AGROFORESTRY FIELD GUIDE 1

Soil and water conservation

Restore Africa: Restoring

Landscapes and Livelihoods in
East and Southern Africa with
Climate Asset Management
Programme

On-farm land degradation, in the

form of extensive soil erosion, poor
soil fertility and low vegetation cover
is an increasing problem in East and
Southern Africa.

Integrating soil erosion control and

Authors:
Anthony Anderson Kimaro,
water harvesting with trees and grass
Everlyne Obwocha, Betserai are technologies with significant
Isaac Nyoka, Phosiso Sola potential for mitigating this challenge
and improving rural livelihoods,
February 2025 especially in semi-arid and arid areas.
Acknowledgements

This publication is part of a series of agroforestry field guides for the Global
EverGreening Alliance’s Restore Africa: Restoring Landscapes and Livelihoods
in in East and Southern Africa with Climate Asset Management Programme.
These guides aim to empower extension staff and farmers with knowledge
and options for integrating trees in restoration, livelihood and carbon projects.
The programme is currently being implemented through a consortium of
partners led World Vision and Catholic Relief Service in Kenya, Malawi and
Uganda respectively. The Centre for International Forestry Research and
World Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF) is providing technical support.
 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 1

1. What are soil and water

conservation technologies?

Soil and water conservation (SWC) covers a wide range of sustainable farming
technologies used to manage soil and water resources effectively for sustainable
crop production.

These technologies reduce surface runoff and improve infiltration of water in

the soil, thereby controlling soil erosion and enhancing soil moisture storage for
crop production, especially on sloping areas, and in arid and semiarid areas.

There are different types of SWC technologies, which can be used under specific
conditions such as low rainfall, high rainfall, steep slopes and gentle slopes. This
guide, however, presents thefollowing categories of SWC technologies: pitting,
including Zai pits, infiltration pits and half-
moon pits; contours and terraces.

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2. Why soil and water conservation

technologies?

Soil and water conservation measures with trees have numerous benefits
related to sustainable land management, including reduced soil erosion,
enhanced soil moisture relations, improved agricultural productivity, and
adaptation of climate change and mitigation (Sola et al. 2020; Kizito et al. 2022;
Ky-Dembele et al. 2024). Trees and crops grown in planting pits or basins can
survive periods of severe drought during the cropping seasons (drought spell)
without pitting, thereby increasing the resilience of cropping systems to climate
variability. An overview with descriptions of various SWC technologies and
practices is provided below.

i) Infiltration pits

• Infiltration pits are small, excavated rectangular trenches,

often found in channels of contour ridges.

• They are designed to collect rainwater and allow it to seep into the
soil slowly, replenishing groundwater and improving soil moisture to
benefit crops and trees during drought spells

• This technology can increase crop yields by up to 45 percent

compared to conventional farming (Nyakudya et al. 2014).

Photo: DryDev Ethiopia farmland. Phosiso Sola

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 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 1

ii) Half-moon pits

• Half-moon pits are shallow semi-circular wide-open basins used
to collect runoff water (also known as semi-circular basins, demi-
lunes or crescent-shaped bunds).

• They involve digging shallow semi-circular basins in the ground,

with the opening facing a slope to collect rainwater, thereby
reducing erosion and runoff, increasing infiltration, and improving
soil moisture availability to crops, trees and grass in arid and semi-
arid areas.

When trees are grown, the rainwater is collected in a furrow at the

lowest point of the semi-circular bund, where the tree seedlings
are also planted (Matt 2005).

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iii) Zai pits

• Zai-pits are small, hand-dug pits used in arid and semi-arid regions
to improve water retention.They acting as micro-catchments that
concentrate water to the roots of crop and trees.

• This involves digging small shallow basins of about 0.6 m in

diameter and 0.3 m in depth, spaced roughly 90 cm apart.

• Digging Zai pits can break soil hard-pans to restore soil

productivity.

• Planting tree seedlings in pits (30 cm diameter and 45 cm depth),

coupled with watering, mulching and protection of planted tree
seedlings increases tree seedling survival (Magaju et al. 2020).

• Compost or manure can be added to improve soil fertility and soil

moisture conservation.

• Trees and crops are planted in the basins to

maximize water availability in arid and semi-arid areas.

Photo: DryDev Kenya farmland. Phosiso Sola

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 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 1

iv) Trenches on terraces

• Trench farming, also known as the “ridge and furrow system”, is a
technique of digging deep, narrow trenches across a slope or along
contours to capture surface runoff water and hence reduce soil
degradation and erosion, and enhance water infiltration and soil
moisture conservation.

• Trenches can be filled with farmyard manure, crop residues, grass

and other organic inputs, and finally backfilled with soil to leave
the cropped area at 15 cm below ground level to capture runoff.

• Digging Trenches can be constructed on steep slopes and even

land. Unlike other SWC technologies, trench farming is suited to
most soil and rainfall conditions, including arid, semi-arid and high
rainfall areas (Matt 2005).

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v) Ridges and furrows and Zai pits

• Ridges and furrows constructed
on gentle slopes can be planted
with grass, sweet potatoes, legumes
and trees/shrubs, while large trees,
bananas and/or grapes can be
grown in the furrows.

• By conserving soil moisture,

coupled with soil fertility
improvement from added manure
or mulch, pit farming can double
and even triple crop yield, even in
drought-prone areas (Matt 2005).

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 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 1

vi) Contour bunds and terraces

• Contour bunds and terraces control
erosion and reduce surface water
runoff, with terraces flattening slopes
and contour bunds creating small ridges
along the contour lines.

• Trees/shrubs are integrated on

contour bunds and terraces to
stabilize the bunds, and can be
maintained for long rotations to
generate multiple benefits for
land restoration, livelihoods and contour bund
carbon sequestration.

There are two major types of contours:

• Contour bunds are earthen embankments (ridges) constructed along

the contour lines to slow down runoff and allow water to infiltrate into
the soil.

• Contour strips, which refers to the practice of planting strips of

grass or trees/shrub along contour lines on gentle slopes to conserve
moisture and reduce erosion. These vegetation strips create barriers
that minimize soil erosion and runoff.

• Contour bunds are suitable in

areas with relatively low annual
rainfall (500–800 mm); in light
textured soils of 1.5 to 2 m
depth; gentle to moderate slopes
(0.5%–3%); and areas
with no gullies or rills
(Namirembe et al. 2015).

• Contour bunds can also be

used in medium to steep
Source: Ssebunya slopes of 12%–47%
contour strips et al 2021
(Altshul et al. 1996).

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vii) Terraces
• Terraces are essentially series of level platforms or steps built on a
slope, often following the contour lines.

• Terraces reduce the length and/or steepness of a slope, slowing

down surface runoff water to increase water infiltration and
control soil erosion, and hence improve crop production.

• There are different types of terraces, like: fanya chini terraces,

fanya juu terraces, bench terraces and stone terraces.

• Bench terraces are the most common types of terraces, and

involve the construction of flat, step-like platforms (or terraces)
across the slope to reduce soil and water loss, allowing for
conservation of soil and water, and cultivation on hillsides.

• When stones are used to create strong embankments, the terrace

is known as a stone terrace. Trees and grass can be planted to
stabilize the ridges.

Building a bench and a

stone terrace

stone terrace

Source: Ssebunya et al. 2021

bench terrace

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 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 1

3. Stepwise establishment of soil

and water conservation technologies
and practices?
This section gives more details of steps in applying
three key SWC technologies and practices.

i) Zai pits
• Dig pits with recommended dimensions (see
description) across slopes and spaced at 90
cm apart, giving approximately 10,000 pits per hectare.
• Avoid digging deep trenches that cut into the sub-soil. Many soils in arid
zones have saline or sodic sub-soils, and are prone to gullying, piping or
collapse.
• Fill the pits with organic fertilizers/composts to improve soil fertility and
water retention. About 2–3 handfuls (200 g to 600 g) of organic inputs can
be enough for Zai pits, and supply about 3–5 t ha¯¹ of farmyard manure.
Infiltration pits are larger than Zai pits, and can hold more manure and
support tree planting.
• Planting crops and trees/shrubs: Crops are planted directly into the pits
at the recommended planting spacing.
• Planting pits/Zai pits are suitable in arid to semi-arid areas (annual rainfall
of 200–750 mm), areas with gentle slopes (less than 5%), and areas with
soils of limited permeability, e.g., silt and clay, where tillage
is difficult (Namirembe et al. 2015).

ii) Half-moon pits/catchments

• Half-moons are made by digging crescent-shaped basins, typically 1–6 m
diameter and 20–30 cm deep, with the open side facing uphill to collect
rainwater. However, dimensions vary widely.
• Avoid digging deep trenches that cut into the sub-soil. Many soils in arid
zones have saline or sodic sub-soils, and are prone to gullying, piping or
collapse
• Fill the pits with organic fertilizers/composts to improve soil fertility and
water retention. About 2–3 handfuls (200 g to 600 g) of organic inputs can
be enough for Zai pits, and supply about 3–5 t ha¯¹ of farmyard manure.
Infiltration pits are larger than Zai pits, and can hold more manure and
support tree planting.

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 AG R O FO R EST R Y F IE L D G U ID E 1

• Planting crops and trees/shrubs: Crops

are planted directly into the pits at the
recommended planting spacing.
• Planting pits/Zai pits are suitable in arid to
semi-arid areas (annual rainfall of 200–
750 mm), areas with gentle slopes (less
than 5%), and areas with soils of limited
permeability, e.g., silt and clay, where
tillage is difficult (Namirembe et al. 2015).

ii) Contours and terraces

Contour bunds are constructed along lines of equal elevation (contour lines)
at a right angle to the slope of a plot of land. The construction of terraces also
follows contour lines of a terrain, but breaks the slope in a series of step-like
features, creating flat or gently sloping platforms for cultivation. Bench terraces
are suitable in:

• Semi-arid to humid regions with 700 mm of rainfall or more

(Altshul et al. 1996)
• Medium to steep slopes of 12%–47% (Altshul et al. 1996)
Small farms (less than 4 ha)
• Areas with no gullies or stones (Namirembe et al. 2015)

The following are the main steps to follow in

establishing contours and terraces.

Establishment of contour lines: Establish contour lines using an A-frame or

a line level. Both tools use levelling techniques to identify and mark with pegs
points of equal elevations (contour lines) across a sloping field prior to digging
ditches.

• The distance between successive contour lines or contour terraces is

determined by the slope length and gradient.
• Generally, this distance can also be estimated using the formula W=200/S,
where W is the inter-hedgerow spacing (m) and S is slope in percentage
(Young 1997).
• Hedgerows of nitrogen-fixing trees/shrubs, grasses, fruit trees or other
crops and fodder crops can be planted on the ridges (ridge planting) or
in the furrows (toe planting) to stabilize the bunks and provide high value
products for domestic and commercial uses.
• Locally adapted forage grass species are also preferred to provide strong
bank stability because of their extensive root systems.

10 SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION Photo by Axel Fassio/CIFOR-ICRAF

 A GRO F O RESTRY F I EL D GU I DE 1

How to make an A-Frame

1
Tie two 6-feet poles and a 4-feet pole
together to form an “A”.

2
Tie a string to the top of the frame and
attach a weight (stone) to it. Calibrate on
leveled ground turning the A-frame in
both directions, marking where the string
crosses the bar.

3
Swing one leg up or down the slope so that
the string crosses the crossbar exactly where
the mark is. Mark the spot where the sec-
ond leg stands and continues as for the first.

Marking points along the contour

results in contour lines across the slope.

• Establishment of contour vegetation strips: Where appropriate, trees in

“contour vegetation strips” can be planted at a spacing of 10–15 m (about
150–250 trees acre¯¹) to allow trees to grow to full rotation cycle. This refers
to the period from when a tree is planted or regenerates naturally, until it is
harvested or reaches the end of its natural life.
• On gentle sloping land, the strips are made with a wide spacing
(20–30 m), while on steep land the spacing can range from 10 to 15 m (Matt
2005). If the trees are combined with grasses or shrubs, they
are planted at a wider spacing than strip planting. Usually, the width
of contour strips ranges from 3–8 m (Rocheleau et al. 1998).
• Management of trees: Weeding is discouraged on contour banks to allow
for the stability of the ridges.

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• Trees/shrubs can be pruned to minimize any shading effects on crops, and

for sustainable uses only based on the programme guidelines provided.
Protection of tree seedlings is necessary to increase tree seedling survival
(Magaju et al. 2020).
• Management of annual crops: The choice of types of crops (food or cash)
to plant in the cultivation areas between contours or terraces is guided by
farmer needs and priority. Good agronomic practices for crops, such as site
preparation, spacing, weeding, disease and pest control, etc.) should be
used to ensure sustainable crop cultivation.

iii) Bottle irrigation system

Establishment of trees in semi-arid areas can be a challenge due to insufficient

moisture. Supplementary irrigation can improve moisture availability and tree
establishment. The bottle drip irrigation system is a low-cost technology that
can be used to water trees during prolonged dry spells. Follow these steps to
establish a bottle irrigation system.

• Equipment: You need 1- to 2-litre plastic bottles, a hammer and a nail to

punch holes. Avoid using bottles that were used for chemicals, unless you
can thoroughly clean them first.
• Making drip holes: Punch 10–15 small holes on the sides of the bottles over
the bottom half of the plastic bottle, including the bottom. You may place the
plastic bottle in a nylon bag to prevent soil and roots from getting into the
bottle and clogging up the holes.
• Dig a hole into the soil around the tree: Dig 3–5 holes around the tree at
a distance of 15–20 cm from the tree. The holes need to be deep enough to
insert the bottles.
• Placing the irrigation
bottles: Place 3–5 irrigator
bottles in the holes with the
bottle neck and lid opening
above the soil level.
• Fill the bottles with
water: Fill the plastic
bottles with water and
close the caps. Loosening
or tightening the bottle
caps regulates the water
flow from the bottles.

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Ochenje I, Kiura E, Kuria A, et al. 2020. Assessing context-specific factors to increase
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AGROFORESTRY FIELD GUIDE 1
Soil and water conservation

On-farm land degradation, in the form of

extensive soil erosion, poor soil fertility and
low vegetation cover is an increasing problem
in East and Southern Africa. Integrating
soil erosion control and water harvesting
with trees and grass are technologies with
significant potential for mitigating this
challenge and improving rural livelihoods,
especially in semi-arid and arid areas.

Kimaro AA, Obwocha E, Nyoka BI, Sola P. 2025. Agroforestry Field Guide 1: Soil and water
conservation. Restore Africa: Restoring Landscapes and Livelihoods in East and Southern Africa
with Climate Asset Management Programme. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR; Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF.

The Center for International Forestry Research and World Agroforestry (CIFOR-ICRAF) harnesses the
power of trees, forests and agroforestry landscapes to address the most pressing global challenges of
our time – biodiversity loss, climate change, food security, livelihoods and inequity. CIFOR and ICRAF
are CGIAR Research Centers.
cifor-icraf.org