18 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

1.5.3 Evaluation of Functions

The evaluation of a function is illustrated by examples. A rule describing a function
can be represented by an equation or formula, a table or a graph, which are recorded as
ordered pairs. The evaluation of a function is to find a number that is paired with a given
number.

Example 1.5.8 To evaluate the function f (x) = 3x + 2 at x = 2, we need the number

f (2). Since f (x) = 3x + 2, replace x by 2 in the expression for the function and simplify.
Thus f (2) = 3 × 2 + 2 = 6 + 2 = 8. Therefore the ordered pair is (2, 8). We write f (2) = 8
or 2 → 8. This is the y value in the expression by y = 3x + 2 when x = 2.

Example 1.5.9 Let f (x) = x2 + 6x + 2 Find the value of

(a) f (0) (c) f (1) (e) f (n − 2)

(b) f (−2) (d) f (x + 1)

(a) f (0) = 02 + 6(0) + 2 = 2. Thus 0 → 2 or as an ordered pair, (0, 2).

(b) f (−2) = (−2)2 + 6(−2) + 2 = −6. Thus −2 → −6 or as an ordered pair, (−2, −6).

(c) f (1) = 12 + 6(1) + 2 = 9. Thus 1 → 9 or as an ordered pair, (1, 9).

(d)

f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 + 6(x + 1) + 2
= (x2 + 2x + 1 + 6x + 6 + 2)
= x2 + 8x + 9.

Thus (x + 1) → x2 + 8x + 9 or as an ordered pair, ((x + 1), (x2 + 8x + 9)).

(e)

f (n − 2) = (n − 2)2 + 6(n − 2) + 2
= n2 − 4n + 4 + 6n − 12 + 2
= n2 + 2n − 6 or as an ordered pair, ((n − 2), (n2 + 2n − 6)

Thus (n − 2) → n2 + 2n − 6

f (x+h)−f (x)
Example 1.5.10 Let f (x) = 2x2 − 1. Let h > 0. Find the value of h
.

f (x + h) = 2(x + h)2 − 1
= 2(x2 + 2hx + h2 ) − 1
DW Ddumba 19

= 2x2 + 2hx + 2h2 − 1

f (x + h) − f (x) = (2x2 + 4hx + 2h2 − 1) − (2x2 − 1)
= 4hx + 2h2

f (x + h) − f (x) 4hx + 2h2

Therefore, =
h h
= 4x + 2h
Example 1.5.11 Given the function f (x) = 2x + 3 and a = 2. Compute and simplify
f (x)−f (a)
the value of x−a
, with x 6= a

Since f (x) = 2x + 3 and a = 2, f(a) = f (2) = 7. In addition (x − a) = (x − 2) and

therefore
f (x) − f (a) 2x + 3 − 7 2x − 4 (x − 2)
= = =2 =2
x−a x−2 x−2 (x − 2)

1.6 Types of functions

1.6.1 Equal Functions
Let f1 (x) and f2 (x) be functions that are defined on the same domain, D. If for each
element x of D, f1 (x) = f2(x), then the two functions are equal and we write f1 (x) = f2 (x).
Two functions f1 (x) and f2 (x) are equal if and only if f1 (x) and f2 (x) have the same
domains and f1 (x) = f2(x) for all x in this common domain.
Example 1.6.1 Prove that the functions:
(a) f1 (x) = 2x + 1 and f2 (x) = 4x
2
+ 1 are equal, where the domain for both functions
is the set of real numbers R.

π
(b) f1 (x) = sin x and f2(x) = cos ( 2 − x are equal, where the domain of for both

functions is the set of real numbers.

(a) Let a be a real number. Then f1 (a) = 2a + 1 = 42 a + 1 = 4a
2
+ 1 = f2 (a). Since a was
arbitrary, f1(x) = f2(x)for all real numbers. The two functions are therefore equal.
     
π
(b) Let a be a real number. Then f2(a) = cos 2
− a = cos π2 cos a + sin π2 sin a =
 
π
0 × cos a + 1 × sin a = sin a. Here we have used the fact that cos 2
= 0 and
 
π
sin 2
= 1.
20 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

1.6.2 One-to-One Function

If f is a function of A into B is said to be one-to-one (1 − 1) if no two elements of A
correspond to the same element in B. Each element of the domain has a different image
in the Range.

A function is one-to-one if and only if each element in the domain is mapped into a unique
element of the co-domain (range).

A one to one function is a function in which every element in the range of the function
corresponds with one and only one element in the domain.

For a 1 − 1 function, If x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )

Example 1.6.2 If f (a) = f (b) implies that a = b, then f is 1 − 1, show whether or not
g(x) = 3x − 2 is one-on-one?

see if g(a) = g(b) implies a = b

3a − 2 = 3b − 2
3a = 3b
a = b

Thus g is 1 − 1.
Example 1.6.3 The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x + 1 is injective.
Example 1.6.4 The function g : R → R defined by g(x) = x2 is not injective, because
(for example) g(1) = 1 = g(−1). However, if g is redefined so that its domain is the
non-negative real numbers [0, +∞), then g is injective.

A one-to-one function is one in which each x has only one y and each y has at most one
x to form ordered pairs.
Example 1.6.5 Let the function f : R → R be defined by the equation f (x) = 3x + 2
where R is the set of real numbers. Each real number will be mapped onto a unique image
by the function f (x) = 3x + 2. Hence f is a one-to-one function.
Example 1.6.6 Let the function f : R → R be defined by the formula f (x) = 3x2 + 2
Verify whether or not f is a one-to-one function.

The negative values of R are mapped onto the same elements as the corresponding positive
elements. For example, when x = −2, f(−2) = 14 and f (2) = 14. The images of two real
numbers −2 and 2 are the same number equal to 14. It follows that f is NOT a one-to-one
function.
Definition 1.6.1 A one to one function is also called an injective function.
DW Ddumba 21

Example 1.6.7 Which functions below are one to one ?

Function #1 {(2, 27), (3, 28), (4, 29), (5, 30)}
Function #2 {(11, 14), (12, 14), (16, 7), (18, 13)}
Function #3 {(3, 12), (4, 13), (6, 14), (8, 1)}
Relation #1 and Relation #3 are both one-to-one functions.
Example 1.6.8 A diagramatical example of 1 − 1

r 4
h
o 2
q 5
A
"O ne-to-O ne" B
N O T "O ne-to-O ne"

Figure 1.1: 1-1 and not 1-1 respectively

Theorem 1.6.1 The Horizontal Line Test: If a function is one to one, then the function
not only passes the vertical line test, but it also passes the horizontal line test.
Definition 1.6.2 The Horizontal Line Test : If a horizontal line only intersects with the
graph of a function once, then this function is one-to-one. If a horizontal line intersects
the graph of the function more than once, then this function is not one to one.

Failthe test(notinjective)
Passes the test(injective)

Figure 1.2: A 1-1 and not 1-1 by Horizontal test

Example 1.6.9 Which functions below are one to one ?

Function #1 {(2, 1), (4, 5), (6, 7), (8, 9)}
Function #2 {(3, 4), (8, 5), (6, 7), (22, 4)}
Function #3 {(−3, 4), (21, −5), (0, 0), (8, 9)}
Function #4 {(9, 19), (34, 5), (6, 17), (8, 19)}
Relation #1 and Relation #3 are both one-to-one functions.
22 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

1.6.3 Many-to-One Function

If f is a relation of A into B. If more than one element of A is mapped into the same
element of B then f is a many-to-one function.

1.6.4 Onto-Functions
If f is a function of A into B. Sometimes the range, f (A) does not exhaust all the elements
of the set B called the co-domain. The range is therefore a subset of the co-domain. If
each member of the co-domain is an image of at least one member of A then f is a function
of A ONTO B and is therefore an onto function.
Definition 1.6.3 A function f from A to B is called onto if for all b in B there is an a
in A such that f (a) = b. All elements in B are used. Such functions are referred to as
surjective.

r 4 r 4
h 8
o 2 h
2
q 5 1
q 5
A B
A B
"O nto"
N O T "O nto"
(allelem ents in B are used)
(the 8 and 1 in SetB are notused)

Figure 1.3: An ”onto” and ”Not onto” functions

A function is said to be onto if all in range is an image (is a result of the transformation
- mapping)
Example 1.6.10 Is f (x) = 3x − 4 onto where f : R → R?

The function is onto;as you progress along

the line,every possible y-value is used.

Figure 1.4: An onto function

Example 1.6.11 Is g(x) = x2 − 2 onto where g : R → R??

DW Ddumba 23

N otonto;Values less than -2 on the y-axis are never

used. Since possible y-values belong to the setofA LL
R ealnum bers,notA LL possible y-values are used.

Figure 1.5: A Not onto function

1.6.5 Bijective Function

A Bijective, is a function that is both 1 − 1 and onto.
Example 1.6.12 Example (1.6.10) is 1 − 1 and Surjective, thus Bijective.
Example 1.6.13 Example (1.6.11) is not 1 − 1 and not ”onto”
Definition 1.6.4 Bijections are functions that are both injective and surjective.
√
Example 1.6.14 Let f : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) be defined by f (x) = x. This function is an
injection and a surjection and so it is also a bijection.
Example 1.6.15 Describe the four functions below as injective, onto or bijective.

Figure 1.6: Mixed unctions

(i) the function is neither injective nor surjective.

(ii) is a surjection, but not an injection

24 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

(iii) is an injection, but not a surjection.

(iv) is both a surjection and an injection, and therefore a bijection.
Example 1.6.16 Prove that the function f : N → N be defined by f (n) = n2 is injective.

Proof: Let a, b ∈ N be such that f (a) = f (b). This implies a2 = b2 by the definition of f .
Thus a = b or a = −b. Since the domain of f is the set of natural numbers (positive
integers), both a and b must be non-negative. Thus a = b. This shows
∀a, ∀b, [f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b]
which shows f is injective.
Example 1.6.17 Prove that the function g : N → N, defined by g(n) = n3 , is surjective.

Proof: Let n ∈ N. Notice that g(3n) = 3n3

= n.
Since 3n ∈ N, this shows n is in the range of g. Hence g is surjective.
n
Example 1.6.18 Prove that the function g : N → N, defined by g(n) = 3
, is not
injective.

Proof: The numbers 1 and 2 are in the domain of g and are not equal, but g(1) = g(2) = 0.
Thus g is not injective.
Example 1.6.19 Prove that the function f : N → N be defined by f (n) = n2 , is not
surjective.

Proof: The number 3 is an element of the codomain, N. However, 3 is not the square of
any integer. Therefore, there is no element of the domain that maps to the number 3, so
f is not surjective.

1.6.6 Identity Function

A function f that associates each member of the domain with itself is called the identity
function. The identity function is defined by the equation f : x → x or f (x) = x. The
domain and the range of the identity function is the set of real numbers.

The identity function is a special kind of one-to-one and onto function.

1.6.7 Constant Function

A function f that associates each real number in a set A the same fixed number k in
the set B is called a constant function. The constant function is defined by the formula
f : x → k : f (x) = k(a single fixed number).
DW Ddumba 25

1.6.8 Even Functions

A function f is called an even function if it maps the negative of x in the domain to the
same image as x. This can be defined as f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain.
Example 1.6.20 The function f (x) = x2 + 2 is even since
f (−x) = (−x)2 + 2 = x2 + 2 = f (x)

1.6.9 Odd Functions

A function f is called an Odd function if it maps the negative of x to the negative of f (x)
for all x in the domain. That is, if f (−x) = −f (x).
Example 1.6.21 The function f (x) = x3 + x is odd since
f (−x) = (−x)3 + (−x) = −x3 − x = −(x3 + x) = −f (x)
Example 1.6.22 Determine whether the function f (x) = x2 − x is even, odd or neither.
f (−x) = (−x)2 − (−x)
= x2 + x
f (−x) is neither equal to f (x) nor equal to −f (x). Therefore the function f is neither
even nor odd.
Example 1.6.23 The function f (x) = x2 is even, g(x) = x3 is an odd function but
h(x) = x + 1 is neither odd nor even.

1.6.10 Inverse of functions

An inverse of a relation that satisfies the definition of a function is called an inverse
function.

The inverse of a function f is denoted by f −1 .

An inverse exists if and only if the function is one-to-one and onto.

Let A and B be any sets and f be a function from A into B, that is, f : A → B. The
inverse function maps elements in B into those in A, that is f −1 : B → A. The domain
of the function f is the range of f −1 and the range of f is the domain of f −1 .
Definition 1.6.5 Suppose f : A → B is a bijection. Then the inverse of f , denoted
f −1 : B → A
is the function defined by the rule
f −1 (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y
26 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

Finding the Inverse Function

If we are given a function that is one-to-one and onto then we can find its inverse. If a
relation is defined by an equation, the inverse can be obtained by

1. interchanging x and y in the equation ,

2. solving the new equation with y as the subject of the equation, that is, y = ... and

3. replacing y by f −1 (x).

This gives the inverse function.

Example 1.6.24 Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 2x + 4 if it exists.

This function is surely one-to-one and onto (verify this). It is therefore possible to find
its inverse. The function f (x) = 2x + 4 can be written as y = 2x + 4. Now, interchanging
x and y gives x = 2y + 4. Making y the subject of the equation gives y = x−4
2
. The inverse
function f −1 (x) = x−4
2
= 1
2
x − 2.

Example 1.6.25 Suppose f : R − (2) → R − (1) is defined by

x
f (x) =
x−2

Then the function

2x
f −1 (x) =
x−1

is the inverse of f . Show.

Exercise 1.3 Find the inverse of the function f : R − (2) → R − (1) defined by

x−1
f (x) =
x+2

Exercise 1.4 Find the inverse of the function f : R → (−∞, 1) defined by f (x) = 1−ex .

Theorem 1.6.2 Let A and B are any sets and the function f : A → B be one-to-one
and onto (the inverse function exists) (f −1 of) : A → A is the identity function on A
similarly the composite function (fof −1 ) : B → B is the identity function on B.

Proof: Let a ∈ A. Then (f −1 of)(a) = f −1 (f (a)) = f −1 (b) for some b ∈ B. Now we

have f (a) = b which implies that f −1 (b) = a. It follows that (f −1 of)(a) = f −1 (f (a)) =
f −1 (b) = a and therefore that (f −1 of) : A → A is the identity function on A.
DW Ddumba 27

Similarly if b ∈ B, then (f of −1 )(b) = f (f −1 (b)) = f (a) for some a satisfying f −1 (b) = a

and f (a) = b. Hence (fof −1 )(b) = f (f −1 (b)) = f (a) = b. Therefore (fof −1 ) is the identity
function on B.
Theorem 1.6.3 If a function is a bijection, then its inverse is also a bijection.
Example 1.6.26 The function f (x) = x2 does not have an inverse, since it is not a
bijection. Whenever required to compute an inverse, need to first check whether it is
bijective.
Exercise 1.5 Compute the inverse of the bijective function h(x) : R → R defined by
 3x+2
x−1
, x 6= 1
h(x) =
3, x=1

1.6.11 Operations of functions

(1) Sums of functions
Given two functions g(x), f(x), their sum denoted by (f + g)(x) is defined as (f +
g) (x) = f (x) + g(x)
or (g + f ) (x) = g(x) + f (x)

Example 1.6.27 Given that f (x) = 3x and g(x) = x2 , then

(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x) = 3x + x2
or (g + f ) (x) = g(x) + f (x) = x2 + 3x

Example 1.6.28 Given that f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x, then

(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x) = 2x + 3x = 5x

or (g + f ) (x) = g(x) + f (x) = 3x + 2x = 5x

Example 1.6.29 Given f1 = 5x + 2 and f2 = x2 + 4. Find (f1 + f2 )(x).

(f1 + f2 )(x) = f1(x) + f2 (x)
= 5x + 2 + x2 + 4
= x2 + 5x + 6

(2) Difference of functions

Given two functions g(x), f(x), their difference denoted by (f − g)(x) is defined as
(f − g) (x) = f (x) − g(x)
or (g − f ) (x) = g(x) − f (x)

Example 1.6.30 Given that f (x) = 3x and g(x) = x2 , then

(f − g) (x) = f (x) − g(x) = 3x − x2
or (g − f ) (x) = g(x) − f (x) = x2 − 3x
28 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

Example 1.6.31 Given that f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x, then

(f − g) (x) = f (x) − g(x) = 2x − 3x = −x

or (g − f ) (x) = g(x) − f (x) = 3x − 2x = x
1
Example 1.6.32 Let f (x) = 3x2 + 5 and f2 (x) = x
+ 2. Evaluate (f1 − f2 )(x).

(f1 − f2 )(x) = f1 (x) = f2 (x)

 
2 1
= 3x + 5 − +2
x

1
= 3x2 − +3
x

(3) Product of functions

Given two functions g(x), f(x), their product denoted by (f.g)(x) or simplfy (fg)(x)
is defined as (f.g) (x) = f (x).g(x)
or (g.f ) (x) = g(x).f (x)

Example 1.6.33 Given that f (x) = 3x and g(x) = x2, then

(f.g) (x) = f (x).g(x) = 3x.x2 = 3x3
or (g.f ) (x) = g(x).f (x) = x2 .3x = 3x3

Example 1.6.34 Given that f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x, then

(f.g) (x) = f (x).g(x) = 2x.3x = 6x2

or (g.f ) (x) = g(x).f (x) = 3x.2x = 6x2

Example 1.6.35 If f1 (x) = x2 − 4 and f2 (x) = x − 2 find (f1 · f2 )(x).

(f1 · f2 )(x) = f1 (x) · f2 (x)

= (x2 − 4)(x − 2)
= x3 − 2x2 − 4x + 8

(4) Quotient of functions

Given two functions g(x), f(x), their quotient denoted by (f/g)(x) is defined as
(f/g) (x) = f (x)/g(x)
or (g/f) (x) = g(x)/f(x)

Example 1.6.36 Given that f (x) = 3x and g(x) = x2, then

(f /g) (x) = f (x)/g(x) = 3x/x2 = 3/x
or (g.f ) (x) = g(x)/f(x) = x2 /3x = x/3
DW Ddumba 29

Example 1.6.37 Given that f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x, then

(f/g) (x) = f (x)/g(x) = 2x/3x = 2/3

or (g/f) (x) = g(x)/f(x) = 3x/2x = 3/2 The quotient is sometimes reffered to as a
rational function.
Example 1.6.38 If f1 (x) = x2 − 4 and f2(x) = x − 2. Evaluate (f1 /f2 )(x).
(f1 /f2 )(x) = f1 (x) ÷ f2 (x)
= (x2 − 4) ÷ (x − 2)

(x + 2)(x − 2)
=
(x − 2)

= (x + 2)
The domain of this function in the set of real numbers excludes x = 2 since for
x = 2 we have f2 (x) = 0.
(5) Composite functions
Given two functions g(x), f(x), their composite function denoted by fog(x) is de-
fined as fog (x) = f (g(x))
or gof (x) = g (f (x))
Example 1.6.39 Given that f (x) = 3x and g(x) = x2 , then
fog (x) = f (x2 ) = 3x2
gof (x) = g (3x) = (3x)2 = 9x2
Example 1.6.40 Given that h(x) = 2x and g(x) = 5x, then
hog (x) = h (5x) = 2(5x) = 10x
goh (x) = g (2x) = 5(2x) = 10x
Example 1.6.41 Let f1(x) = x2 +3x +2 and f2 (x) = x +3. Compute and simplify
(if possible) (f2 of1 )(x) and (f1of2 )(x).
(f2 of1 )(x) = f2 (f1 (x))
= f2 (x2 + 3x + 2)
= (x2 + 3x + 2) + 3
= x2 + 3x + 5
To compute (f1of2 )(x), substitute f2 into f1
(f1 of2 )(x) = f1 (f2 (x))
= f1 (x + 3)
= (x + 3)2 + 3(x + 3) + 2
= x2 + 6x + 9 + 3x + 9 + 2
= x2 + 9x + 20
30 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

Note that in this case commutativity does not hold that is,

(f2 of1 )(x) 6= (f1 of2 )(x).

1
Example 1.6.42 Let f1 (x) = x
and f2 (x) = x2 . Compute and simplify (if possible)
(f2 of1 )(x) and (f1 of2 )(x).

(f2of1 )(x) = f2(f1 (x))

1
= f2
x
1
=
x2
whereas (f1 of2 )(x) = f1 (f2(x))
= f1 (x2)

1
= .
x2

Note that in this case the composite functions commute, that is, (f2 of1 )(x) =
(f1 of2 )(x).

Theorem 1.6.4 The composition of two injective functions is injective.

1.6.12 Other functions

Definition 1.6.6 A function is said to be piecewise defined if its defined by applying
different formulas to the different parts of its domain.

Example 1.6.43

 t−1 , t ≤ −3
3
g(t) = 2t , −3 < t ≤ 9

4 − 6t, t > 9

Example 1.6.44

x2 + 1 , x≥0
f (x) =
−x − 9 , x<0

Definition 1.6.7 A function f is said to be a power function if it has the form

f (x) = xn , for some n ∈ N.
DW Ddumba 31

Definition 1.6.8 A function f is said to be a quadratic function if it can be written

in the form
f (x) = Ax2 + Bx + C

Definition 1.6.9 A polynomial function f is one that can be written in the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1x + a0

where a0, a1, . . . , an are constants and n is a positive integer.

This integer n is then called the degree of the polynomial, provided an 6= 0.

Definition 1.6.10 A function g is said to be a rational function if it is of the type

f (x)
g(x) =
h(x)

where both f and h are polynomial functions.

Definition 1.6.11 A function f is said to be periodic, with period T , if

f (x + nT ) = f (x)

for all x in its domain and for n = 1, 2, . . .

That means the function repeats itself as the rate of T intervals of x. For example the
function f (x) = sin x is periodic with period 2π since sin(x + 2nπ) = sin x for all n = 1,
2, . . .

Definition 1.6.12 A function f is said to be strictly monotonic increasing in the

interval (a, b) if, for all pairs of numbers x1, x2 in (a, b),

f (x1 ) < f (x2) when x1 < x2

Definition 1.6.13 The floor function or greatest integer function is the function
defined as follows: for a real number x, the floor of x, denoted bxc, is the greatest integer
less than or equal to x.

The floor of x is sometimes referred to as the integer part or integral value of x. (Is the
integer just below - on the left)

Example 1.6.45

(i) b5c = 5 (iii) b0c = 0 (v) b−3.5c = −4

(ii) b1.78c = 1 (iv) b−1.6c = −2 (vi) b−99.9c = −100

32 Calculus I: Lecture Notes

Example 1.6.46
b1.7c = 1, bπc = 3 and b−3.2c = −4
The floor of x satisfies the following inequality.

bxc ≤ x < bxc + 1

Definition 1.6.14 The ceiling function or smallest integer function is the function
defined as follows: for a real number x, the ceiling of x, denoted dxe, is the smallest integer
not less than x. (The integer just above - on the right)

Example 1.6.47

(i) d5e = 5 (iii) d0e = 0 (v) d−3.5e = −3

(ii) d1.78e = 2 (iv) d−1.6e = −1 (vi) d−99.9e = −99

Example 1.6.48
d1.7e = 2, dπe = 4 and d−3.2e = −3
The ceiling of x satisfies the following inequality.

x ≤ dxe < x + 1

Definition 1.6.15 The sign function is the function, denoted sgn, defined as


 −1 , x<0
sgn(x) = 0, x=0

1, x>0

Note that for any real number x = sgn(x)|x|. So if x 6= 0,

x
sgn(x) =
|x|

The sgn function is usually reffered to as the signum function.