BEE

Lab Manual
B Tech II Semester

BAL KRISHNA INSTITUTE

OF
TECHNOLOGY
KOTA
 Experiment No.:1
Aim: Basic safety precautions. Introduction and use of measuring instruments – voltmeter, ammeter,
multi-meter, oscilloscope. Real-life resistors, capacitors and inductors.

Theory:
IDENTIFICATION OF BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS & THEIR TESTING

Introduction :-
An electronic circuit is composed of various types of components. Some of these components are termed
as active components because they take part in the transformation of the energy while other components,
which only dissipate or store energy, are called as passive elements. The vacuum tubes, rectifier,
transistors are some of-the common active while the resistances, which dissipate the power and energy
storing elements such as capacitances and inductances are known as passive elements. The transformers
may be regarded as a matching device. The
success of any electronic circuit depends not only on proper selection of the active elements but on the
passive and matching elements too. The proper function, of an active device is decided by the proper
values of these passive elements. Hence the selection of these elements such as resistances, inductances,
capacitance, and transformers not only require the proper attention, but also decide the proper function of
the active devices as well as the circuit as a whole. Here we shall discuss about some important electronic
components and their characteristics, particularly used in biomedical instruments.
Electronic components:
These can be classified into
 Passive Components: Components like resistance, capacitance, inductance, and fall in this class.
 Active Components : They can be further classified as
1. Semiconductor Devices: Semiconductor diode, zener diode, and varactor diode etc.
2. Uni-junction transistor, Bipolar junction transistor (BJT), FET, silicon, Controlled
Rectifier etc.
3. Vacuum Tube Devices : Vacuum tube diode, triode, Tetrode, Pentode, Hexode,
Heptode etc.
4. Gas Tube Devices : Gas diodes, Thyratons etc.
5. Photo Sensitivity Devices : Gas photodiodes, photo multiplier tubes, photodiodes,
light emitting diode, photosensitive transistor etc.
Though there are devices, which are specific to particular frequency range and applications like
microwave devices etc.
Passive devices:
Resistances:
Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers, to dissipate power and
it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components. Basic unit is ohms (Ώ)
Resistive elements:
Metal alloys, carbon and graphite used with binders etc. are the, usual resistive materials. The alloys used
as resistance wire usually have higher specific resistances than the base metals and have lower
temperature coefficient of resistance. The three most common types of resistance wire used are nickel-
copper, nickel. Chromium- aluminum and nickel-chromium. Carbon and graphite are used as the basic
resistance materials when they are mixed and heated with proper variety of resin binders. These types of
resistances are generally known as composition carbon type’s resistors. The resistive element may be
either in the form of a film or a solid slug, which consists of a number of conducting particles held
together by resin.
In the film type the base materials may be glass, ceramic and plastics. Resistors can be (i) fixed resistors
with two ends, (ii) variable resistor or potentiometers. Resistors are specified by the value of resistance, in
ohms maximum power dissipation in watts, and precision in %.
Types: Resistors can be designed in many ways by usage, shape, physical construction tolerances,
resistances are of the following three types i.e.
Fixed resistors:
Semivariable resistors:
Variable resistors:
The fixed resistances are those whose values cannot be changed. In case of semivariable types of
resistances their values can be changed with help of a screwdriver. Semi variable type’s resistances are
known as preset. In case of the variable resistances their values can be changed from zero to maximum
with the help of a movable arm. Types include : Metal oxide, non inductive, carbon composition, carbon
film, metalfilm, deposited film, ceramic, chip fixed, variable, trimmer, cermets, miniature, PC Board
SPST combination, wire wound fixed and variable units, dual potentiometers, power resistors, precision,
conductive plastic, hybrid and surface mount.
Resistances in series R = R1 + R2 + R
Resistances in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ---
Voltage drop V = I.R I is current,
Power dissipation P = I2.R = V2/R
8.0.0 Colour code for Resistances
Capacitors:

It stores the charge across its two plates. Capacitor opposes the change of voltage across its plates; the
electric field developed across the plate opposes the rapid change in voltages. It produces phase difference
between voltage applied to it and the current, which passes through it. The current leads the voltage by
900in the ideal capacitance with infinite resistance across the plates. (Figure 1) Design of capacitor is
connected with relation of the proper electric material for particular type of application. The dielectric
material used for capacitors may be grouped in the various classes. The dielectric coverage for different
value of capacitor is shown in figure.

The value of capacitor never remains constant except under certain fixed conditions. It changes with
temperature, frequency and ageing. The capacitance value marked on the capacitor strictly applies only at
specified room temperature and at low frequencies. The behaviour of capacitor at various frequencies
may be grouped into the following seven classes. Mica, glass, air, and low loss ceramic capacitors are
used from few kHz to few hundred MHz Paper and metalized paper capacitor cover the frequency range
from few Hz to few hundred kHz.

High dielectric constant ceramic capacitor can only be used between the frequency ranges from few kHz
to few, hundreds of kHz however; they can find use from very low frequency to 1000 kHz. Aluminium
electrolytic capacitor can find use at power frequency from 10Hz to
1000Hz but can be used up to 10 kHz. Tantalum electrolytic capacitor may be used from dc to few
hundred Hz. Polyethylene, tere-phthalate (Mylar), cellulose acetate capacitor may find use from few
hundred Hz to few MHz Polystyrene, polyethylene, poly-tetra-fluoro-ethylene (Teflon) capacitors are
used from dc to 1000 MHz range. They are reported to give satisfactory performance even at higher
frequencies. The capacitance units in farads, G F, pF, nF. Value of the capacitance is given by Its value
and the max specify.
1
When capacitor is put in parallel the overall capacitance C is C = C1 + C2+ C3 + ------and in seriesC =
1 1 1
C1
+ C2 + C3 + ⋯

Inductors:
Like capacitors, inductors also store energy in one part of A C cycle and return it during the next part of
the cycle. Inductance is that property of a device that reacts against a change in current through the
device. Inductors are components designed for use in circuits to resist changes in current and thus serve
important control functions. Inductor designed is based on the principle that a varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in any conductor in that field.

Thus, a practical inductor may simply be a coilwire. The current in each loop of the coil produces a
magnetic field that passes through neighbouring loops. If the current through the coil is constant the
magnetic field is constant and no action takes place. A change in the current however produces a change
in the magnetic field. The energy absorbed or released from the changing magnetic field reacts against the
change in current, and this is exhibited a sin induced voltage (electromotive force, emf), which is counter
to the change in applied voltage. The inductor thus behaves as impedance to ac current. The counter emf
is directly proportional to the rate of change of current through the coil (VL=L[di/dt]). The
proportionality constant is the inductance L, which has the unit of henrys (H) In an ac circuit, as shown
in, the inductor offers reactance to alternating current. The inductive reactance XL has the units of ohms
and is given by
XL = wL = 2ΠfL
Total inductance
L = L1 + L2 + L3 -----------
Inductances in parallel :
1/L = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3
Digital multimeter
The digital multimeter is a multi-function instrument that can measure ac and dc voltage or current, and
resistance. It appears in various incarnations as a laboratory instrument and as a general purpose test
instrument out in the field. An analog to digital converter produces a digital representation of this dc
voltage which is processed by an internal computer to produce an indication for the digital output display.
A DC amplifier with a switch selectable gain of 10 or 100 or an attenuator with a gain of 0.1 or 0.01 is
used to scale input voltages so that any input range corresponds to 10 volts full scale. This normalized
input signal is then sampled and digitized by the analog to digital converter and processed by the
computer. Thus, the underlying instrument is a dc voltmeter. Current measurements are achieved by
passing the unknown current through a known value of resistance and measuring the resultant voltage
developed across this resistance. Resistance measurement is based on passing a known current through
the unknown resistor and measuring the resultant voltage drop. High resistance values, where the internal
lead resistance is negligible in comparison with the resistance-under-test, are measured using a two-
terminal method in which the same two terminals are used to deliver the current to the resistor and to
sense the developed voltage. Low resistance values are measured using a four-terminal circuit in which
the current to the resistor is supplied via one pair of terminals and the voltage across the resistance is
sensed via another pair of terminals that are closer to the resistor. Furthermore, there is negligible current
through these voltage sensing leads so that there is no additional voltage drop across the unknown resistor
due to the voltage sensing leads. AC voltage and current is measured by using a true RMS ac-to-dc
converter to convert the ac signal to a dc voltage which is measured as before. Unlike the oscilloscope
and many other ac powered instruments which use chassis ground as one of the input terminals, this
digital multimeter employs floating measurement (i.e. isolated) circuits and optical coupling to the display
unit to permit both inputs of the instrument to be floating.

Analog multimeter
The underlying instrument in the analog multimeter is a dc micro-ammeter and therefore its fundamental
measurement is dc current. DC currents larger than that necessary to achieve full-scale deflection of the
basic meter are measured by shunting the meter with a resistor whose resistance is a known fraction of the
internal resistance of the meter. DC voltages are measured by applying them across a known large-valued
resistor in series with the micro-ammeter and measuring the resultant current. The current corresponds to
voltage (Ohm’s law) which is shown on the appropriate meter scale. The more sensitive the underlying
micro-ammeter the larger the series resistance across which the unknown voltage is applied and the
smaller the loading effect of the measuring instrument.
Resistance can be measured by using the micro-ammeter to sense the current flow through the unknown
resistor due to a known voltage source.
When an unknown resistor is placed in series with the known resistor the current in the loop is reduced
resulting in a smaller deflection of the meter needle. The scale can be calibrated directly in ohms with
zero being at the right hand side (full-scale deflection)and infinite resistance at the left hand side. The
ohmmeter is a low accuracy method for measuring resistance but it is quick and simple, and sufficient for
many purposes.AC voltages and currents are measured by using diodes to rectify the ac signals there by
producing pulsating, unidirectional signals whose average value is proportional to the peak value of the ac
signal. The meter is calibrated in terms of the rms value of a sinewave.
AMMETER:-
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents
are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Smaller values of current can be measured using a
milliammeter or a microammeter. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments only which relied on the
Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which
could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power systems.
SYMBOL OF AMMETER:-

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference between
two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the
voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital
converter.
Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel
are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instruments, usually equipped to also
measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are standard test instruments used in electrical
and electronics work. Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter
that is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few per cent of full scale, and are used with
voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital meters can be made with high
accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with
laboratory instruments capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters using
amplifiers can
measure tiny voltages of micro volts or less. Part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that
of calibration to check its accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston Cell is used as a standard voltage for
precision work. Precision voltage references are available based on electronic circuits.
SYMBOL OF Voltmeter:-

Result: We have studied the identification, testing and application of Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors,
Analog / Digital Multi- Metres.
 Experiment No. 2

Aim :- Study of Three-phase transformers: Star and Delta connections.

THEORY:

Three Phase Transformer Connections

Three phase transformer connections in three phase system, the three phases can be connected in either
star or delta configuration. In case you are not familiar with those configurations, study the following
image which explains star and delta configuration. In any of these configurations, there will be a phase
difference of 120° between any two phases.

Three phase transformer connections

Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as

a. star-star
b. delta-delta
c. star-delta
d. delta-star

Star-star (Y-Y)
 Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star
connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3
times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the transformation
ratio of the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
 This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.

Delta-delta (Δ-Δ)
 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required
phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star connection.
  The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio
of the transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled, system can
continue to operate in open delta connection but with reduced available capacity.

Star-star (Y-Y) Delta-delta (Δ-Δ)

Star-delta or wye-delta (Y-Δ)

 The primary winding is star star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the secondary winding is
delta connected.
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the transmission
line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

Delta-star OR delta-wye (Δ-Y)

 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with
neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
Above transformer connection configurations are shown in the following figure.

RESULT:
 EXPERIMENT NO. –3

Aim :- Study of Star & Delta Connections of 3-phase circuit.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

Star Connection:

In a 3-phase AC circuit, line voltage is equal to 1.732 times of the phase voltage and line current
is equal to the phase current.

i.e.

VL = √3 VPh;

ILine = IPh

Delta Connection:

In a 3-phase delta connection line current is equal to 1.732 times of the phase current and line
voltage is equal to phase voltage.

i.e.

IL = √3 IPh;

VLine = VPh

Circuit Diagram:
PROCEDURE:

1. For star connection, connect the voltmeters and ammeters as shown in circuit diagram. Switch
ON the supply & note down the readings of voltmeters and ammeters
2. For Delta connection, connect the voltmeters and ammeters as shown in the circuit diagram.
Switch ON the supply and note down the readings of voltmeters and ammeters.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

RESULT:

1. For star connection, Vline/ Vphase= 1.732

2. For delta connection, Iline/Iphase = 1.732

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use the instruments of the given range.
2. Make the connections tight.
 Experiment No. 4

Aim :- Prepare the connection of single phase induction motor through 3 phase auto transformer and vary
the speed.

Apparatus :-

Working Principle :-

When single phase ac supply is given to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, the
alternating electric current starts flowing through the stator or main winding .this alternating electric
current produces an alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor conductors
and hence cut the rotor conductors.

According to the faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction emf gets induced in the rotor .As the rotor
circuit is closed one so, the electric current flowing in the rotor. This electric current is called rotor
current . This rotor electric current produces its own flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is produced
due to induction principle so, the motor working on this principle got its name induction motor .Now
there are two flux one is main flux and another is called rotor flux. These two fluxes produce the desired
torque which is required by the motor to rotate.

Types of single phase induction motor:-

1. Split phase induction motor
2. Capacitor start induction motor
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor
4. Shaded pole induction motor

Construction of single phase induction motor

Stator:As its name indicates stator is stationary part of induction motor. A Single phase ac supply is
given to the stator of induction motor.

Rotor:-The rotor is rotating part of induction motor .the rotor is connected to the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor in single phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type.

Circuit Diagram:-
Observation Table :-

Result:-

we have studied circuit connection and varied speed of single phase induction motor through Auto
transformer.
 Experiment No. 5

Aim :- : To run 3 Phase squirrel cage induction motor at no load and vary the speed.

Apparatus :-

Working Principle :-

Induction motor is base on the principle of electromagnetic induction . Induction motor has two main
part :-

1. Stator
2. Rotor

Stator:- As its name indicates stator is stationary part of induction motor. A three phase ac supply is
given to the stator of induction motor. Stator winding may be connected in star or delta.

Rotor:- The rotor is rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor in three phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type or wound type
rotor.
When 3 phase supply is given to stator winding. The magnetic flux is produced , which rotate at
synchronous speed at air gap between the rotor and stator. When this flux is cut by the rotor conductor
,an emf is induced in the conductor according to faraday law of electromagnetic induction.
Due to this emf the current will induce in rotor circuit and this current will responsible for torque on the
rotor and the rotor will start rotating.
In this test we run induction motor at no load .At no load the power taken by motor will only be useto
supply the loss in motor.
Mainly the losses at no load are friction ,iron loss. The input power is measure by two wattmeter
method connected on stator side is given by

P0= 3VsI0cos
Where
P0= NO load
Vs= Voltage applied to stator winding
I0= No load input current
cos= Power factor

Circuit Diagram:-
Observation Table:-

Result:-
I have studied circuit connection and varied speed of Three phase induction motor through Auto
transformer.
 Experiment No. 6

Aim :- Study dc-ac converters with PWM waveform.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :-

1. single phase PWM inverter

2. AC (true RMS) voltmeter.
3. CRO 15 MHz (Unearthed) or power-scope.
4. Probe-1:10 type 1 no.

THEORY:
DC to AC converters is known as inverters. The function of inverters is to change a DC input
voltage to a symmetrical AC output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency. The output voltage
could be fixed or variable frequency. A variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the input DC
voltage and maintaining the gain of the inverter constant. On the other hand, if the DC input voltage is
fixed and it is not controllable, a variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the gain of the
inverter, which is normally accomplished by pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control within the inverter.
The inverter gain may be defined as the ratio of the AC to DC input voltage.

The output voltage waveforms of ideal inverters should be sinusoidal. However, the waveforms of
practical inverters are non-sinusoidal and contain certain harmonic. For low and minimum power
applications, low distorted sinusoidal waveforms are required. With the availability of high-speed power
semiconductor devices, the harmonic contents of output voltage can be minimized or reduce
significantly by switching techniques.

Inverters are widely used in industrial applications (e.g., variable speed AC motor drives, induction
heating, standby power supplies, and interruptible power supplies). The input may be a battery, fuel
cell, solar cell, or other DC source. The typical single phase outputs are:

1. 120V at 60Hz

2. 220Vat 50Hz

3. 115V at 400Hz

For high power three phase systems, typical outputs are:

1. 220/380V at 50Hz

2. 120/208V at 60Hz

3. 115/200V at 400Hz

Inverters can be broadly classified into two types:

1. Single phase inverters

2. Three phase inverters
 Each type can use controlled turn-on and turn-off devices (e.g., BJT’s, MOSFET’s, IGBT’s, MCT’s,
SIT’s, GTO’s) or forced commutated thyristors depending on applications. These inverters generally
use PWM control signals for producing an AC output voltage. An inverter is called a voltage fed
converter (VF1) if the input remains constant, a current-fed inverter (CF1) if the input current is
maintained constant, and a variable DC linked inverter if the input voltage is controllable.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

The principle of single phase inverter can be explained with fig. 1. The inverter circuit consists of two
choppers. When only transistor Q1 is turned on for a time T O/2, Vs/2 appears across the load. The logic
circuit should be designed such that Q1 & Q2 are not turned ON at the same time. Fig. 1(b) shows the
waveforms for the output voltage & transistor currents with a resistive Load. This inverter requires a three
wire DC source, & when a transistor is OFF, its reverse voltage is Vs instead of Vs/2. This inverter is
known as half bridge inverter.

VOLTAGE CONTROL OF SINGLE PHASE INVERTERS:

In many industrial applications, it is often required to control the output voltage of inverter: (1) to
cope with the variations of DC input voltage, (2) for voltage regulation of inverters, and (3) for the
constant volts/frequency control requirement. There are various techniques to vary the inverter gain.
The most efficient method of controlling the gain (and output voltage) is to incorporated pulse-width-
modulation (PWM) control within the inverters. The commonly used techniques are:

1. Single Pulse Width Modulation

2. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation
3. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
4. Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
5. Phase Displacement Control

 Single Pulse Width Modulation

In this control there is onlyone pulse per half cycle & the width of the pulse is varied to control
the inverter output voltage. Figure shows the generation of gating signal & output voltage of
single phase full bridge inverters. The gating signals are generated by comparing arectangular
reference signal of amplitude, AR, with a triangular carrier wave of amplitude, Ac. The frequency
of the reference signal determines the fundamental frequency of output voltage. By varying AR,
from 0 to Ac, the pulse width, δ, can be varied from 0 to 180°. The ratio of AR to Ac is the control
variable and defined as the amplitude modulation index.
Multiple Pulse Width Modulation
The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in each half cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signals for turning on and off of transistor is shown in fig. 3(a) by
comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The frequency of reference signal sets the
output frequency, FO, and the carrier frequency, FC, determines the number of pulses per half cycle, P. the
modulation index controls the output voltage. This type of modulation is also known as uniform pulse
width modulation (UPWM).

Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

Instead of maintaining the width of all pulses the same as in the case of multiple pulse
modulation, the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at
thecenter of the same pulse. The distortion factor and lower order harmonics are reduced significantly.
The gating signals as shown in fig. 4(a) are generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal with a
triangular carrier wave of frequency, FC. This type of modulation is commonly used in industrial
applications and abbreviated as SPWM. The frequency of reference signal, Fr, determines the inverter
output frequency, FO, and its peak amplitude, AR, controls the modulation index M, and then in turn the
RMS output voltage, Vo.
Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
Figure indicates that the widths of pulses that are nearer the peak of the sine wave do not
change significantly with the variation of modulation index. This is due to the characteristics of a sine
wave, and the SPWM technique can be modified so that the carrier wave is applied during the first and
last 60° intervals per half cycle (e.g., 0 to 60° and 120 to 180°). This type of modulation is known as
MSPWM. The fundamental component is increased and its harmonic characteristics are improved. It
reduces the number of switching of power devices and also reduces switching losses

RESULT:

Thus we have studied and tested single phase PWM inverter.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Make all the connections according to the circuit diagram only.

2. Note all the observations carefully.
 Experiment No. 7

Aim :- Study one, two and four quadrant choppers (DC-DC converters).

APPARATUS REQUIRED: DC-DC converter kit, patch chords, CRO, CRO probes.

THEORY:

One-Quadrant Choppers

In one-quadrant choppers, the average DC output voltage is usually kept at a desired level, as there are
fluctuations in input voltage and output load. These choppers operate only in first quadrant of V–I plane.
In fact, output and input voltages and currents are always positive. Therefore, these converters are called
one-quadrant choppers. One method of controlling the output voltage employs switching at a constant
frequency, i.e., a constant switching time period (T= ton + toff ), and adjusting the on-duration of the switch
to control the average output voltage. In this method, which is called pulse-width modulation (PWM), the
switch duty ratio is defined as the ratio of the on-duration to the switching time period.

In the other control method, both the switching frequency and the on-duration of the switch are varied.
This method is mainly used in converters with force-commutated SCR.

D=ton/T

Type B Chopper or Second-Quadrant Chopper

In type B or second quadrant chopper the load must always contain a dc source E . When the
chopper is on, v0 is zero but the load voltage E drives the current through the inductor L and the
chopper, L stores the energy during the time Ton of the chopper . When the chopper is off, v0 =( E+ L
. di/dt ) will be more than the source voltage Vs . Because of this the diode D2 will be forward biased
and begins conducting and hence the power starts flowing to the source. No matter the chopper is on or
off the current I0 will flow out of the load and istreated negative . Since V O is positive and the current
I0 is negative , the direction of power flow will be from load to source. The load voltage

V0 = (E+L .di/dt )

will be more than the voltage Vs so the type B chopper is also known as a step up chopper.
 Chopper Second Quadrant

Type –E chopper or the Fourth-Quadrant Chopper

Type E or the fourth quadrant chopper consists of four semiconductor switches and four diodes arranged
in antiparallel. The 4 choppers are numbered according to which quadrant they belong. Their operation
will be in each quadrant and the corresponding chopper only be active in its quadrant.

 First Quadrant
During the first quadrant operation the chopper CH4 will be on. Chopper CH3 will be off and CH1 will
be operated. AS the CH1 and CH4 is on the load voltage v0 will be equal to the source voltage Vs, the
load current i0 begins to flow. V0 and i0 will be positive as the first quadrant operation is taking place. As
soon as the chopper CH1 is turned off, the positive current freewheels through CH4 and the diode D2
. The type E chopper acts as a step- down chopper in the first quadrant.

 Second Quadrant
In this case the chopper CH2 will be operational and the other three are kept off. As CH2 is on negative
current will starts flowing through the inductor L. CH2, E and D4 Energy is stored in the inductor L as
the chopper CH2 is on. When CH2 is off the current will be fed back to the source through the diodes D1
and D4. Here (E + Ldi/dt) will be more than the source voltage Vs. In second quadrant the chopper will act
as a step-up chopper as the power is fed back from load to source.

.Third Quadrant
In third quadrant operation CH1 will be kept off , CH2 will be on and CH3 is operated. For this quadrant
working the polarity of the load should be reversed. As the chopper CH3 is on, the load gets connected to
the source Vs and v0 and i0 will be negative and the third quadrant operation will takes place. This chopper
acts as a step-down chopper

 Fourth Quadrant
CH4 will be operated and CH1, CH2 and CH3 will be off. When the chopper CH4 is turned on positive
current starts to flow through CH4, D2, E and the inductor L will store energy. As the CH4 is turned off
the current is feedback to the source through the diodes D2 and D3, the operation will be in fourth
quadrant as the load voltage is negative but the load current is positive. The chopper acts as a step up
chopper as the power is fed back from load to source.

E-type Chopper Circuit diagram with load emf E and E Reversed

RESULT: Study of one, two and four quadrant choppers are done successfully.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Graphs should be seen properly.

Each quadrant should be analyzed properly to avoid mistakes.

 Experiment No. 8

Aim :- Speed Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor using 3-phase inverter.

EQUIPMENTS:
1) SCR
2) 3 phase ac supply
3) Inverter circuit
THEORY:
This curve suggests that the speed control and braking operation are available from nearly zero speed to
above synchronous speed.

Voltage and frequency variation in VSI fed Induction motor

In above it is noted that V is kept constant above base speed and freq. is increasing. The
variable frequency control provides good running and transient performance because of the
following features:

(a) Speed control and braking operation are possible from zero to above base speed.
(b) During transients (starting, braking and speed reversal), the operation can be carried out at
the maximum torque with reduced current giving good dynamic response.
(c) Copper losses are reduced; efficiency and power factor are high as the operation is in between
synch. Speed and max.Torque point at all frequencies.
(d) Drop in speed from no load to full load is small.

the block diagram of a V/f control of VSI fed three phase induction motor drive. In this
according to the reference speed input command (Nr*) the reference frequency (f*) and reference
voltage (V*) commands are calculated such that V/f ratio maintained to be constant. The
reference commands V* and f* are given to the SPWM generator to generate 6-PWM pulses to
the three-phase voltage source inverter which drives the three-phase induction motor.
 Block Diagram Schematic of V/f control of VSI fed 3-phase Induction Motor drive

Fig.2 Modes of operation and variation of is, ωsl,, T and Pm with per unit frequency K .
Sinusoidal-Pulse-Width-Modulation (SPWM)
In sinusoidal pulse width modulation there are multiple pulses per half-cycle and the width of the
each pulse is varied with respect to the sine wave magnitude corresponding to that duration. Fig 4(c)
shows the gating signals and output voltage of SPWM with unipolar switching. In this scheme, the
switches in the two legs of the full-bridge inverter are not switched simultaneously, as in the bi-polar
scheme. In this unipolar scheme the legs R, Y and B of the full-bridge inverter are controlled separately
by comparing carrier triangular wave vcar with the three control sinusoidal signals vc_R, vc_Y and
vc_B respectively which are displaced by 120o. This SPWM is generally used in industrial applications.
The number of pulses per half-cycle depends upon the ratio of the frequency of carrier signal (fc) to the
modulating sinusoidal signal. The frequency of control signal or the modulating signal sets the inverter
output frequency fo and the peak magnitude of control signal controls the modulation index ma which in
turn controls the rms output voltage.
The amplitude modulation index is defined as

ma=Vc/Vcar
Vc = peak magnitude of control signal (modulating sine wave).
Vcar = peak magnitude of carrier signal (triangular signal).

The frequency modulation ratio is defined as

mf = fcar/fc
fc = frequency of control signal (sine signal).
fcar = frequency of carrier signal (triangular signal).

OBSERVATION TABLE:

RESULT: