegetation slows surface runoff, allowing better
water infiltration and reducing flood risk.
Habitat Creation: Healthy plant communities support insects, birds,
and other wildlife, enriching the ecosystem.
Self-Regeneration: Native plant communities are often self-sustaining
and need minimal maintenance once established.
Microclimate Moderation: They help regulate temperature and
humidity, which in turn supports bio-engineered structures.
3. Briefly explain the relationship tretween vegetative and civil
engineering system. Describe functional use of retaining wall in
bio-engineering
the relationship between vegetative systems and civil engineering is a
smart and sustainable blend of nature and infrastructure.
Vegetative Systems in Civil Engineering
Vegetative systems involve using plants and natural elements to
support or enhance engineered structures. This integration plays a
role in:
 Erosion Control: Plants stabilize soil and reduce erosion along
slopes, roads, and riverbanks.
  Stormwater Management: Green roofs, bio-swales, and rain
gardens help absorb and filter rainwater, lowering runoff and
preventing flooding.
 Slope Stabilization: Root systems strengthen soil structure,
reducing landslide risks in hilly or mountainous areas.
 Aesthetic and Environmental Benefits: Vegetation adds beauty
and biodiversity to urban landscapes, improving air quality and
reducing heat.
How Civil Engineering Adapts
Civil engineers incorporate vegetative systems into design to:
 Build eco-friendly infrastructure
 Reduce maintenance costs and environmental impact
 Improve public health and resilience of built environments
they’re functionally used as follows:
Soil Stabilization & Slope Management
 Retaining walls reduce erosion and manage slope gradients.
 They help control landslides in vulnerable terrain by supporting
steep or unstable earth surfaces.
 Often integrated with vegetation (like grasses, shrubs, or
vetiver), which strengthens the soil structure through root
systems.
Water Management
 These walls can direct surface runoff, reduce waterlogging, and
prevent gullying.
  Permeable designs allow water to seep through, enhancing
drainage and reducing hydraulic pressure.
Habitat Restoration
 Retaining structures often serve as growing beds for native
species.
 They promote ecological succession by allowing plants to take
root and gradually reforest degraded areas.
Material Efficiency & Sustainability
 Bio-engineered walls use natural materials like geotextiles,
bamboo, coir, or timber in combination with vegetation.
 This reduces carbon footprint compared to concrete or steel-
based alternatives.
Infrastructure Protection
 In road, riverbank, or terrace construction, retaining walls
ensure long-term stability.
 They support agricultural terraces and help protect built
infrastructure from landslips and erosion.
4. describe check dam, retention wall and gravity wall with their
major functions in slope stabilization
Check Dam
Description: A check dam is a small, usually temporary, structure
built across water channels like gullies or streams to slow down
water flow.
Major Functions:
 Reduce Water Velocity: Slows down runoff, which helps
prevent erosion.
  Sediment Control: Traps sediment and debris, reducing the
load downstream.
 Recharge Groundwater: Promotes percolation of water into the
soil, improving moisture retention.
 Vegetative Growth Support: Slower flow and sediment buildup
create a base for vegetation, which further stabilizes the slope.
Retaining Wall
Description: A retaining wall is a rigid structure designed to hold back
soil, especially on steep slopes, creating a level surface or preventing
collapse.
Major Functions:
 Soil Support: Prevents downward movement of soil in unstable
or sloped areas.
 Erosion Control: Stops soil from being washed away during
heavy rainfall.
 Land Optimization: Allows for usable terraces or plots in hilly
terrains.
 Flood Protection: Can divert or retain water to protect
downslope structures.
Gravity Wall
Description: A gravity wall is a type of retaining wall that relies purely
on its own weight to resist pressure from the soil behind it.
Major Functions:
 Resist Lateral Earth Pressure: Its heavy mass holds back soil
through gravitational force.
  Slope Reinforcement: Provides strong physical support for
unstable slopes.
 No Anchoring Needed: Unlike other walls, it doesn’t need deep
foundations or reinforcement—just mass and stability.
 Durability: Often built with stone, concrete, or masonry for
long-term stability.

5.how plant community helps for switching of bio

engineering practices.
Plant communities are reshaping bioengineering practices in
powerful ways, especially as agriculture pivots toward sustainability
and precision. they’re driving the switch by following:
1. Microbiome Engineering
 Plant communities host diverse microbial ecosystems—these
microbes influence nutrient cycling, disease resistance, and
stress tolerance.
 Scientists now engineer synthetic microbial communities
(SynComs) to mimic or enhance these natural interactions,
offering eco-friendly alternatives to chemical fertilizers and
pesticides
2. Precision Bioengineering
 Understanding plant-microbe networks allows for targeted
genome editing and synthetic biology applications.
 This leads to crops that are climate-resilient, more productive,
and less dependent on external inputs like water or chemicals
3. Ecological Sustainability
  Diverse plant communities promote soil health and
biodiversity, which are key to sustainable farming.
 Bioengineering now focuses on holistic systems, integrating
plant traits with microbial functions to reduce environmental
impact
4. Community-Driven Innovation
 Initiatives like PlantGENE foster collaboration among
researchers, farmers, and biotech experts to advance plant
bioengineering through shared knowledge and training.
6.What is plant community? Why is it maintained in Bio-Engineering?
In bio-engineering (especially in slope stabilization, erosion control,
and ecological restoration), maintaining a healthy plant community is
vital for several reasons:
Soil Stabilization: Roots from various species create a network that
holds soil together, preventing landslides and erosion.
Biodiversity: Diverse plant communities are more resilient to pests,
diseases, and environmental stresses.
Water Management: Plants help absorb rainfall, reduce runoff, and
enhance groundwater recharge.
Ecological Balance: Native plants support local wildlife, promote
pollination, and improve ecosystem functioning.
Long-Term Sustainability: A thriving plant community can self-
regulate and adapt to changes, reducing the need for constant
human intervention.
6. How can the plants be grouped on the basis of root
architecture? Write down the process of mineralization and
function of compost.
Grouping of Plants Based on Root Architecture
Plants can be classified by their root systems, which largely
determine how they absorb water and nutrients:
 Taproot System:
o Seen in dicotyledonous plants like carrots and mustard.
o Features a dominant primary root that grows deep into
the soil.
o Ideal for accessing water from deeper layers.
 Fibrous Root System:
o Common in monocotyledonous plants like grasses and
wheat.
o No dominant root—many thin roots spread out near the
surface.
o Efficient for preventing soil erosion and absorbing surface
nutrients.
 Adventitious Root System:
o Roots emerge from stems or leaves (not the main root
axis).
o Found in banyan trees, sugarcane, and maize.
o Useful for support, storage, or propagation.
Process of Mineralization
Mineralization is a key part of nutrient cycling in ecosystems,
especially in soil. Here's how it works:
 Organic Matter Breakdown:
 o Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) decompose organic
materials like dead plants and animals.
 Release of Inorganic Nutrients:
o This decomposition converts complex organic compounds
into simpler, inorganic forms like ammonium (NH₄⁺),
nitrate (NO₃⁻), phosphate (PO₄³⁻), and potassium (K⁺).
 Nutrient Availability:
o These minerals become available for plant uptake, fueling
growth and development.
Functions of Compost
Compost is organic matter that's been decomposed and recycled as
fertilizer and soil amendment. It offers several benefits:
 Improves Soil Structure:
o Enhances porosity, aeration, and water retention.
 Provides Nutrients:
o Supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
micronutrients.
 Boosts Microbial Activity:
o Enriches the soil biome for better nutrient cycling.
 Suppresses Plant Diseases:
o Introduces beneficial organisms that outcompete
pathogens.
 Environmentally Friendly:
o Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and cuts down
on waste.
8.write down the basic characteristics of plant community
Species Composition
 The variety of plant species present, including dominant, co-
dominant, and minor species
 Species may vary based on climate, soil type, and other
ecological factors
Structure
 Vertical layering (e.g., trees, shrubs, herbs, ground cover)
 Horizontal distribution—how plants are spaced across the area
 Canopy structure, which influences light availability and
microclimate
Dominance
 Some species exert greater influence on the community due to
their size, abundance, or ecological role
 These dominant species often determine the overall
appearance and function of the community
Diversity
 Refers to both species richness (number of different species)
and evenness (relative abundance)
 High diversity can contribute to ecosystem stability
Ecological Interactions
 Competition for resources like light, water, and nutrients
 Mutualism (e.g., pollination, seed dispersal) and allelopathy
(chemical influence among plants)
Habitat and Environmental Adaptation
  Plant communities are shaped by climate, topography, soil type,
and moisture availability
 Plants within a community often exhibit adaptations to these
conditions
Succession
 Plant communities can change over time through ecological
succession—from pioneer species to climax community
 This dynamic nature reflects both natural processes and
disturbances (like fire or human activity)
Stability and Resilience
 Ability to maintain structure and function in response to stress
or disturbance
 More stable communities often have diverse and well-adapted
species
9. write down the role of plant community, in the establishment of
plants at the site.
1. Microclimate Regulation
 Existing plants can create shade, retain moisture, and buffer
temperature extremes.
 They reduce wind speed and erosion, making conditions more
favorable for newcomers.
2. Soil Enrichment
 Plants improve soil fertility by adding organic matter through
leaf litter and root decay.
 Some species, like legumes, fix nitrogen, making it available for
other plants.
3. Facilitation & Symbiosis
 Established plants may form beneficial relationships with fungi
or microbes, which newcomers can tap into.
 Nurse plants protect seedlings by offering shelter from harsh
conditions.
4. Competition
 On the flip side, existing plants compete for resources like light,
water, and nutrients.
 Dense communities may prevent seedling establishment due to
limited space.
5. Seed Dispersal & Recruitment
 Some plants help disperse seeds of other species through
windbreaks, animal attraction, or soil stabilization.
 The composition of the community influences which seeds are
likely to germinate
6. Biotic Interactions
 Communities support pollinators, herbivores, and predators
that affect plant recruitment.
 Presence of specific insects or animals may encourage or
discourage establishment of certain plants.
11. what are the different types of plants that are used in
bioengineering? Mention, how the compost serves the soil to
improve its quality.
Genetically Modified Crops
These plants are altered to enhance yield, nutritional content, or
resistance to pests and diseases.
Corn and Soybeans: Engineered for insect resistance and herbicide
tolerance.
Golden Rice: Modified to produce vitamin A to combat deficiency.
Papaya: Bioengineered to resist ringspot virus.
Plants as Biofactories
These are used to produce pharmaceutical compounds, vaccines, and
industrial enzymes.
 Tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana): Popular for producing
vaccines and antibodies.
 Rice and Maize: Engineered to express pharmaceutical
proteins.
 Safflower: Modified to produce insulin and other therapeutic
proteins.
Phytoremediation Plants
Used to clean up environmental pollutants like heavy metals and
toxins from soil or water.
 Sunflower: Absorbs heavy metals from contaminated soil.
 Indian Mustard: Known for removing lead and selenium.
 Poplar Trees: Used to degrade industrial waste and absorb
heavy metals.
Biofuel Crops
Engineered or optimized to produce energy-rich biomass for fuel
production.
 Switchgrass and Miscanthus: High biomass producers used in
cellulosic ethanol.
  Sugarcane and Corn: Traditional sources for bioethanol.

Chapter 4 : ROLE OF VEGETATION

4.1 Hydrological Effects
vegetation plays a crucial hydrological role in stabilizing slopes,
especially in areas prone to landslides or erosion. Here's how:
Hydrological Functions of Vegetation
 Interception of Rainfall: Leaves and canopy structures catch
rain before it hits the ground, reducing the direct impact and
slowing infiltration.
 Transpiration: Plants absorb water from the soil and release it
into the atmosphere, lowering soil moisture and reducing pore
water pressure.
 Evapotranspiration: Combined effect of evaporation and
transpiration helps maintain a balanced water cycle in the soil.
 Root Water Uptake: Deep-rooted vegetation extracts water
from lower soil layers, helping to prevent saturation during
heavy rains.
 Reduction of Surface Runoff: Vegetation slows down water
movement across the surface, promoting infiltration and
minimizing erosion.
Impact on Slope Stability
 By reducing soil water content, vegetation decreases the
likelihood of soil becoming saturated and unstable.
 Lower pore water pressure means less chance of soil particles
losing cohesion and sliding.
 Vegetation acts as a natural hydraulic pump, regulating water
flow within the slope system

4.2 Hydraulic Effects

vegetation plays a crucial hydraulic role in slope stabilization by
influencing water movement and retention in the soil.
Hydrological Functions of Vegetation

 Interception of Rainfall: Leaves and branches catch rainwater, reducing the amount
that directly hits the soil and slowing infiltration.

 Transpiration: Plants absorb water through their roots and release it into the
atmosphere, lowering soil moisture and pore water pressure.

 Evapotranspiration: Combined evaporation from soil and transpiration from plants

helps maintain drier soil conditions, which increases slope stability.

 Water Uptake: Deep-rooted vegetation can draw water from saturated zones,
reducing the risk of soil saturation and landslides.

4.3 Mechanical Effects

Different processes influence the mechanical properties of soil that
helps in slope stability they are as follows
Wind Load
 Wind itself doesn’t typically destabilize slopes directly, unless
vegetation or built structures on the slope are affected.
 Impact on vegetation: Strong winds can uproot trees, reducing
root cohesion and weakening the slope.
 Impact on structures: High wind loads on retaining walls or
buildings can exert lateral forces, contributing to instability if
not properly accounted for in design.
Anchoring
 Anchoring refers to mechanical methods like ground anchors or
rock bolts that physically hold unstable masses in place.
 They transfer load from unstable soil or rock to deeper, more
stable layers.
  Increases resistance to sliding and overturning, especially in
slopes with loose or fractured material.
Surcharge
 Surcharge means adding extra load on top of a slope—this can
be a building, fill material, or even a parked vehicle.
 It can be both helpful and harmful:
o If placed near the toe (bottom) of a slope, it can
counteract upward forces, improving stability.
o If placed near the crest (top), it can increase driving
forces, leading to potential failure.
 Proper management of surcharge is critical to slope design.
increasing Shear Strength
 Shear strength is the slope material’s ability to resist sliding
along a failure plane.
 It can be improved by:
o Soil stabilization techniques, like mixing in lime or
cement.
o Lowering water content, since water reduces friction and
cohesion.
 Higher shear strength means the slope can withstand greater
stress without collapsing.
Root Cohesion
 Plant roots bind soil particles together, creating a natural
reinforcement system.
  Roots enhance soil cohesion and shear strength, particularly
near the surface.
 Vegetation also helps absorb water, reducing pore water
pressure, which can weaken slopes.

4.4 Soil Strength And Stability Analysis

soil strength and stability is crucial for vegetation because plants
depend on the soil not just for nutrients and water, but also for
physical support.

1. Root Anchorage
 Stable soil ensures plant roots can anchor effectively, helping
them withstand wind, rain, and other environmental forces.

2. Water Retention & Drainage

 Strength and texture affect how well soil holds or drains water,
which determines the availability of moisture to plants and
prevents root rot.
3. Nutrient Accessibility
 Stable soil prevents excessive erosion, allowing nutrients to
remain available to plant roots instead of being washed away.
4. Erosion Control
 Analyzing stability helps predict erosion risks, allowing for soil
conservation strategies that protect vegetation and ecosystems.
5. Land Use Planning
 Strong and stable soil informs decisions about what plants or
crops can be grown, guiding farmers and landscapers to select
suitable vegetation.
6. Plant Health & Growth
 Healthy root development requires a balance of soil
compaction and porosity, directly influenced by soil strength
and structure.
7. Slope Vegetation Support
 On sloped terrain, soil stability prevents landslides and
supports hillside vegetation, essential for mountainous and
hilly areas.
8. Climate Resilience
 Well-analyzed soil can better withstand climate variability,
helping plants survive droughts, floods, and changing weather
patterns.

PAST QUESTIONS
1.briefly explain the mechanical effect of mechanical
vegetation with soil interaction
Mechanical vegetation refers to structures like plant roots or
engineered root-like systems that enhance soil stability. Their
interaction with soil leads to several mechanical effects:
Soil Reinforcement: Roots act like natural anchors, increasing the
shear strength of soil and preventing erosion or landslides.
Increased Cohesion: Root systems bind soil particles together,
improving the overall cohesion of the soil.
Resistance to Wind and Water Forces: Vegetative cover reduces
surface runoff and wind impact, minimizing particle displacement.
Reduction in Surface Erosion: Dense vegetation shields soil from rain
impact, decreasing erosion rates.’

Chapter 5 : Plant Species Selection

5.1DISTIRBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEPAL
Nepal is divided into six bioclimatic zones, each with distinct
vegetation types
Elevation
Zone Dominant Vegetation Types
Range
Sal forests, grasslands, tropical
Tropical < 1,000 m
hardwoods
1,000–2,000 Schima-Castanopsis forests,
Subtropical
m subtropical pines
Lower 2,000–2,500
Oak forests, rhododendrons
Temperate m
Upper 2,500–3,000
Fir, hemlock, and birch forests
Temperate m
3,000–4,000
Subalpine Juniper, dwarf rhododendrons
m
Alpine > 4,000 m Cushion plants, alpine meadows
This zonation guides species selection based on altitude, climate,
and soil type.

5.2Criteria For Species Selection

1.Local Species
local species” refers to plants that are native or naturally adapted to
a specific region or ecosystem.
Why Prioritize Local Species?
 Ecological Compatibility Native species are adapted to the local
climate, soil, and rainfall patterns. They often require less
maintenance and irrigation.
Support for Local Biodiversity Local plants provide habitat and food
for native pollinators, birds, and other wildlife, strengthening the
overall ecosystem.
Resistance to Pests and Disease These species have evolved
alongside local pests and pathogens, often making them more
resilient without heavy use of chemicals.
Cultural and Aesthetic Value Indigenous plants can reflect the
heritage of a region and create a sense of place in design.
Reduced Invasiveness Risk Unlike exotic plants that can become
invasive, local species are naturally regulated by their environment.
2.selection of plant species according to morphological
characteristics
Selecting plant species based on their physical traits that we call
morphological characteristics—is a cornerstone of ecology,
landscaping, agriculture, and conservation
Key Morphological Traits Considered
 Leaf Shape & Size Indicates photosynthetic capacity, water
requirements, and climate adaptability.
 Root Type Deep vs. shallow roots affect soil anchorage, erosion
control, and drought resilience.
 Stem Structure Woody vs. herbaceous stems determine growth
longevity and habitat suitability.
 Flower Traits Flower color, size, and type help attract specific
pollinators, aiding biodiversity.
  Fruit Type Impacts seed dispersal mechanisms and edibility for
animals or humans.
 Plant Height & Growth Form Important for canopy structure,
shade provision, and spatial layering.
3.establishment and persistence
establishment and persistence are crucial concepts that determine
the long-term success and sustainability of planted vegetation.
Establishment refers to the initial phase where plants grow
successfully after being introduced to a site. It’s all about whether a
species can:
Germinate or root in local soil and conditions
Adapt to immediate environmental factors, like temperature, light,
water availability, and competition
Survive early stressors, including pests, grazing, and drought.
Persistence is the ability of the species to maintain a stable
population over time. It considers whether plants:
 Reproduce consistently, either sexually (seeds) or vegetatively
(cloning, rhizomes)
 Compete effectively with other plants and resist being
outcompeted
 Cope with long-term environmental shifts, like climate changes
or nutrient variation
 Avoid diseases and pest pressures that can intensify over
seasons
4.Adaption and Availability
Adaption and Availability are two key principles when selecting plant
species for agriculture, landscaping, conservation, or ecological
restoration.
Adaptation
This refers to how well a plant species can survive and thrive in a
given environment.
 Climate Suitability: Plants must be suited to temperature,
rainfall, humidity, and seasonal patterns of the location.
 Soil Compatibility: Factors like pH, drainage, fertility, and
texture influence plant performance.
 Resistance Traits: Some species are more resistant to local
pests, diseases, or environmental stressors like drought or
salinity.
 Ecological Role: Native plants often support local biodiversity
better than exotic species, helping sustain pollinators, birds,
and other organisms.
Example: In Nepal’s mid-hills, selecting drought-tolerant grasses like
Vetiveria zizanioides helps prevent erosion and thrive in low-water
conditions.
Availability
This refers to how accessible and practical it is to obtain and use the
plant species.
 Seed or Sapling Supply: Is the species readily available from
nurseries or seed banks?
 Legal and Ethical Considerations: Some species may be
protected or restricted due to conservation laws or invasive
tendencies.
  Cultural Acceptance: Local knowledge and traditions may favor
or reject certain plants.
 Economic Viability: Costs of propagation, maintenance, and
return on investment affect selection—especially in farming or
large-scale projects.
Example: While an exotic plant might thrive in local soil, if it’s hard to
source or too expensive, a well-adapted native alternative could be a
better choice
5.Growth and Availability characteristics of bio engineering Species
Growth Characteristics
Bioengineered plants are often optimized to outperform
conventional varieties. Key traits include:
 Enhanced Yield: Many GM crops (e.g. Bt corn, Golden Rice) are
designed for higher productivity per acre.
 Accelerated Growth Rates: Some species reach maturity faster,
allowing for more harvests per season.
 Stress Resistance: Improved tolerance to drought, salinity, or
temperature extremes enables cultivation in harsh climates.
 Pest and Disease Resistance: Genetic enhancements help
reduce reliance on pesticides, lowering environmental impact.
 Nutritional Improvement:Crops may be fortified with vitamins
or minerals to address deficiencies (e.g. Vitamin A-enriched
rice).

Availability Characteristics
The distribution and accessibility of bioengineered species depend
on several factors:
  Regulatory Approval: Availability varies by country due to
differing laws around genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

 Seed Accessibility: Patents and seed ownership can affect

farmers' ability to save or reuse seeds; access is often controlled
by biotech companies.

 Cost and Infrastructure: Advanced bioengineered species may

require investment in specialized growing techniques or inputs
(e.g. fertilizers, pest controls).

 Acceptance and Adoption: Cultural attitudes, market demand,

and ethical debates influence their use in different regions

6.rapid establishment and vigour

Rapid Establishment and Vigour refers to two vital characteristics
that determine how effectively a plant species can thrive in a
particular environment.
Rapid Establishment
This describes a plant's ability to quickly germinate, grow, and adapt
to its environment after planting. Key traits include:
 Fast germination and seedling growth: Minimizes vulnerability
to environmental stress and competition.
 Early root development: Enables better access to water and
nutrients.
 Adaptability: Resilience to various soil types, pH levels, and
weather conditions.
  Low maintenance needs: Reduces the input required for
survival, especially important in large-scale restoration or
farming.
Vigour
Plant vigour relates to the overall strength and health of a plant as it
grows. Characteristics include:
 Robust growth rate: Produces ample biomass and covers
ground efficiently.
 Disease and pest resistance: Contributes to long-term survival.
 Tolerance to environmental stress: Such as drought, frost,
salinity, or flooding.
 Longevity and reproduction: Ensures sustainability of plant
populations over time.

7.Ease of Propagation
Ease of Propagation refers to how easily and reliably a plant can
be reproduced to grow new individuals. When choosing plants for
agriculture, landscaping, reforestation, or conservation projects, this
trait can make or break the success of the effort.

5.3Selection of Plant types depending upon the drought

factor
 PAST QUESTIONS

1.How does moisture availability affect the selection of plant

species? Write down the selection procedure of plant based on the
drought factor.
Moisture availability is a powerful factor in shaping plant
communities. It influences not just which species can survive in a
given area, but also how they grow, compete, and reproduce. Here's
how it plays a role:
In Moist Environments
Preference for water-loving plants: Species like ferns, willows, and
mangroves thrive in saturated soils or high humidity.
Broad leaves: Many plants develop larger leaves to maximize
photosynthesis when water loss is less of a concern.
Less drought resistance: These plants may struggle if moisture levels
drop suddenly.
In Dry Environments
 Drought-tolerant species: Succulents, cacti, and shrubs with
deep root systems are well-adapted to arid conditions.
 Water-conserving features: Thick cuticles, reduced leaf size,
and waxy coatings help limit water loss.
 Slow growth and seasonal strategies: Many desert plants grow
only during brief wet periods, storing water for long dry spells.
Transitional Zones or Variable Moisture
Adaptability is key: Plants like grasses or certain deciduous trees can
tolerate varying levels of moisture.
Competition: Species that quickly colonize moist areas after rains
often outcompete slower-growing ones.

When choosing plants for drought-prone areas or to create a

drought-resilient ecosystem, a careful and systematic selection
procedure ensures sustainability and long-term success. Here's how
it's typically done:
1. Assessment of Site Conditions
 Analyze the climate (rainfall, temperature, humidity).
 Study the soil type (texture, fertility, water-holding capacity).
 Evaluate water availability throughout the year.
2. Identification of Plant Traits for Drought Tolerance
 Look for deep root systems that can access groundwater.
 Favor plants with reduced leaf area or waxy coatings to
minimize water loss.
 Select species with water-use efficiency and slow transpiration
rates.
3. Screening and Evaluation of Plant Species
 Use local and regional databases or field observations to
shortlist native or adapted species.
 Conduct field trials or review existing research on their drought
response.
 Rate the species based on survivability, yield stability, and
resilience under water stress.
4. Physiological and Genetic Testing (for scientific selection)
 Measure stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, and
chlorophyll content.
 Apply molecular markers to detect drought-tolerant genes in
crop breeding programs.
5. Selection of Species or Cultivars
  Choose varieties that show consistent performance in drought
conditions.
 Prefer native or indigenous species, as they tend to be more
adapted and sustainable.
 Consider multi-purpose benefits (e.g. fodder, shade, soil
stabilization).
6. Propagation and Implementation
 Ensure seeds or planting material are available and viable.
 Develop nursery protocols or community training for proper
planting practices.
2. How can you select the plant species for bio-engineering in road
side at mountainous region? Describe briefly.
Selecting plant species for bioengineering along mountainous
roadsides is a strategic balance between environmental resilience
and ecological suitability:
key Criteria for Selecting Plant Species
 Root System Strength: Choose species with deep, fibrous, or
binding roots that can stabilize slopes and reduce erosion (e.g.
vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides).
 Local Adaptation: Favor native or locally adapted species—
they’re naturally acclimated to altitude, soil type, and climate.
 Drought and Frost Tolerance: Mountainous zones often face
water scarcity and temperature extremes. Species like
Juniperus or Himalayan grasses handle these well.
 Low Maintenance: Select hardy, self-sustaining plants that
don't require frequent care or fertilizer.
  Biodiversity Value: Use a mix of grasses, shrubs, and trees to
create habitat corridors and promote ecosystem health.
 Non-invasive Behavior: Avoid exotic species that spread
aggressively and disrupt local flora.
Examples
 Grasses: Vetiver, Pennisetum, Cymbopogon
 Shrubs: Rosa sericea, Berberis aristata
 Trees: Quercus (oak), Rhododendron, Alnus nepalensis
This kind of plant-based engineering is a smart and sustainable way
to hold the mountains together

3.what is drought factor?

Drought Factor is a numerical index used primarily in fire
management to estimate how dry vegetation (especially fine fuels
like grass, leaves, and twigs) is—and how likely it is to burn.
5. what are the factors that lead to the distribution of plant
species in Nepal
The distribution of plant species in Nepal is shaped by a fascinating
blend of abiotic, biotic, and anthropogenic factors:
Abiotic Factors
These are non-living environmental conditions that play a major role:
 Elevation: Nepal’s dramatic altitudinal range—from lowland
Terai to the high Himalayas—creates distinct vegetation zones.
  Temperature: Mean annual temperature affects metabolic rates
and growth patterns of plants. Warmer zones support tropical
species, while colder zones favor alpine flora.
 Precipitation: Rainfall patterns influence soil moisture and plant
hydration. Areas with higher precipitation tend to have richer
biodiversity.
 Soil Properties: Soil pH, organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium levels determine which species can thrive. For
example, phosphorus has been found to be especially
influential in some regions.
 Slope and Aspect: These affect sunlight exposure and water
runoff, influencing microclimates and species composition
Biotic Factors
These involve interactions among living organisms:
 Competition: Plants compete for light, nutrients, and space,
which affects their distribution.
 Canopy Cover: Dense forests may limit understory growth,
while open areas allow more species to flourish.
 Herbivory: Grazing by animals can suppress certain species and
promote others that are more resistant
Anthropogenic Factors
Human activities have a significant impact:
 Grazing and Cutting: Moderate disturbance can increase
species richness, but excessive disturbance reduces diversity.
 Land Use Changes: Agriculture, urbanization, and deforestation
alter habitats and shift species distributions.
  Conservation Practices: Protected areas like national parks help
preserve native species and ecosystems.
 Elevational Zonation in Nepal
 Nepal’s vegetation is typically divided into zones:

Elevation Range Vegetation Type

<1000 m Tropical forest (e.g., Shorea robusta)
1000–2000 m Subtropical forest (Schima, Castanopsis)
2000–3000 m Temperate forest (Oaks, Rhododendron)
3000–4000 m Subalpine forest (Abies, Juniper)
>4000 m Alpine shrubs and herbaceous plants

CHAPTER 6: VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES

Introduction
The structures constructed for the purpose of slope stabilization and
protection work with the use of living plants or plant materials are
named as vegetative engineering systems. There are mainly three
systems
1. Bioengineering systems developed from the use of seed
2. Bioengineering systems developed from the use of
seedlings
3. Bioengineering systems developed from the use of live
cuttings
6.1 Vegetative Engineering System
6.2 Design of vegetative techniques
Technique Design Feature Example Plants
Narrow bands of grass planted Vetiver, Napier
Grass Strips
across slope grass
Shrubs planted in small gullies
Live Check Dams Bamboo, willow
or streams
Dense rows of shrubs/trees
Hedgerows Leucaena, Gliricidia
along contours
Vegetated areas between Mulberry,
Buffer Zones
farmland and water bodies lemongrass
Agroforestry Integrating trees with Mango, moringa,
Systems crops/livestock pigeon pea
Cowpea, mustard,
Cover Cropping Plants that protect bare soil
alfalfa

PAST QUESTIONS
 1. . Differentiate between horizontal and vertical line
of grass plantation with neat sketches.
Horizontal Line
feature Vertical Line Plantation
Plantation
Follows the contour or Runs perpendicular to
1. Orientation
slope horizontally the slope, up and down
Excellent for reducing
2. Erosion Less effective in
surface runoff and
Control controlling runoff
erosion
3. Water Helps retain water by Water flows quickly
Retention slowing its flow between rows
4. Root Roots spread laterally, Roots penetrate
Anchorage stabilizing the slope vertically, less lateral hold
Easier to maintain and More difficult due to
5. Maintenance
monitor steep gradient
6. Aesthetic & Provides uniform green May appear patchy
Coverage cover across slope depending on spacing
Fig of horizontal line plantation in note fig
For vertical line plantation
 2. Define palisades with sketch. Explain the process of site
preparation, material requirement, operation, function
and limitations of palisades in slope stabilization
Palisades are vertical or slightly inclined rows of wooden stakes or
poles driven into the ground to form a retaining structure. They are
commonly used in bioengineering and geotechnical applications to
stabilize slopes, prevent erosion, and support embankments.
Site Preparation
 Survey and Assessment: Analyze slope geometry, soil type, and
water drainage.
 Clearing: Remove vegetation and debris from the installation
area.
 Marking: Layout the alignment and spacing of stakes (typically
600 mm center-to-center).
 Excavation: Dig shallow trenches or holes for driving stakes.
Material Requirements
 Wooden Stakes: Durable timber like Sal, Sundari, or Garzon;
diameter ~150 mm; length ~6 meters
 Horizontal Runners: Half-sawn bullah or drum sheets
 Fasteners: Gazali, nuts, bolts, tie wires
 Vegetation: Native grasses or shrubs for long-term
reinforcement
Operation (Construction Process)
1. Driving Stakes: Insert 1/3 of each stake into the ground
(minimum 2 meters deep)
2. Connecting Stakes: Fix horizontal runners to stabilize the
structure
3. Backfilling: Fill soil behind the palisade and compact it
4. Vegetation Planting: Sow native seeds or plant shrubs to
enhance soil binding
 5. Drainage: Install surface or subsurface drains if needed
Function in Slope Stabilization
 Mechanical Support: Resists soil movement and shallow
landslides
 Erosion Control: Reduces surface runoff and sediment
displacement
 Vegetative Reinforcement: Roots of planted vegetation bind
soil over time
 Barrier Formation: Acts as a sediment trap and slope toe
protection
Limitations
 Durability: Wooden stakes may degrade over time without
proper treatment
 Load Capacity: Suitable only for shallow or moderately steep
slopes
 Maintenance: Requires periodic inspection and vegetation
upkeep
 Environmental Constraints: Not ideal for rocky or highly
saturated soils

3. Briefly explain the relationship between vegetative and

civil engineering system. describe functional use of
retaining wall in bio-engineering.
Relationship between Vegetative and Civil Engineering Systems
Vegetative and civil engineering systems work hand-in-hand in bio-
engineering, especially in slope stabilization and erosion control:
Civil engineering provides structural solutions—like terraces,
retaining walls, and drainage systems—that anchor and protect
landscapes.
Vegetative systems use plants (grass, shrubs, trees) whose roots bind
the soil, absorb moisture, and reduce surface erosion.
Together, they create an integrated approach where civil structures
offer stability, and vegetation enhances long-term resilience and
ecological balance.
Functional Use of Retaining Walls in Bio-Engineering
Retaining walls in bio-engineering aren’t just about holding back soil
—they serve multiple roles:
 Soil Stabilization: Prevent landslides and erosion in unstable
slopes.
 Vegetation Support: Provide stepped surfaces or niches for
planting soil-binding species, especially vetiver grass or
bamboo.
 Water Management: Control runoff and improve drainage,
reducing the risk of water-induced erosion.
 Eco-Friendly Aesthetics: Create opportunities for green walls
that combine structure with natural vegetation for visual and
ecological benefits.
CHAPTER 7 : SMALL SCALE CIVIL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

1.1. Small scale civil engineering systems

Small scale civil engineering structures could be small by size, cost and technology.

1.1.1. Engineering systems and their selection

Main civil engineering structures used in Nepal are dealt here.

I) Retaining walls

Retaining walls help to support the mountainside slopes, or support the road or slope
segments from the valley side. They are designed to stop an active earth pressure.

Suitable sites: Any slope where there is a problem of deep-seated (> 500 mm) instability, or
where the steepness of the slope makes benching impractical.

The comparison of various retaining walls is shown in the table below:

Wall type Max. safe height Width to height ratio Advantages/Limitations
(W:H)
Dry masonry 4m 1:1 to 0.6:1 Well drained, flexible,
relatively low cost; low
strength threshold
Composite masonry 8m 0.75:1 to 0.5:1 Better drained than
mortared masonry but
with reduced strength
Mortared masonry 10m 0.75:1 to 0.5:1 Relatively easy to
construct on terrain;
cannot tolerate
settlement, poor
drainage
Gabion wall 10m 0.5:1 Flexible without
rupturing, tolerates
poor foundation, well
drained, relatively low
cost for strength
Reinforced earth 8m Depending upon Reinforcing expensive
design or difficult to obtain,
difficult to achieve
tension
Reinforced concrete 10m Depending upon High strength;
design relatively costly,
requires advanced
technical skills to build,
 poor drainage

Practical considerations for retaining walls:

• As far as possible, dry masonry should be preferred.

• Careful design and supervision of foundations should be carried out.
• Weep holes of a minimum width of 75mm, sloping downwards, should be given
every one meter along and up the wall.
• A drainage blanket of aggregate with a porous membrane of filter fabric (geotextile
or hessian) should be placed over the weep holes.
• Toe projections should be provided to dissipate energy of water and hence to avoid
erosion at toe.
• Back batter should be used for minimizing excavation and construction cost.
• Tilting and benching are good ways for increasing stability against sliding. Backfilling
is critical; and should follow considered design specifications.

Bioengineering techniques should be used in conjuction with retaining walls for:

• Protection of backfill
• Protection from scour and undercutting of the foundations and sides
• Flexible extension to the wall by planting large bamboos, shrubs or trees
above the wall.
Toe walls: Toe walls are a type of retaining walls constructed at the toe of a slope or
segment of slope.

II) Revetment walls

Revetment walls are constructed to protect the base of a slope from undermining or other
damage, such as grazing by animals. They give only protection, not support, and are not
used on large, unstable slopes, where substantial retaining structures may be required.

Suitable Sites: Along the base of inherently stable cut slopes where seepage erosion can
destabilize the base of large slopes; along the foot of abandoned spoil tips which have
reached their angle of repose; along the foot of large fill sites.

Practical considerations for revetment walls:

The back face should be vertical; the front face should have a 3:1 gradient.

• If there is a risk of damage by biotic interference, a capping beam of

cement-bound masonry could be provided at the top of the wall.
 • Weep holes of a minimum width of 75mm, sloping downwards,
should be given every one metre along and up the wall.
• Backfilling is critical; and should follow considered design
specifications.

Its integration with bioengineering is similar to that of retaining walls.

Breast walls: Breast walls differ from toe walls in the fact that they provide armour
function as opposed to toe walls which provide support function. They are
considered to be a type of revetment walls.

III) Prop and dentition walls

‘Prop wall’ refers to support walls and dentition. On very steep cut slopes, prop walls are
used to support blocks of harder rock where they are underlain by softer rock bands. Where
differential weathering occurs, large segments of slope can become destabilized by a soft
rock band eroding away underneath it. This presents two options: either remove all the
material above, or support it with a prop wall. Prop walls do not usually offer total support
to the full weight of all slope material above. Rather, they stop the erosion of softer bands
below harder bands supported on them. Suitable Sites: Used only on steep cut slopes

They can be integrated with bioengineering for the protection from scour and undercutting
of the foundations and sides.

IV) Check dams

Check dams are simple structures to prevent the downcutting of runoff water in gullies. They
prevent deepening, widening and head aggravating of gully by providing periodic steps of
fully strengthened material. Check dams are designed to accept an active pressure if it
applied in the future, while permitting a safe discharge of water and debris via a spillway.

Suitable sites: Any loose or active gully. In general, anywhere on a slope where there is a
danger of scour from running water.

Practical considerations:

• A waterway or spillway notch should be provided.

• The dam should be keyed right into the gully sides, ensuring that water will
run down the notch without scouring.
• Launching apron should be given below the dam.
• Weep holes with granular filter material should be given.
• These dams should be located at the places of nick points and other
requiredplaces as per the following:
Where, X = spacing between two check dams, HE = effective dam height as measured from
the gully bottom to the spillway crest, S = slope of the gully floor and K is a constant such
that,

K = 0.3 when tanS < 0.2 and K = 0.5 when tanS >= 0.2

Integration with bioengineering aids in protection of backfill and gully floor above check
dam, along with scour prevention.

V) Surface and sub-surface drainage

Surface drains are installed in the surface of a slope to remove surface water quickly and
efficiently. Surface-water drains often use a combination of bio-engineering and civil
engineering structures. Cascades are a type of surface drains used on slopes steeper than
45º.

Sub-surface drains are installed in the slope to remove ground water quickly and efficiently.
They are usually restricted to civil engineering structures, and do not normally use
bioengineering measures. However, bio-engineering techniques can be used to strengthen
the slope around the drain.

VI) Stone pitching

A slope can be armoured with stone pitching which forms a strong covering. It is freely
drained and will withstand considerable water velocities. However, it is relatively expensive
in comparison with bio-engineering measures such as brush layering.

Suitable sites: Any slope up to 35º. This technique is particularly useful on slopes with a
heavy seepage problem, in flood-prone areas or where vegetation is difficult to establish,
such as in urban areas. It is also useful on gully floors between check dams and for scour
protection by rivers.

Stone pitching can be strengthened by planting grass slips or live cuttings of shrubs in the
gaps between stones.

VII) Wire bolster cylinders

Wire bolster cylinders (in cross-section, a tube of 300 mm diameter filled with stone) are laid
in shallow trenches across the slope. They prevent surface scour and gullying (by reinforcing
and fulfilling an intermittent armouring function), and provide shallow support. Bolsters can
be laid in two ways: along the contour; or in a herringbone pattern (<-<-<-<-<-) to double as
a surface drainage system.
Suitable sites: On most long, exposed slopes between 35 and 50º where there is a danger of
scour or gullying on the surface. Contour bolsters are used on well drained materials; slanted
(herringbone pattern) bolsters are used on poorly drained material where there is a risk of
slumping.

Contour bolsters are normally spaced at 2m centres for slope < 30º and at 1.5m centres for
slope between 30º to 45º. Herringbone bolsters are placed at 1.5m centres. Between wire
bolster cylinders, shrub and small tree seedlings are planted at 1m centres throughout the
slope.

VIII) Wire netting

Wire netting (gabion wire mesh) is spread over the surface of a rocky slope to reduce the
shedding of rock debris and slow the degradation of the surface.

IX) River training works

The objective of river training works is to: hold river in the existing channel; relocate main
flow channel; and hold vertical position of river bed.

Types:

• Revetment walls: They could be gabion with stones, stone riprap, timber piles,
bamboo piles, concrete slabs, old tires, sand bags, or combination of two or more of
above materials.
• Spurs
• Cut-offs

1.1.2. Interaction between vegetative and civil engineering systems

Slope treatment at a particular site may be proposed to be conducted with: civil engineering
systems alone; or vegetative systems alone; or combination of both systems. From a
bioengineering perspective, vegetative systems in conjunction with small-scale civil
engineering works is deemed best.

Relative strength over time for civil engineering, and vegetative systems is clear from the
following graphs. These graphs are mere diagrammatic representations for comparison of
the performance of each type of system; and do not depict their actual strength.

The relative strength of civil engineering structures throughout their life period decreases
from a certain maximum value obtained right after completion of construction. In exact
contrast, the relative strength of vegetative systems is very low at the time of plantation or
sowing but, with respect to time, it increases to a maximum value; and is maintained so for a
long period.
 Factors to be considered in selecting combinations:

• Life span of civil engineering systems

• Time period needed for vegetative systems to develop required strength
• Function to be performed: Both systems used in a site must perform similar
functions; or must complement each other.
• Mutual protection
A few examples on the relationship between civil engineering and vegetative systems:

• Toe wall below bamboo: Wall protects the bamboo.

• Plants around end of the toe wall: Plants protect the wall.
• Trees above toe wall: Trees enhance the performance of structure.
• Fence with young plants: Initially, fence protects the young plants. After the
life of fence, plants replace the structure.

For past questions and figure refer clz manual page number 39-45
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